How Are Models Used?

Mathematical Model Types

Starting With Fundamental Laws
Getting A Model From Measured Data
Summing Up
You are at: Basic Concepts - System Models - Introduction
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How Are Models Used?
You use models all the time. When you watch a weather forecast on
television, the TV forecasters make extensive use of models, and they
assume that you are familiar with models. One popular model is a front.
You may not have a very detailed knowledge of atmospheric physics, but
using a mental model of a front allows you to achieve a good level of
understanding of what is going on - enough that you can understand the
forecast, and make a few predictions of your own for areas that are not
covered in the forecast.
You should note that the model for a front that you use is a
graphical or pictorical model. In control systems you will find
graphical/pictorial models also when you use block diagram models. These
models are very useful.
Using pictorial representations of fronts helps you understand how
the weather will change.
Using a map is using a pictorialmodel of topological relationships
between roads and terrain, to help you navigate.

What are the goals for this lesson?
Given a linear system,
o To be able to list the four kinds of models for a linear system.
Given a system,
o To be able to list the different ways you can measure data for
a system model.
Ultimately, if you are given a system,
o To be able to predict the systems's behavior for different
input situations.

How Are Models Used?
You will find that you use models for different purposes.
Graphical/pictorial models like block diagram models are used to
show how signals and systems interact.
o Examples of graphical and pictorial models include block
diagrams and circuit diagrams in Electrical Engineering and
free body diagrams in mechanics.
Mathematical models - like transfer functions and differential
equations - are used to describe how individual systems behave.
Using different models for a system is something that you have done
before.
In working with circuits, circuit diagrams show how different
elements interact. However, you still need mathematical models for
different elements like resistors, capacitors, inductors, transistors,
etc.
The power of a model lies in its explanatory possibilities. Your model
of a cold front helps you to explain what is going to happen when you get
in your car and drive to a city 200 miles away. Similarly, when you need to
design a control system you need models.
A control system is composed of subsystems. You may have some
fixed subsystems - like the airplane you need to build a control
system for - and you may need to invent the rest of the system.
You will need to model the interconnections between the parts of
the system.
Before you test the system - and the test could be in the air
(aircraft), underwater (submarine) or in space (space vehicle) - you
need to be sure that the system is going to perform acceptably.
You will need a model that permits you to predict performance.
o Predicting performance usually means making a numerical
prediction of how a complete, interconnected system will
behave.
o Numerical prediction requires a mathematical model coupled
with a model that shows connections of sub systems.
Mathematical models can take many forms, including transfer
functions, differential equations relating inputs and outputs, impulse
responses and state equations.
o Transfer functions and impulse responses are only applicable
to linear systems. However, much of what is known about
differential equations and state equations applies only to
linear systems. Predicting behavior of nonlinear systems
presents an on-going challenge.
It is often easier to model certain kinds of systems. There are
many dangers in that approach, and here is one danger to look out for.
There are numerous methods - sometimes exotic - for the analysis
of linear systems.
If you lose all the tools in your toolbox except for your hammer,
then pretty soon everything looks like a nail.
o Because there are many effective tools for linear systems,
and because nonlinear systems are often mathematically
intractible, there is a strong temptation to view all systems as
linear. At best, you may linearize a system and design on that
basis, but you need ways to check how the actual system
works. You need to remember that almost all systems are
really nonlinear. If you use an approximate linear model for
your system, you may need more checks to predict actual
performance.

Mathematical Model Types
Having noted the dangers in assuming that everything is linear -
when it isn't - we are still going to examine the linear models that are
used for systems. There's little else you can do if you want to design well
performing systems. But you need to remember that you are in a
minefield!
There are at least four popular ways of representing linear systems
with mathematical models.
Transfer Functions.
State Equations.
Impulse Response/Convolution Integral.
Differential Equations.
There are other kinds of models that are also used.
Block diagram models
Each of these kinds of models has its own virtues and faults, and there
will be times when one model is appropriate and helpful and times when
the same model is not helpful. Here are some details and comments for
some common models.
Transfer function models. These are widely used for linear
systems. They can be extended to sampled linear systems using Z-
transform techniques.
Block diagram models. These are used to show how signals flow and
are manipulated within a system. They are often used in conjunction
with transfer functions to show how blocks in the system behave.
State equation models. If you want to calculate time behavior of a
system, then you need state equation models. They can be used for
nonlinear systems and match up well with popular integration
algorithms. They represent system with a set of coupled first
order differential equations and most integration algorithms assume
you have that form.
Impulse response models. Conceptually important, but not many
design techniques are built around them.
Differential equation models. The classical mode of representation
and the one you learn about first in courses in mathematics. You
need to understand differential equations and their solutions
because they provide a framework for thinking about much of what
else goes on in control systems.
Engineers use many different kinds of models to describe the
systems they design. Control system designers need information on how
systems react to different stimuli. Things that are important to a
control systems designer include the following aspects.
Models need to account for system dynamics.
o Static input-output relations are usually not very useful if the
output does not change immediately when the input is
changed. For example, applying a voltage to a motor does not
immediately change the speed of the motor. That's the
reason we focus on differential equations, transfer functions,
etc.
Models tend to emphasize input-output relations - dynamic input-
output relations - and information on internal goings-on may be lost
in the process.
o Most of the time it's enough to know how the input to a
system affects the output without worrying about the internal
workings of the system. Most of the time - but not always.
Of all the linear system representations, the transfer function is
probably the most widely used. Let's think about a system and let's
consider the different ways we can get a transfer function. There are
two fundamentally different ways you can get a transfer function.
Start with fundamental physical laws and derive the transfer
function.
Measure the system's response and get a model from the data.
We will discuss each of these briefly.

Starting With Fundamental Laws
If you understand your system well enough, you can apply
fundamental physical laws to the system. Here are some examples.
Apply KCL and KVL to electrical circuits
Apply heat transfer equations to thermal systems like ovens.
Apply fluid flow equations so systems that involve liquid flow
through pipes, valves and orifices, and fluid accumulation in tanks.
Apply Newton's laws - translational and rotational - to systems with
moving parts - things like motors, robot arms, and others.
Apply chemical laws - particularly ones regarding reaction rates - to
chemical processes to be controlled.
The most interesting systems are those that involve interfaces
between different kinds of physical systems. They present especially
interesting modelling problems.
Electromechanical systems like DC motors that have electrical and
mechanical parts that interact.
Pumps have electrical motors (electrical and mechanical) that
interact with fluid flow systems.
etc.
The bottom line is that if you know your system, you may be able to
derive what you need. This topic will be covered in more detail in a
separate lesson. There are some advantages to being able to derive what
you need.
If you have a system that you need to model, you can just take
measurements of the system by applying an input and observing and
recording the output that the input produces. That will give you some
data to analyze, and - as we discuss in other lessons in this set - you can
determine a model of the system.
However, while you may get a model by just taking data, you will not
have the fundamental understanding of the system that you may need in
later stages of the design. If you do an analysis of a system, you may
find that an internal temperature controls virtually everything that
happens, and that you can make the system perform better if you
attempt to control that temperature. Otherwise, you may focus on the
input and output only and not be able to control the system as well.
Remember, it is important to know your system.

Getting A Model From Measured Data
There are a number of different ways you can get a transfer function
from measured data.
Measure the frequency response of the system directly. In other
words, use a lot of different frequency sine waves as inputs, and
measure the amplitude gain and the phase shift between input and
output.
Measure a response in the time domain, and relate transforms of
input and output. For example, you could put a step of an impulse
into the system and look at features of the output. It helps if you
know a priori that the system is second order or some other form
you recognize and know.
Use FFTs. FFT input data and output data and work back through
frequency analysis. Sometimes you can use data gathered while
observing the system in normal operation.
o Although this is really a variation on frequency response
methods, the inputs do not need to be sinusoidal, and being
able to use operating data can be very helpful in some systems
where you can't shut the system down to take data.

Summing Up
If you want to design a control system and predict performance, you
need to have a model of the system. You need to choose the best way
possible to obtain that model, and the method that is best depends very
much upon the system and upon the conditions you find.
If it is possible to apply fundamental principles to the system, then
you can get a model. You may be able to calculate the parameters in
the model, or you may have to measure the parameters.
If you can test a system by itself, then you can determine the input,
and you can choose from inputs like steps, ramps, impulses, sinusoids
and even random noise.
If you cannot stop the system (It may be installed and running!) you
may have to use operating data.
Block Diagrams
What Is A Block Diagram?

What Is A Block Diagram?
Block diagrams are ways of representing relationships between
signals in a system. Here is a block diagram of a typical control system.
Each block in the block diagram establishs a relationship between signals.

Here are the relationships for this particular system. (Click here for a
review of signal relationships in a block diagram.)
E(s) = U(s) - Y(s)
o This relationship is for the summer/subtractor (shown with a
green circle)
W(s) = K(s)E(s)
o This shows how W(s) - the control effort that drives the
system being controlled, G(s) - is related to the error. The
controller is probably an amplifier - probably a power amplifier
- that provides an output to drive the plant, G(s).
Y(s) = G(s)W(s)
o This shows how the output, Y(s), is related to the control
effort that drives the plant (system being controlled ) with a
transfer function, G(s).
Next, you can combine all of those relationships and get an overall
relationship between the input and the output in the system. Here is the
process.
Note that Y(s) = G(s)W(s)
Note that W(s) = KE(s), and use that in the equation for Y(s). That
gives you:
o Y(s) = G(s)W(s) = G(s)KE(s)
Note that the error is given by E(s) = U(s) = Y(s), and use that in
the equation for Y(s).
o Y(s) = G(s)W(s) = G(s)KE(s) = G(s)K[U(s) = Y(s)]
Now, solve for Y(s), and you get:
o Y(s) = U(s)KG(s)/[1 + KG(s)]
That's what you need to know, and the final relationship will allow
you to compute the output given knowledge of the system components and
the input.
What if you have a more complex system? Here is a block diagram
of a slightly more complex system.

A description of this system is as follows.
The plant being controlled includes a pump motor. The output is the
height of a liquid in a tank.
o It takes some threshold voltage on the pump to get it
started. After the voltage exceeds the threshold, the flow
rate into the pump depends upon the amount by which the
threshold is exceeded.
o In the block diagram model above, the threshold voltage
(V
T
)and attendant effects are modelled using another summer.
The controller has a transfer function, G
C
(s).
The sensor has a transfer function, G
S
(s).
We can write the mathematical relationships that exist in this block
diagram.
o Y(s) = G
P
(s)[W(s) - V
T
(s)]
o Y(s) = G
P
(s)[G
C
(s)E(s) - V
T
(s)]
o Y(s) = G
P
(s)[G
C
(s)(U(s) - G
S
(s)Y(s)) - V
T
(s)]
Now, solve for Y(s), and you get:
o Y(s) = U(s)G
P
(s)G
C
(s)[1 + G
P
(s)G
C
(s)G
S
(s)] - V
T
(s)G
P
(s)[1 +
G
P
(s)G
C
(s)G
S
(s)]
Now, notice that the output has two components. One of those
components is due to the input - something we know about. The other
component of the output is due to the threshold voltage - something we
might not have expected.
What do we make of all this? Actually, representing offsets and
thresholds like this is a particularly good way to incorporate some simple
nonlinearities into our block diagram algebra even though the block
diagram representation was originally used only for linear systems. It's
not hard to incorporate those offsets into your analysis. Here's what you
can do.
1. Generate a complete block diagram for the system and be sure that
you incorporate all of the offsets in your block diagram model.
2. Using your block diagram model write out the algebraic equations
for each block.
3. Solve the equations you have written to determine the output of the
system (or the error if that is what you are interested in). Note
that the output will probably depend upon the input and all of the
offset quantities you added.
4. Use the solution to determine numerical values for the output.
Remember, you are often interested in steady state solutions (DC
solutions) and you can get that by using DC gains with s = 0 in your
transfer functions.