English majors and minors, year II, autumn 2009-2010

Lecture 3
1 Noun phrases
A phrase with a noun as its head is a noun phrase. The head can be preceded by
determiners, such as the, a, her, and can be accompanied by modifiers - elements which
describe or classify whatever the head refers to, e.g. (head in bold; determiner, where present,
underlined):
a house houses their house many houses
his bristly short hair her below-the-knee skirt
the little girl next door heavy rain driven by gales
any printed material discovered which might be construed as dissent
An abstract head noun can also be followed by complements, which complete the
meaning of the noun, especially that-clauses or infinitie to-clauses! oun phrases
containing a complement are shown below in [ ]; heads are in bold, and complements
underlined:
1 [The popular assumption that language simply serves to communicate
'thoughts' or 'ideas'] is too simplistic.
2 e !eels awkward about [her refusal to show any sign o! emotion].
!esides common nouns, noun phrases can be headed by proper nouns ("), pronouns
(# - $) and (occasionally) ad%ectives (&). (!rac'ets [ ] enclose noun phrases consisting of
more than one word; noun phrase heads are in bold.)
3 Dawn lives in "embley.
4 They said they'd got it.
5 ave you got [everything you need]#
6 '$how me how [the impossible] can he possible%
(ven though these phrases do not have a common noun as head, they are noun
phrases because they have the structure characteristics of a noun phrase (e.g. $ has a
modifier, you need, and & has a determiner, the& and they serve the same syntactic roles
(e.g. acting as sub%ect or ob%ect of a clause).
oun phrases can ta'e the role of sub%ect or ob%ect in a clause. )or e*ample:
"u#ject er# phrase o#ject
+ saw a lot o! 'taly.
oun phrases can also ta'e the syntactic role of predicative, adverbial, or
complement (in a prepositional phrase).
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2 $er# phrases
,erb phrases have a le%ical er# or primary er# as their head (i.e. their main er#).
The main verb can stand alone or be preceded by one or more au%iliary er#s! The
au*iliaries further define the action, state, or process denoted by the main verb.
&inite verb phrases show distinctions of tense (present+past) and can include modal
au*iliaries. Non-finite verb phrases do not show tense and cannot occur with modal
au*iliaries.
,erb phrases are the essential part of a clause, referring to a type of state or action.
The main verb determines the other clause elements that can occur in the clause (e.g. the
'inds of ob%ects).
,erb phrases are often split into two parts (i.e. they are discontinuous). This happens
in -uestions, where the sub%ect is placed after the (first) au*iliary verb:
"hat's he doing# verb phrase . is doing
/n addition, the parts of a verb phrase can be interrupted by adverbs or other
adverbials:
'resent tense 'ast tense modal
simple shows, show showed could show
perfect has(have shown had shown could have shown
progressive am(is(are showing was(were showing could be showing
passive am(is(are shown was(were shown could be shown
perfect0 progressive has(have been showing had been showing could have been showing
perfect 0 passive has(have been shown had been shown could have been shown
progressive 0 passive am(is(are being shown was(were being shown could be being shown
Notes
$how, the main verb illustrated here, has a distinct past participle form shown. 1owever,
occasionally show can also be a regular verb, so showed could replace shown in the table.
)ould is the only modal au*iliary illustrated here. Any modal could be substituted for it.
/n general, the verb phrases with four or more verbs (e.g. could have been shown& are
e*tremely rare.
3 (djectie phrases
Ad%ective phrases have an ad%ective as head, and optional modifiers that can
precede or follow the ad%ective, e.g., (the head is in bold and the modifiers are in ordinary
italics):
old incredible so lucky good enough desperately poor
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2odifiers typically answer a -uestion about the degree of a -uality (e.g. 31ow luc'y+
poor43). Ad%ective heads can also ta'e complements (underlined below):
guilty o! a serious crime subject to approval by. .. slow to respond
more blatant than anything they had done in the past
so obnoxious that she had to be expelled
5omplements often answer the -uestion
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/n what respect is the ad%ectival -uality to be
interpreted47 (e.g. 3guilty+slow in what respect43).
The most important roles of ad%ective phrases are as modifier and sub%ect predicative:
as a modifier before a noun, where the ad%ective is called an attri#utie
adjectie (noun phrases are mar'ed in 8 9):
e's [a deeply sick man].
"e saw [a very good movie] the other night.
The *uropean study asked [a slightly different +uestion].
) as a su#ject predicatie, often following the verb be,
That's right.
e's totally crazy.
-abby was afraid to say anything more.
Ad%ective phrases modifying nouns can be split into two parts by the noun head:
.ou couldn't have a better name than that. ad%ective phrase . better than that
"hen he plays his best, he's a really tough player to beat.
ad%ective phrase . really tough to beat
* (der# phrases
Adverb phrases are li'e ad%ective phrases in structure, e*cept that the head is an adverb
(in bold below). :ptional modifiers (in ordinary italics) may precede or follow the adverb head.
They typically e*press degree. 5omplements (underlined) can also follow:
there quietly
pretty soon fortunately enough
so quickly you don't even en/oy it much more quickly than envisaged
Adverb phrases should be distinguished from adverbials: adverb phrases are
structures, while adverbials are clause elements. Adverb phrases, prepositional phrases,
and adverbial clauses can all function as adverbials. The following syntactic roles are
most usual for adverb phrases:
as a modifier in ad%ective or adverb phrases (the ad%ective or adverb phrase
modified is mar'ed [ ]&,
Those two were [pretty much horribly spoiled].
e was an attractive little creature with a [sweetly expressive] !ace.
as an adverbial on the clause level:
$he smiled sweetly.
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They sang bloomingly well.
+ 'repositional phrases
;repositional phrases mostly consist of a preposition (in bold below) followed by a
noun phrase, 'nown as the prepositional complement (in ordinary italics). The
preposition can be thought of as a lin' relating the noun phrase to preceding structures.
1 to town " in the morning $ on the night [of the !irst day]
2 to $ue # to him 0 in a street [with no name]
;repositional phrases are often embedded in larger phrases ( $ and &), where [ ]
enclose an embedded prepositional phrase.
;repositions also ta'e complement clauses - clauses which have the same role as
noun phrases - as complements, but normally these are only wh-clauses (<) and ing-clauses
(=):
7)omponent drawings carry instructions [on where they are used.
8't was hard to live in 1issouri [a!ter spending so much time in !alifornia.
;repositional phrases can be 3e*tended3 by an initial ader#ial particle, which adds a
meaning such as place, direction, or degree: back to the !i!ties; down in the south. Another 'ind
of e*tension is an adverb of degree: exactly at noon; nearly till eleven; considerably to the
right.
;repositional phrases vary in how closely they are connected with the surrounding
structure. Their two ma%or syntactic roles are:
as an adverbial on the clause level:
e worked [in a shop] - [probably at that time].
e retired 2a!ter three minor heart attacks] [at the age o! 30].
as a modifier or complement following a noun (the noun phrase is brac'eted 2 4 and
the prepositional phrase is brac'eted [ ]&,
e was a poet, 2a teacher [o! philosophy]4, and 2a man [with a terrible recent
history]4.
5r at least that is 2the ambition [o! 2the industrial development commission [o! a
small 6ennsylvania steel town]4]4.
;repositions also occur in prepositional verbs such as look at.
A preposition is said to be stranded if it is not followed by its prepositional complement.
The prepositional complement, in such cases, is generally identified as a previous noun phrase,
mar'ed 8 9 below:
7. ["hat more] could a child ask !or#
89. :s soon as 1ickey understood [what] his !riend was driving at, he burst out
laughing.
88. "ithout the money to pay !or your promises, your mani!esto is not worth [the
paper] it is written on.
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>tranded prepositions are usually found in clauses that do not follow normal word
order, such as direct -uestions (?), interrogative clauses (@A) and relative clauses (@@).
According to the old-fashioned 3rules3 of grammar, stranded prepositions have long
been considered bad style. 1owever, in practice they fre-uently occur, especially in
conversation. Although there is usually an alternative to stranded prepositions, in which the
preposition is moved forward to precede its complement, spea'ers often prefer the
stranded preposition. Ta'ing ? above as an e*ample, the alternative of placing the
preposition at the beginning of the clause (?a) is unli'ely to occur, even in formal writing.
9 "hat more could a child ask !or#
7a ;or what more could a child ask#
,lause patterns and clause elements
1 ,lause patterns
The clause is the 'ey unit of synta*, capable of occurring independently (i.e., without
being part of any other unit). /t is useful to thin' of the clause as a unit that can stand alone
as an e*pression of a 3complete thought
@
Bthat is, a complete description of an event or
state of affairs. 1ence, many spo'en utterances consist of a single clause:
ave you got an exam on 1onday#
and the same is true of many written sentences:
$he smiled sweetly.
1owever, not all utterances or sentences contain a complete clause. )or e*ample:
1ore sauce#
Thirty pence please.
;ive years later#
'mage crisis !or )linton over haircut. Ca headlineD
Although these e*amples ma'e sense as individual utterances or sentences, they do
not have a verb phrase, which is the 'ey element of a clause. 1owever, their message could be
e*pressed more fully as a clause:
"ould you like more sauce#
The following list presents e*amples of basic clause patterns.
e%ample--------------------------------pattern ---------------------------
@ $arah and 1ichael
[$]
disappeared
[<]
sub%ect (>) 0 verb phrase (,)
E $he
[$]
changed
[<]
her dress[
=5
] -sub%ect (>) 0 verb phrase (,) 0 direct ob%ect
(F:)
" The $wiss cheese
[$]
has gone8
,
9 bad[
$6
] sub%ect (>) 0verb phrase (,) 0 sub%ect
predicative (>;)
# 1arc8s9 was8
,
9 in the bathroom 8
A
9 sub%ect (>) 0 verb phrase (,) 0adverbial
(A)
$ .ou
8>9
gave
[<]
her
['5]
the wrong kind sub%ect (>)-f verb phrase (,) 0 indirect
o! egg
[=5]
ob%ect (/:) 0direct ob%ect (F:)
$ That
[$]
makes
8,9
me
[=5]
so mad
8:;9
sub%ect (>) 0verb phrase (,) 0 direct
ob%ect (F:) 0 ob%ect predicative (:;)
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& They
[$]
>re sending
[y]
us
8F:
9 to sub%ect (>) 0 verb phrase (,) 0 direct =isneyland
[:]
ob%ect (F:) 0 adverbial (A)
The verb phrase is the central or pivotal element in each clause. The valency of the verb
controls the 'inds of elements that follow it. )or e*ample, disappeared in @ cannot be followed by
a noun phrase. /t has the type of valency 'nown as 3intransitive7. :n the other hand, gave in $
has to be followed by two noun phrases - one identifying the recipient ?her& and the other
identifying the thing that was given ?the wrong kind o! egg&. 1ence the verb le*eme give has the
type of valency 'nown as 3ditransitive3.
The clauses in the e*amples above illustrate the five ma%or valency patterns:
intransitie pattern (> 0 ,; e*ample @)
monotransitie pattern (> 0 , 0 F:; e*ample E)
copular patterns (> 0 , 0 >; and > 0 , 0 A; e*amples " and #)
ditransitie pattern (> 0 , 0 /: 0 F:; e*ample $)
comple% transitie patterns (> 0 , 0 F: 0 :; and > 0 , 0 F: 0 A; e*amples &
G <.
(ach term is used to refer both to the clause pattern and to the valency of the verb that
occurs in the pattern. >o we can say clause @ has an intransitive pattern and disappear is an
intransitive verb. >imilarly, we can say clause $ has a ditransitive pattern and give is a
ditransitive verb. All patterns which have an ob%ect following the verb (monotransitive,
ditransitive, and comple* transitive) are given the generic term transitie.
2 ,lause elements
5lause elements are phrases that serve syntactic roles in the clause. A number of tests
can be applied to identify clause elements, but not all tests will apply in every case. As already
noted, grammatical definitions are rarely simple and clear-cut. This is true of clause elements,
too.
2!1 $er# phrase .$/
The verb phrase is the central clement of the clause, because it e*presses the action
or state to which other elements relate, and it controls the other 'inds of elements and
meanings that can be in the clause.
2!2 "u#ject ."/
The second most important element is the sub%ect. /n syntactic terms, a number of criteria
can be used to define the sub%ect:
The sub%ect is a noun phrase.
/t occurs with all types of verbs.
>ub%ect pronouns are in the nominatie case. )or e*ample, he, she are the
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forms of the pronouns used as sub%ect, while the accusatie forms him, her are used as ob%ect.
5ompare e likes her with $he likes him.
The sub%ect precedes the verb phrase (e*cept in clauses with inersion, such as
-uestions, where the sub%ect follows the operator)!
The sub%ect determines the num#er of the verb phrase, depending on whether the
sub%ect is singular or plural. 5ompare $he works late CsingularD with They work late CpluralD.
The sub%ect noun phrase of a transitive verb can be moved after the verb, and
preceded by by to ma'e a clause with a passie verb. 5ompare "ate saw it with 't was seen
by "ate.
The si* criteria above deal with structure. Turning to meaning:
The sub%ect denotes the most important participant in the action or state
denoted by the verb. Hith transitive verbs, this is generally the 3doer3 or agent of the action.
The sub%ect generally represents the topic, i.e. the entity that the clause is
about. !ut sometimes (nglish re-uires a sub%ect, even if the sub%ect has no actual meaning:
#t$s warm in here.
#t never rains in :lbu+uer+ue.
/n these cases, (nglish uses it as a pronoun that fills the place of the sub%ect but has no
contentBa dummy pronoun!
2!3 0#ject .0/
An ob%ect is a noun phrase.
/t usually follows the verb.
/t only occurs with transitive verbs.
An ob%ect pronoun is in the accusative case. )or e*ample, in e likes her and $he
likes him, the accusative forms her and him fill the ob%ect position.
The ob%ect noun phrase of a transitive verb can be moved to become sub%ect of the
corresponding passive clause. 5ompare *veryone deserted me with # was deserted ?by
everyone&.
Three valency patterns contain direct ob%ects: the monotransitive, ditransitive, and
comple* transitive patterns. The ditransitive pattern contains first an indirect ob%ect followed
by a direct ob%ect.
( 1irect o#jects .10/
A direct ob%ect generally follows immediately after the verb, e*cept where an indirect ob%ect
intervenes. /ts most common semantic role is to denote the entity affected by the action or
process of the verb:
e bought biscuits and condensed milk.
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"e parked the car in the worst place.
"ell, ' made an %nglish muffin& but ' ate the whole thing.
/n these typical cases, the sub%ect denotes the doer of the action, and the clause fits the
template: '@ did something' (where 3something3 is the direct ob%ect). 1owever, there is a wide
range of transitive verbs where the meanings of direct ob%ects are less typical. 1ere are a few
e*amples:
5h, are you having a lovely time#
The stewards all spoke ;rench.
"e should show understanding for the fear of our neighbours.
/n these e*amples, the direct ob%ects e*press abstractions, which are not actually affected
by the action of the verb. evertheless, grammatically, they are direct ob%ects.
>ometimes (nglish verbs re-uire a direct ob%ect even though it has no meaning.
>uch is the case with the verb take,
Take it easy Tina.
As with sub%ects, (nglish uses it as the dummy pronoun for direct ob%ects.
2 Indirect o#jects .I0/
An indirect ob%ect occurs after ditransitive verbs such as give and tell, and comes before
the direct ob%ect. /t conforms to the other criteria for ob%ects, including the formation of
passives. To illustrate this last point, consider e*ample @, where the indirect ob%ect is in bold and
the direct ob%ect is underlined. /n the passive counterpart @a, the indirect ob%ect you becomes
the sub%ect:
8 Aen ;ranklin Transit gave you additional !unding.
8a 'ou were given additional !unding by Aen ;ranklin Transit.
/n contrast, the direct ob%ect additional !unding cannot easily become the sub%ect of a
corresponding passive without the insertion of a preposition (here to&,
8b [:dditional !unding] was given (to) you by Aen ;ranklin Transit.
As for their semantic role, indirect ob%ects generally denote people receiving something or
benefiting from the action of the verb:
"ell actually he brought us the big menu !irst.
+ cooked the kids dinner.
B:gnes has been showing me her priCe,> said 1ike.
2!* 'redicatie .'/
A predicative can be an ad%ective phrase, a noun phrase, or occasionally a
prepositional phrase.
/t follows the verb phrase and (if one is present) the direct ob%ect.
/t has the semantic role of characteriIing a preceding noun phrase.
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There are two ma%or types of predicative, the su#ject predicatie and the o#ject
predicatie3
( "u#ject predicaties ."'/
>ub%ect predicatives characteriIe or specify the sub%ect noun phrase (underlined in the
following e*amples):
1 is skin was very pink. C>; . ad%ective phraseD
2 That tall !ellow over there is Dr *raker. C>; . noun phraseD
3 Aut his wi!e $helley seemed in great shape. C>; . prepositional phraseD
)or e*ample, in @, the ad%ective phrase very pink is the sub%ect predicative, and it
characteriIes his skin (that is, it says what 'ind of s'in he has). >pecial distinguishing
features of the sub%ect predicative are:
/t immediately follows the verb phrase.
The main verb has to be a copular verb, such as be, seem, and become.
>ub%ect predicatives are also sometimes called 3sub%ect complements3.
2 0#ject predicaties .0'/
:b%ect predicatives characteriIe or specify the direct ob%ect noun phrase (ob%ect
predicatives are in bold, direct ob%ects are underlined):
1 5h, ' can't get this milk open. C:; B ad%ective phraseD
2 1any consider these new gates something of a menace. C:; . noun
phraseD
3 e was surprised to !ind himsel! out of breath. C:; . prepositional phraseD
Thus in @, open characteriIes this milk.
The distinguishing features of the ob%ect predicative are:
/t generally immediately follows the direct ob%ect.
The main verb has to be a comple* transitive verb, such as make, !ind,
consider, and name.
The ob%ect predicative is sometimes called the 3ob%ect complement3.
2!+ (der#ials .(/
( 0#ligatory ader#ials
>ome verbs ta'e an adverbial in order to complete their meaning. This is 'nown as an
obligatory adverbial. :bligatory adverbials can occur with two patterns: the copular pattern and
the comple* transitive pattern. :bligatory adverbials usually e*press place or direction, although
they can also e*press time or manner meanings.
e%ample clause pattern
.our toast is on the table. > 0 , 0 A
The pleasant summer lasted well into +arch. > 0 , 0 A
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$he placed the baby on a blanket in the living room. > 0 , 0 F: 0 A
+ treated her badly& very badly. > 0 , 0 F: 0 A
/n these clause patterns, the adverbial has to be present in order to complete the structure
and meaning of the verb. This may be tested by removing the adverbial (in bold), resulting in an
incomplete clause (e.g. your toast is or she placed the baby&.
2 0ptional ader#ials
:nly a few verbs re-uire adverbials to be complete; however, adverbials occur widely in
clauses as optional elements.
:ptional adverbials can be added to clauses with any type of verb.
They are usually adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or noun phrases.
They can be placed in different positions within the clause - in final, initial, or medial
positions.
2ore than one of them can occur in a single clause.
They are rather loosely attached to the rest of the clause. Hhereas the verb
phrase is central, the adverbial is relatively peripheral (e*cept in those clause patterns that re-uire
adverbials).
:ptional adverbials add additional information to the clause, covering a wide variety of
meanings, such as place, time, manner, e*tent, and attitude.
e%ample clause pattern
+ only bought one today. > 0 (A) 0 , 0 F: 0 (A)
+ was here, with ,ncle -ick& thirty years ago > 0 , 0 A 0 (A) 0 (A)
They are peculiarly susceptible to drought They
there!ore bene!it considerably from periodic
submergence. > 0 (A) 0 , 0 (A) 0 (A)
The above e*amples illustrate some of the variety of adverbials, showing a range of meanings
and functions, showing how a number of adverbials can co-occur in a single clause, and showing
the optionality of most adverbials. 1owever, notice that 3optionality
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here means that the adverbial
could be omitted without making the clause structurally incomplete. :f course, even optional
adverbials cannot be omitted without ma'ing a difference to meaning.
2!4 Long er# phrases
He introduced verb phrases as phrases containing a main verb sometimes preceded by one
or more au*iliary verbs. There is another 3bigger3 notion of verb phrase commonly used in grammar,
including not only the verb phrase in this sense, but also any other clause elements which
follow the main verb (ob%ect predicative, adverbial), depending on the valency of the main
verb: monotransitive, ditransitive. He will call this 3umbrella constituent3 a long verb phrase
(shown in bold below):
$ue was born in !anada.
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>ome clauses consist only of a long verb phrase, as with imperative constructions:
Dook at that nice dog.
The long verb phrase corresponds roughly to a traditional grammatical notion of
3predicate
7
. /t is useful for analysis particularly when a comple* clause consists of a sub%ect
followed by a series of con%oined long verb phrases:
The !ire!ighters grabbed me and pulled me up.
2!5 'eripheral elements
>ome elements are even more peripheral to the clause than adverbials. These are
attached to the clause in a loose way, but do not form part of the main message of the clause.
/n fact, it may be unclear whether they are truly part of the clause at all. They are often set off
from the rest of the clause by punctuation (in writing), intonation (in speech), or by being placed
immediately before or after the clause. >ometimes these peripheral elements are complete
clauses in their own right.
( ,onjunctions
5oordinating and subordinating conjunctions are fi*ed in initial position in the clause,
even ahead of other peripheral adverbials:
.nd& o! course, now Eeely doesn't have any teeth.
/ecause he and Fane aren't married.
2 'arentheticals
'arentheticals are set off from the surrounding clause by parentheses (in writing),
or sometimes by dashes;
:t precisely 88.9G (%arth time)& a message !lashed up on the 'TH screen.
5ne o! the !irst to make it in modern times (some 0reeks had known it long
before) was Deonardo da <inci.
, 'refaces
;refaces are noun phrases placed before the sub%ect, which typically have the same
reference as a personal pronoun in the clause. /n the following e*amples, the preface is in
bold, and the personal pronoun with the corresponding reference is underlined:
This woman& she's ninety years old.
Aut .nna12uise what could have attracted her to a man in his !i!ties#
1 6ags
/n contrast to prefaces, tags are normally added at the end of a clause, and can be either
noun phrase tags (@), 7uestion tags (E) or declaratie tags ("):
1 't's nice that table anyway.
2 $he's so generous, isn$t she3
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3 .eah ' thoroughly en/oyed it # did.
oun phrase tags are comparable to prefaces, e*cept that they follow the main part of
the clause.
E Inserts
He mentioned inserts as a separate family of words. Jrammatically these are e*tra
words which can be 3slipped into
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spo'en discourse, mainly to convey interactive meanings. They
can occur as stand-alone elements, or as peripheral elements in a clause. (*amples with
clauses are:
4ello is that )indy Fones#
.ou know who $tan is, right3
>ome multi-word e*pressions may be considered inserts because they have
become so formulaic that they seem li'e single units rather than syntactic constructions:
'ou know she went all the way up to calculus in high school.
& $ocaties
$ocaties are nouns or noun phrases which generally refer to people, and serve to
identify the person(s) being addressed:
+um, ''m making such a big sandwich.
5h, make your bloody mind up, boy%
)ome on you reds, come on you reds& come on you reds. Caddressing a football
team during a matchD
All the above types of peripherals, e*cept for con%unctions and parentheticals, are more
fre-uently found in spo'en language.
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