The neck mass is often surrounded by mystique in arriving at

a diagnosis as well as in its management. There are many good

approaches to a patient with a lump in the neck. In this article
we suggest one method that unfortunately involves no mystique,
but is thorough and practical, as well as providing a diagnosis in
most cases.
The aim of this article is to give you, the GP:
a systematic approach to a patient with a neck mass
a guide to appropriate investigations
recommendations for when to refer to a head and neck spe-
cialist.
Note that the treatment of each differential diagnosis is beyond
the scope of this article and is therefore not discussed here.
Our approach involves an understanding of 2 basic factors that
in combination will allow a diagnosis to be made. An under-
standing of these factors is critical. They are:
anatomy major structures of the neck and lymph nodes of
the neck
pathology that may arise in the above structures, i.e. the dif-
ferential diagnosis.
If one can first identify the structure that is enlarged and second
match that with the pathologies that may occur within that struc-
ture, then most of the problem is solved, and appropriate investi-
gations can be performed.
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES OF THE NECK
A basic understanding of neck and surface anatomy is important.
This may be divided into 2 parts, namely the major structures
and the lymph nodes.
Major structures
The major structures are located largely in the anterior triangles.
The borders of the anterior triangles are the inferior border of the
mandible, the sternocleidomastoid muscle and the midline. The
borders of the posterior triangle are the sternocleidomastoid mus-
cle, the trapezius muscle and the clavicle. The major structures
that can be palpated in the midline, within the anterior triangles
and from superior to inferior, are the hyoid bone, the thyroid car-
tilage with its notch (the Adams apple), the cricothyroid mem-
brane, the cricoid cartilage and the trachea.
The isthmus of the thyroid gland may be palpated over the first 2
tracheal rings and its right and left lobes lie over the cricoid and
thyroid cartilages laterally. A normal thyroid gland is not easily
palpable.
MOHAMMED
AHMED THANDAR
MB ChB, FCS ORL (SA)
Consultant
Otolaryngologist
Division of Otolaryngology
Groote Schuur Hospital
Cape Town
Dr M A Thandar is a con-
sultant otolaryngologist in
the Division of
Otolaryngology and Head
and Neck Surgery at
Groote Schuur Hospital and
the University of Cape
Town. He received his
undergraduate degree and
early postgraduate training
at the University of Natal
Medical School and King
Edward VIII Hospital. He
obtained his postgraduate
training in otolaryngology
at Groote Schuur Hospital,
Cape Town.
N E JONAS
MB ChB, FRCS (Glas)
Registrar
Division of Otolaryngology
Groote Schuur Hospital
Cape Town
NECK MASSES
266 CME May 2004 Vol.22 No.5
AN APPROACH TO THE NECK MASS
Dealing with a mass in the neck may seem daunting, but a systematic approach is all
that is needed.
The carotid bulb can be palpated near
the anterior border of the sternocleido-
mastoid muscle at the level of the
hyoid bone.
The parotid gland lies over the angle
of the mandible, in front of and below
the ear. It extends medially between
the mastoid process and the posterior
border of the mandible. Its borders
are indistinct and difficult to delineate
on palpation. As with the thyroid
gland, a normal parotid gland is not
prominent on palpation.
The submandibular salivary glands are
located just below the body of the
mandible. Normal glands are often
palpable in thin individuals. The
glands may be distinguished from sub-
mandibular lymph nodes in that the
salivary glands are palpable bimanu-
ally via the floor of the mouth and the
neck.
Several normal structures that are pal-
pable are often confused with patholo-
gy, namely:
the transverse process of C1, which
is palpable between the mastoid
process and the angle of the
mandible
the hyoid bone
the carotid bulb, particularly if it is
atherosclerotic
the submandibular salivary glands.
Lymph nodes
The location of cervical lymph nodes
can be divided into six levels, as
shown in Fig. 1. The level of the
lymph nodes can be predictive as to
the source of the problem. Level I
includes submandibular and submental
nodes. Levels II, III and IV encompass
lymph nodes along the internal jugular
vein, deep to the sternocleidomastoid
muscle in the upper, middle and lower
thirds of the neck respectively. Level V
contains the nodes in the posterior tri-
angle. These are commonly enlarged
in viral infections, e.g. mononucleosis.
Level VI lies between the carotid
sheaths in the anterior triangle and
contains the prelaryngeal and pretra-
cheal nodes.
Note that lymphadenopathy due to
inflammatory diseases usually resolves
within 4 - 6 weeks. Therefore, any
node which persists beyond 2 weeks
requires further evaluation. Other sus-
picious features include lymph nodes
more than 1.5 cm in diameter, firm,
rubbery lymph nodes, matted lymph
nodes and nodes that are fixed or
have decreased mobility. Any node
with these features definitely requires
further evaluation.
1,2
Once the anatomy is understood, the
next step is to obtain a detailed histo-
ry and perform a thorough examina-
tion.
HISTORY
A careful history
can provide impor-
tant clues to the
diagnosis of a neck
mass. Duration of
symptoms is one of
the most important
points in the
history.
1,2
Inflammatory neck
masses are usually
acute in onset and
resolve within sev-
eral weeks.
1
Cervical lym-
phadenitis, the most
common cause of
neck masses, is
often associated with upper respirato-
ry tract infections.
1
A history of
coughs, fever, sore throat, recent trav-
el, dental problems, and insect bites
should be sought.
2
Congenital neck
masses are often present for an
extended duration sometimes, but
not always, since birth. For example
branchial cysts usually present in
young adults in their twenties.
Furthermore, rapid enlargement of a
small congenital mass may occur fol-
lowing an upper respiratory tract
infection.
1
Malignant neck masses, as
in metastatic carcinoma to cervical
lymph nodes, tend to have a history of
progressive enlargement. The most
common origin of these metastases is
squamous cell carcinoma of the upper
aerodigestive tract. More than 80%
of these tumours are associated with
tobacco and alcohol use in persons
over 40 years of age. These features
should be identified in the history.
Further features of malignancy include
voice change, odynophagia, dyspha-
gia, haemoptysis and previous radia-
tion, especially with thyroid tumours.
2
Additional important features are: oral
lesions, recent trauma, globus sensa-
tion, referred ear pain, muffled or
decreased hearing and constitutional
symptoms (e.g. night sweats, anorex-
ia, weight loss),
1
exposure to bites
from animals,
2
unilateral nasal dis-
charge or epistaxis,
1
family history of
cancer and previous tumours.
1
EXAMINATION
Examination should include the mass
itself, the rest of the neck, the skin of
the head and neck and the ENT sys-
tem (ears, oral cavity, nasal cavity,
nasopharynx, oropharynx, hypophar-
ynx and the larynx). In cases where
pathology is suspected in an area that
is difficult to examine without spe-
cialised equipment, for example the
nasopharynx, hypopharynx and lar-
ynx, patients should be referred to an
otolaryngologist.
The first question to ask is whether the
mass is a lymph node or part of anoth-
er neck structure. This brings us back
to the lesson in anatomy the loca-
tion and identification of lymph nodes
and of the major neck structures. To
NECK MASSES
May 2004 Vol.22 No.5 CME 267
Fig. 1. Lymph node levels of the neck.
268 CME May 2004 Vol.22 No.5
NECK MASSES
recap, the major neck structures are
the hyoid bone, thyroid cartilage,
cricoid cartilage, trachea, thyroid
gland, parotid gland, submandibular
salivary gland and carotid bulb. One
also needs to be aware of the palpa-
ble transverse process of C1, which
may be mistaken for an abnormal
mass.
1
The size, consistency, tenderness and
mobility of the mass provide diagnos-
tic clues. Acute inflammatory masses
tend to be soft, tender and mobile.
Chronic inflammatory masses are often
non-tender and rubbery and either
mobile or matted. Congenital masses
are usually soft, mobile and non-tender
unless infected.
1
Vascular masses may
be pulsatile or have a bruit.
Malignant masses may be hard, non-
tender and fixed.
1
The scalp and skin of the head and
neck should be examined for primary
cutaneous tumours. Recent bite
marks/scratches may indicate cat-
scratch disease.
1
The ear may reveal
serous otitis media associated with a
nasopharyngeal carcinoma or a fistula
in the external auditory canal associat-
ed with some branchial cleft abnormal-
ities. Cranial nerve examination is
also necessary.
Nasal examination may reveal a uni-
lateral nasal mass or discharge suspi-
cious of a neoplasm. The mucosa of
the oral cavity/oropharynx may reveal
a primary malignancy. In particular,
examine the lateral border of the
tongue, floor of mouth, soft palate/ton-
sil complex, because the great majori-
ty of oral cancers arise from these
areas. Furthermore, palpate the base
of the tongue to exclude occult lesions.
A unilateral, asymmetrically enlarged
tonsil may suggest a neoplasm.
Alternatively, a normal sized tonsil
pushed across towards the midline by
a parapharyngeal mass may cause a
similar appearance. A parapharyn-
geal space mass may also present as
a neck mass.
Dentition should be examined as an
infective cause of cervical lymphadeni-
tis.
1
The neck should be examined carefully
including all the major structures and
lymph node levels as mentioned
above. Examination of the sub-
mandibular area is assisted by biman-
ual palpation.
1
Assessment of the
mass with swallowing is important as
movement from swallowing suggests a
lesion in the thyroid gland or a thy-
roglossal cyst (Fig. 2). The latter also
elevates with tongue protrusion and is
located in the midline around the level
of the hyoid bone and may be associ-
ated with a cutaneous fistula as well.
3
Branchial cysts (Fig. 3) are located
anywhere along the anterior border of
the sternocleidomastoid muscle,
3
most
commonly at the junction of the upper
and middle thirds. Note the presence
of normal crepitus on moving the lar-
ynx from side-to-side against the cervi-
cal vertebrae. Absence of this crepi-
tus is abnormal.
PATHOLOGY/AETIOLOGY/
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
The above three headings are used
together because in practical terms
they are one and the same. Is the
mass single or multiple? Is it in the
anterior or posterior triangle? Does it
move with swallowing? Is it solid, cys-
tic or pulsatile? Is it midline or lateral?
These are all important factors referred
to in Fig. 4.
4
It is however preferable to use a com-
bination of an anatomical and patho-
logical approach in diagnosis, always
being guided by the history and exam-
ination with the aim of distinguishing
the structure involved, i.e. lymph node
or other major neck structure, and the
most likely diagnosis based on the list
that follows. This list is by no means
exhaustive but includes the more com-
mon and well-recognised pathologies.
Infective and inflammatory
masses it is important to note
that by far the most common cause
of a neck lump is inflammatory/
infective lymphadenopathy, and
this is most commonly a result of
inflammation caused by a self-limit-
ed bacterial or viral infection that
resolves within weeks.
1
Lymphadenitis may have many aetiolo-
gies:
1,2,5,6
bacterial streptococcal and
staphylococcal infections;
mycobacterial infections
tuberculosis and atypical
mycobacteria; lymphadenitis
secondary to dental infection
and tonsillitis;
5
unusual disorders
cat-scratch disease, actino-
myces, tularaemia
viral Epstein-Barr virus (EBV),
cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes
simplex virus (HSV), other virus-
es causing URTIs, HIV
parasitic toxoplasmosis
fungal coccidiomycosis
sialadenitis (parotid, sub-
mandibular and sublingual) due
to obstruction, e.g. calculus, or
infections, e.g. mumps
thyroiditis.
Other inflammatory conditions (e.g.
sarcoidosis) and neck abscesses are
also common causes of neck masses.
Neoplastic masses that are
benign include lipoma, fibroma,
neuroma and schwannoma.
Fig. 2. A midline neck mass a
thyroglossal cyst.
Fig. 3. A lateral neck mass a
branchial cyst.
NECK MASSES
May 2004 Vol.22 No.5 CME 269
The following neoplastic masses are
malignant:
primary neck tumours sarco-
ma, salivary gland tumours, thy-
roid gland tumours, parathyroid
gland tumours
lymphoma
metastases from supraclavicular
primary tumours, e.g. upper
aerodigestive tract squamous
cell carcinoma (SCC), skin SCC,
melanoma, thyroid or salivary
gland metastases
metastases from infraclavicular
primary tumour lung, oesoph-
agus, stomach.
Congenital masses branchial
cleft cysts and fistulas (Figs 3 and
5), thyroglossal duct cysts (Fig. 2),
dermoid cysts, lymphangiomas (cys-
tic hygromas) (Fig.6), congenital
torticollis, teratomas and thymic
masses.
1,2,6
Vascular masses include para-
gangliomas and vascular malforma-
tions, such as haemangioma, AV
malformation, aneurysm.
Traumatic masses: haematoma,
false aneurysm, AV fistula.
Metabolic, idiopathic and
auto-immune conditions
2
are
rare, e.g. inflammatory pseudo-
tumours.
Thyroid gland masses include
multinodular goitre, colloid goitre,
thyroiditis, etc.
Salivary gland masses, e.g.
prominence with ageing, sialadeni-
tis, sialolithiasis, salivary cysts
(HIV) and Sjgrens syndrome, etc.
Parapharyngeal masses
should be considered, especially
with a high neck mass and a medi-
ally displaced tonsil.
The most important distinction to make
in an adult is between an infectious/
inflammatory cause versus a neo-
plastic cause. In a child or young
adult maintain a high index of suspi-
cion of a congenital cause. These
distinctions have been alluded to in
the section on history and examina-
tion. However, because of their
importance they deserve further men-
tion.
Infectious/inflammatory
masses
Cervical lymphadenitis is most com-
Fig. 4. One approach to a differential diagnosis of a neck mass.
Number of swellings
Solitary Multiple
Lymph nodes
Anterior triangle
Move with swallowing?
Posterior triangle
Cystic
Cystic Cystic Solid Solid
Solid
Pulsatile
Cystic hygroma
level 6
Yes No
Subclavian
aneurysm level 6
Lymph node
level 6
Thyroid gland
level 5
Thyroid isthmus lymph
node level 5
Thyroglossal cyst
level 5
Salivary gland
level 1
Cold abscess TB
any level
Dermoid cyst
any level
Lymph node
any level
Parapharyngeal
lesion level 2, 3
Pharyngeal pouch
level 2, 3, 4
Carotid body
tumour level 2
Branchial cyst
level 2
270 CME May 2004 Vol.22 No.5
NECK MASSES
mon in children and adolescents.
1
Viral and bacterial pharyngitis pro-
duce acutely swollen and tender lymph
nodes, which usually return to normal
within several weeks. This presenta-
tion does not usually cause diagnostic
confusion. The most common organ-
ism is group A beta-haemolytic strepto-
coccus. Cervical adenitis caused by
infectious mononucleosis may present
as enlarged nodes in the posterior tri-
angle of the neck (level V).
1
This lym-
phadenopathy may persist for 4 - 6
weeks.
2
The presence of heterophil
antibodies confirms the diagnosis
(Monospot test). A similar picture may
occur with CMV infection but with a
negative Monospot. Mycobacterial
infections are usually chronic in
nature. Tuberculous adenitis is usually,
but not always, accompanied by pul-
monary pathology.
1
Generalised lym-
phadenopathy including cervical
nodes is a well-documented phenome-
non in the early stages of HIV infec-
tion. HIV should be considered in any
adult with cervical lymphadenopathy.
Salivary gland inflammation may
appear as a neck mass. For example,
acute sialadenitis caused by a calculus
obstructing the duct can result in a ten-
der, inflamed, swollen gland. This is
most common in the submandibular
gland. Another example is acute
parotitis due to mumps. Chronic
sialadenitis may be difficult to distin-
guish from a neoplastic disease
because it causes a hard mass within
the gland. Different forms of thyroidi-
tis can cause anterior neck swellings
and tenderness of varying severity.
1
Neoplastic masses
These can arise from any of the tissues
in the neck and can be benign or
malignant.
Benign
A lipoma is the most common benign
soft-tissue tumour in the neck. Its soft
consistency and chronicity usually
allows diagnosis by clinical examina-
tion alone. Other benign soft-tissue
neoplasms are less common. Eighty
per cent of parotid gland neoplasms
are benign. These are usually pleomor-
phic adenomas. Only about 50% of
submandibular salivary gland neo-
plasms are benign. Thyroid nodules
are very common, and inflammatory
conditions and benign and malignant
tumours may all co-exist in the thyroid
gland.
1
Therefore, all thyroid masses
should be investigated.
2
Malignant
Malignant neck masses are classified
into primary tumours and metastatic
tumours. Malignant primary tumours
arise most commonly from the thyroid
gland, salivary gland and lymphoid
tissue.
1,2
Metastatic neck masses
almost always arise from squamous
cell carcinoma of the upper aerodiges-
tive tract.
1
However, the location of
the node is important. Level IV/lower
level V nodes should alert one to the
possibility of primary tumours below
the clavicle, e.g. lung and oesopha-
gus. The presence of a metastatic
lymph node mass in the neck necessi-
tates the search for the primary can-
cer.
Congenital masses
Although these are usually seen in
infants and young children, they can
present in early adulthood and
beyond.
1
The most common is the thy-
roglossal duct cyst that usually pres-
ents in the midline and elevates with
swallowing or tongue protrusion. This
latter factor distinguishes it from a con-
genital dermoid cyst. Branchial cysts,
which usually present in early adult-
hood, occur anywhere along the ante-
rior border of the sternocleidomastoid
muscle and often seem to appear rap-
idly following an upper respiratory
Fig. 6. A cystic hygroma.
Fig. 5. A branchial fistula.
Fig. 7. Flow diagram of the general approach to a neck mass.
Patient with a neck mass
Congenital mass
CT scan
Excisional biopsy
FNA +/
CT scan +/
Endoscopy
Further specialist
management
based on
histology and
stage
See Fig. 8
GP
level
Specialist
level
Infectious/inflammatory
Neoplastic
Diagnosis suggested by history and examination
NECK MASSES
May 2004 Vol.22 No.5 CME 271
tract infection.
1
Lymphangiomas pres-
ent in early infancy and can often be
transilluminated.
1
MANAGEMENT:
INVESTIGATION AND
TREATMENT
Investigation is tailored to the clinical
impression obtained from the history
and examination, as well as the age
of the patient. For example, in chil-
dren, incisional or excisional biopsy is
preferred to fine-needle aspiration.
3
The suggested appropriate manage-
ment at general practitioner and spe-
cialist level is outlined in Figs 7 and 8.
As mentioned above, many inflamma-
tory lymph nodes resolve with no treat-
ment, although close observation is
required.
2
A single course of a broad-
spectrum antibiotic and reassessment
in 1 - 2 weeks is a reasonable treat-
ment choice when the symptoms and
signs are suggestive of any inflamma-
tory process (short duration, fever,
pain, erythema), or a history of recent
infection.
All thyroid and salivary gland masses
need investigation as does any mass
persistent beyond 4 - 6 weeks.
1,2
Blood investigations can often exclude
metabolic and any other uncommon
causes of neck masses.
2
Contrast-
enhanced CT scanning is the best
imaging technique for evaluating a
neck mass (Fig. 9).
3
Fine-needle aspi-
ration is a simple office procedure that
is safe and is the optimal initial
method for obtaining tissue samples
for diagnostic evaluation.
1,3
It may be
performed by anyone competent in the
technique (GP/specialist). It has a
high sensitivity and specificity and low
complication rate.
1-3
The most impor-
tant complications are tumour seeding
and haematoma. Tumour seeding is
very rare and is minimised even fur-
ther by using a 21-gauge needle.
3
Haematomas, if they occur, are small
and localised and contained with
direct pressure.
Incisional/excisional biopsy is rarely
needed for diagnosis in adults, but it
Fig. 8. Flow diagram of the approach to an infectious/inflammatory neck mass (CXR = chest X-ray; U/S = ultrasound; TFT
= thyroid function tests; FNA = fine-needle aspiration; EBV = Epstein-Barr virus; CT = computed tomography).
Infectious/inflammatory mass
Clinical improvement
If positive diagnosis
Treat or specialist referral
If negative diagnosis
Specialist referral
FNA CT + specialist management
Observation, reassess in
2 - 4 weeks
If TB suspected
If sialolithiasis
suspected
If thyroid mass
suspected
If other diagnosis
suspected
CXR +
Sputum +
Skin tests
X-ray submandibular
views
U/S thyroid +
TFT +
FNA
Ag detection tests
EBV titres IM
SACE sarcoidosis
ESR
HIV
Routes of investigation
No improvement
or progression
Single course of broad-spectrum
antibiotic with close follow-up
in 2 - 4 weeks
272 CME May 2004 Vol.22 No.5
NECK MASSES
is often necessary for the classification
of lymphoma.
INDICATIONS FOR REFERRAL
Most of the neck masses seen by a pri-
mary care physician are caused by
inflammatory disorders that are either
self-limiting or resolve following a
course of antibiotics within a few
weeks. In patients who fail to improve
after treatment with antibiotics, referral
to an appropriate specialist is indicat-
ed. Furthermore, when a malignancy
is suspected, immediate referral is rec-
ommended. Several indications for
referral are listed below:
1
if the mass does not resolve within
2 - 3 weeks following an antibiotic
trial
malignant tumour suspected
mass is rapidly enlarging with or
without inflammation
mass is in the thyroid gland
mass is in the parotid gland
mass is fixed.
References available on request.
Fig. 9. An axial contrast-enhanced
CT scan showing a left second
branchial cleft cyst (m) deep to the
sternocleidomastoid muscle (s).
Neck masses are common and most often due to lymphadenopathy secondary to a self-limited infection or inflammation.
A basic knowledge of neck anatomy and structures is required.
Thorough history and examination usually suggests a diagnosis.
In the differential diagnosis the three most important categories to distinguish are: infective/inflammatory, congenital and
neoplastic masses.
Appropriate investigations may be performed at GP or specialist level.
A reasonable first-line management for a suspected infective/inflammatory mass is a course of a broad-spectrum antibiot-
ic with referral to a specialist if the mass does not resolve within 2 - 4 weeks.
All suspected neoplastic and congenital masses should be referred for specialist attention.
I N A NUTSHELL