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Literature review on autonomous unmanned ground vehicles

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1.0 Introduction.
Autonomous unmanned ground vehicles have been known to significantly improve
efficiency and safety in applications stretching from ware fare to transportation. Such
autonomous unmanned ground vehicles (UGV) are constantly faced with a daunting task of
navigating through unstructured terrains. In order to enhance efficient movement of unmanned
vehicles, then the unmanned vehicles should be developed to operate more effectively in
unstructured environments and circumstances (Kewlani 19). Such vehicles should have the
capacity to effectively contrive in highly unstructured environments like thickets and deep
forests.


Forested areas are considered unstructured environments due to a number of factors
which include but not limited to the following (Kewlani, 31):
They have a high number of varied and potential obstacles
Forested areas have a poor GPS signal because of the high overhead interface in the
forested areas.
Forested environments have a high level of complexity in its visual fields
It is of overriding importance to understand other areas that employ the use of unmanned
technology. One such area of application is the unmanned air vehicles. Unmanned air vehicles
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have some advantages which include but not limited to the following; have extended perception
have greater mobility capabilities, and good tracking (Kewlani 22).
For the purposes of this analysis paper, unstructured environments will basically be used
to refer to the various physical environments that do not have a normal layout or configuration.
Unmanned ground vehicles can be defined as those vehicles that have the ability to navigate
through various terrains with minimal human assistance (Kewlani 31).
There are two major categories of unmanned ground vehicles. The two broader categories
are; autonomous unmanned ground vehicles and remotely controlled ground vehicles.
Autonomous unmanned ground vehicles
An autonomous UGV is a vehicle that has the capability of operating without any central
control from an operator. The vehicle does not require to be controlled from a communication
channel. A UGV is capable of obtaining information about the surroundings and maneuvering
around the amorphous terrain. UGV have various characteristics which include but not limited to
the following characteristics (Kewlani 40):



They can navigate from one point to another point without the interaction and
interference of human control.
UGV have the ability to gain and collect information regarding the environment in which
they are operating
UGV always avoids harmful environments that can prove to be harmful to the navigation
of the vehicle.
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Have the ability to automatically detect various obstacles and objects within the
navigation terrain and avoiding such objects and obstacles.
They have an ability to detect various faults and errors within the system and
automatically responding and adjusting to the faults and errors.
Most unmanned ground vehicles operate in a highly unstructured environment fraught with
navigation obstacles, hence pointing to the dire need of having an obstacle detection and
controller system that will improve the effectiveness and efficiency performance of such
unmanned ground vehicles (Kewlani 56).

Most unmanned ground vehicles are remotely controlled and will always rely on the
trajectory sensors. Such trajectory sensors provide intelligent information to the unmanned
ground vehicle. In order to supply the vehicle with the relevant information, the UGV should
have inbuilt obstacle detection and controller system that enable the UGV to easily navigate
through unstructured environments (Kewlani 100).
Such vehicles require an intelligent system that will provide high intelligence information
in order to aid the UGV to easily navigate through such unstructured environments. An
intelligent UGV obstacle detection and a controller system will enhance reduction in cross-track
errors during the trajectory process (Kewlani 89).
The controller system should effectively detect and avoid obstacles just in due time and
trigger a response depending on the nature of the detected obstacle. Various researches have
been carried out by scientists regarding obstacle detection and control systems of unmanned
ground vehicles (Kewlani 65). Various control and obstacle detection algorithms have been
developed in order to improve error free obstacle detection mechanisms by the intelligent
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sensors. One example of such an algorithm is the object detection algorithm developed by The
National Institute for science and technology (Kewlani 76).
The algorithm that was developed by the National institute for science and technology
utilizes a combination of grid based and sensor based obstacle detection as well as mapping
techniques. The above obstacle detection method consists of two major sections which are the
mapping section and the obstacle detection section (Kewlani 71).
The obstacle detection is considered as the first step in detecting an obstacle which
utilizes the use of a ladar sensor. The image from the ladar sensor is then converted by the
algorithm into Cartesian coordinates in the coordinate frame of the sensor. The sensor then
utilizes this information to enable detection of obstacles and objects. Mapping section is the
second phase (Kewlani 33). The main aim of the mapping section is to project obstacle points
into a grid based map. The map is then later taken to the 4D real-time control system (4D-
RCS). The 4D real-time control system eventually generates a passable path for the unmanned
ground vehicle.
Another commonly used method for detecting obstacles by the unmanned ground
vehicles is the Entropy technique. Entropy is a measure of information where the information
obtained is used to produce a map of the surroundings. A priori map is used to compute the
obtained and collected information offline. A mobile robot is used to collect ultra sound and
visual data which is used in the construction of a map for locating direction by the unmanned
ground vehicles (Kewlani 44).
The entropy technique employs the optimal sensor placement methods and algorithms in
obtaining intelligent knowledge to be used for navigation and object detection. Various scientists
and researchers have noted that the entropy technique has some limitations associated with its
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use. The following are some examples of the limitations associated with the use of entropy
technique in obstacle detection and controlling; poor image interpretation, poor pattern
recognition and harmonizing areas in line with outside robotic navigation (Kewlani 92).
Entropy technique can be defined as a measure of the improbability that is normally
associated with a probability density function. Thermodynamics is considered as the first
scientific domain to employ the use entropy technique. Ever since its inception and application in
thermodynamics, the technique has been applied in various sectors including but not limited to
the following sectors; systems theory, robotics sensing, and communications. The entropy of a
probability distribution which is denoted by p(x) well-defined on a random variable x is the
expected negative value of a log-likelihood and is denoted by the following expression (Kewlani
93).
h(x) =E {-lnp(x)
Where
E denotes the mathematical expectation operator
h(x) denotes entropy which can be defined as a measure of the middling uncertainty of
random variables. It can also be used to denote the compactness of the probability distribution,
p(x). It cans also be used to represent a measure of informativeness of the distribution. The
entropy is considered minimum when information is at maximum (Kewlani 101). The entropy
for discrete random variables is denoted by the following expression.
h(x) = - p(x) lnp(x)
x

X
The above expression can be re-written as;
n
h ( p
1
, p
2
,..., p
n
)= p
k
lnp
k
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k=1
Where, p
k
is defined as the probability which is associated with the k
th
event. Entropy can
be used to compute the information gained from an assortment of a definite event among several
events. From the above equation and analysis, it is evident that, h ( p
1
, p
2
,..., p
n
) is maximum
when p
k
= 1/n and k=1,.., n, which indicates that, a uniform probability distribution will always
result into a maximum entropy, hence minimum information (Kewlani 102).
. A gray level histogram which is normally obtained from the sensed images is used to
compute the probability distribution such that,
pi = N
pi
/N ; i = 1,...,N
g

Where N is the total number of pixels available in the image and N
pi
is the number of
pixels in the image with a gray level of i. N
g
denotes the number of gray levels. The above
mathematical expression indicates that, the lower the entropy, the higher the information content
of the sensed image (Kewlani 103).
Another major aspect that is of paramount importance in the effective operation of
unmanned ground vehicles is the position estimation of objects. Position estimation involves the
activities that are geared towards estimating the relative position of an object. Position estimation
has found various applications in domains including the following domains; marine application,
terrestrial, aeronautic, and space navigation. There are two major approaches which can be used
to estimate the position of an object. They are the absolute position approach and the relative
position approach (Kewlani 104).
Absolute position approach
The first approach towards estimating and determining the position of an object is the
absolute position estimation. Absolute position estimation approach is geared towards
determining the measurements of outdoor features that are outside to the unmanned ground
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vehicle. Absolute position approach normally produces a measurement that is normally relative
to an exterior reference system (Kewlani 106). The major advantage with absolute estimators is
that, errors do not grow with time. The major limitation of absolute position estimation approach
is that, the absolute estimation systems are more complex, and are prone to failure arising from
complexities in the system (Kewlani 88).
Most absolute positioning systems depend on the global positioning system (GPS) which
is provided by the satellites in the global space. The global positioning system is a contemptible
method and technique of determining the complete position of external objects and features. The
global positioning system has some limitations associated with its use which include but not
limited to the following limitations; the accuracy and precision of the system is not dependable
unless it is operated and used with a differential receiver which should be located far away from
the unmanned ground vehicle (Kewlani 93). The second limitation of a global position system is
that, global positioning system performs poorly in unstructured environment like mountainous
areas, urban areas, and the jungle a factor attributed to the presence of multipath effects. Also,
the system fails in indoors and underground environments where the satellite signals cannot be
consistently, constantly and reliably detected (Kewlani 98).
Backpackers problem is another approach and technique that can be used in the absolute
estimation of a feature or an object. This technique employs the location and orientation of a
feature or an object with respect to landmarks. The technique uses a topographical map, to
compute the position and orientation of an image which was taken from some location in the
mapped area. The backpackers problem technique has been used by the mariners. For example,
the militants use a sextant to establish the current viewing system (Kewlani 122).
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Positioning is of paramount significance in the process of object detection because since;
it will determine how the unmanned ground vehicle will maneuver around obstacles and objects.
A good positioning algorithm should be adopted in order to allow the UGV to easily navigate in
the unstructured environments. Such an algorithm should have the capabilities of detecting
obstacles with clear precision and collecting intelligent information that will be used in
determining the best terrains. A clear object detection and precision is not only obtained by
adopting a good detection and control system algorithm, but also by using clear sensors that have
a better image capture resolution that is capable of capturing fine details of the image (Kewlani
142).
The relative position approach
Another approach used in the estimation of the position of a feature or an object is the
relative position approach. Relative position approach is concerned with measurements that are
internal to the unmanned ground vehicle. Relative position approach involves the use of a dead
computation technique which is also known as deduced reckoning. This technique has been used
on various mobile robots including wheeled, legged or tracked. In wheeled robots the deduced
reckoning technique is referred to as the odometry technique (Kewlani 132).
Odometry approach will count the revolutions made by the wheels. It then employs the
collected information and knowledge from the wheels to establish and calculate the distance
travelled using the radius of the wheels. In order to increase the efficiency and accuracy of the
odometry technique, some sensors are used with the odometry technique. Most sensors used in
the odometry technique are tilt sensors like an inclinometer. In relative position estimation
approach, gyroscopes are used to compute the altitude while accelerometers are used to
determine the distance travelled by the robot or unmanned ground vehicle hence determining the
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relative position estimation. The disadvantage of relative position estimation is that errors grow
over time (Kewlani 133).
Remotely controlled ground vehicles
Remotely controlled UGV can be defined as vehicles that are operated remotely by a
human being over a communication link. Operations of remotely controlled UGV are determined
by an operator, who directly observes the environment and visual images of the unmanned
ground vehicle by use of a camera (Kewlani 136). Remote operated UGV have found many
applications which include but not limited to the following applications (Kewlani 140);
These vehicles have replaced human beings in hazardous situations like explosives
environments, and bombs disabling operations.
They are being used in check point operations and peace keeping operations, ground
surveillance operations and enhancing police and military operations in urban areas.
Conclusion
In conclusion, unmanned ground vehicles offer a reliable and safer solution in cases
where human life is a threat. Such vehicles have the ability to maneuver around in unstructured
terrains. The ability to effectively maneuver in such unstructured terrain will largely depend on
the accuracy and sensitivity of the sensors and the control unit that is fitted to the system. Hence,
there is dire need to have effective and efficient object detection and control system in the
unmanned ground vehicles.
The design of an intelligent control system is quite a daunting fraught with
disappointments, and it is a task that requires a lot of expertise knowledge in the design,
development and testing stages. The testing stage may involve various prototyping tests which
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are aimed at obtaining the best intelligent task. Hence, much consideration and care has to be
taken into account in the design of a control system.
Also, in case of the remote controlled UGV, the channel of communication has to be
carefully selected in order to avoid the operator losing control of the unmanned ground vehicle.
Poor channel of communication will basically mean poor signal reception, signal attenuation
hence losing control of the unmanned ground vehicle. On the other hand, a good channel of
communication will basically indicate that there is a good signal reception hence; an operator has
full control over the unmanned ground vehicle.
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Works Cited:
Kewlani, Gaurav. Stochastic Approaches to Mobility Prediction, Path Planning and Motion
Control for Ground Vehicles in Uncertain Environments. , 2009. Print.