Scientific Measure Unit Description

AMPERE
Unit of electric current. It is approximately equal to the
flow of 6 x 1018 electrons per second.
ANGSTROM
The unit of wavelength of light is Angstrom. 1 Angstrom =
10-8 cm. There is a bigger unit for measuring the wavelength
of infrared light; it is called a milli-micron and is equal
to 10-7 cm. Micron =10-4 cm, is a still bigger unit. Bar is
the unit of atmospheric pressure; one bar is equal to a
pressure of 106 dynes per sq cm.
ATOMIC WEIGHT
The weight of an atom of hydrogen is taken as the standard;
the respective weights of the atoms of all other substances
are expressed in terms of it. So when it is stated that the
atomic weight of iron is 56, it is meant that the atom of
iron is 56 times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen.
CALORY
Calory is the unit of heat. It is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature or one gram of water
through 1 C.

HORSE POWER
The practical unit
of power the power of an agent which can work at the rate
of 550 foot-pounds per second or 33,000 foot-pounds per
minute. 1 HP=746 watts.
JOULE
Joule is the unit of work or energy. It is equal to 107
ergs. It is the energy consumed in one second in an electrical
circuit through which a current
energy of one ampere is
flowing against a potential difference of one volt.
KNOT Knot is a measure to know the speed of a ship.

LIGHT YEAR
A light year is the distance light travels in one mean solar
year, at speed of 1, 86,000 miles per second. It is equal to
5,880,000,000,000 miles. It is used as a unit for measuring
stellar distances.

NAUTICAL MILE
A unit of distance used in navigation -
one minute of longitude measured along the Equator. A
Nautical Mile is approximately equal to 6, 080 feet.
PRESSURE
The pressure is expressed in pounds weight per sq cm. The
pressure of the atmosphere is expressed in millibars. One
millibar = 1 dyne per sq cm. If the pressure are very high,
they are expressed in multiples of atmospheric pressure. 1
atmosphere is a pressure exerted by a column of mercury 76
cm high at sea level and at a latitude of
45 .
QUINTAL Metric measure of weight; 100 kilograms = 1 quintal.
VOLT
The unit of potential difference. It is that much potential
difference which when applied to the
ends of an electrical conductor
of resistance one ohm, the amount of energy consumed in the
circuit in one second is one Joule (=107 ergs).
WATT
Unit of power the rate of work done in joules per second;
the energy expended per second by an unvarying electric
current of 1ampere.

Altimeter
is a special type of aneroid barometer, used in measuring
altitudes.

Ammeter
is an instrument to measure the strength of an electric
current.

Anemometer
is an instrument to measure the velocity and find the
direction of the wind. Audiometer
Audiometer is an instrument to measure difference in hearing.
Barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.

Binocular
is an optical instrument designed for magnified view of
distant objects by both eyes simultaneously

Calorimeter
is an instrument for measuring quantities
of heat.

Chronometer is a clock to determine longitude of a vessel of sea.

Clinical Thermometer
is a thermometer for measuring the temperature of human
body.

Calorimeter is an instrument for comparing intensities of colour.

Commutator
is an instrument to change of reverse the direction of an
electric current. In dynamo used to convert the alternating
current into direct current.

Computer
is a technical device designed to find instantaneous
solutions of huge and complex calculation based on the
information already fed.

Dynamo
is a device for converting mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

Electroscope
is an instrument for detecting the presence of electric
charge.

Galvanometer is an instrument for measuring electric current.

Hydrometer
is an instrument for measuring the relative density of
liquids.

Hydrophone is an instrument for measuring sound under water.

Hygrometer
is an instrument for measuring the relative humidity of the
atmosphere.

Hygroscope
is an instrument to show the changes in atmospheric
humidity.

Lactometer
is an instrument for measuring the relative density of
milk.

Micrometer
is an instrument used for accurately measuring small
distances or angles

Manometer is instrument to measure the pressure of gases.

Magnetometer
is an instrument used to compare the magnetic moments and
fields,

Mariners Compass
is an apparatus for determining direction, graduated to
indicate 33 directions. The N point on the dial indicates
north pole and the S point, south pole.

Microscope is an instrument for magnified view of very small objects.

Periscope
is an apparatus for viewing objects lying above the eye
level of the observer and whose direct vision is obstrcists
of atube bent twice at right angles and having plane mirrors
at these bends inclined at angles of 45 degree to the tube

Photometer
is an instrument for comparing the luminous intensity of
the sources of light.

Planimeter
is a mechanical integrating instrument to measure area of a
plane surface.

Pyknometer
is an instrument used to measure the density and
co-efficient of expansion of liquid.

Pyrheliometer is an instrument for measuring solar radiations.

Pyrometers are thermometers to measure high temperatures.

Quadrant
is an instrument for measuring altitudes and angles in
navigation and astronomy.

Quartz clock
is a highly accurate clock used in astronomical
observations and other precision work

Radio micrometer is an instrument for measuring heat radiations.

Rain gauge is an instrument for measuring rainfall.

Refractometer
is an instrument used to measure the refractive index of a
substance.

Resistance thermometer
is used for determining the electrical
resistance of conductor

Salinometer
is a type of hydrometer used to determine the concentration
of salt solutions by measuring their densities.

Seismograph
is an instrument used for recording the intensity and
origin of earthquake shocks.

Sextant
is an instrument used for measurement of angular distances
between two objects

Spectroscope is an instrument used for spectrum analysis

Spectrometer
is a type of spectroscope so calibrated as to make it
suitable for the precise measurement of refractive indices

Spherometer
is an instrument used for accurately measuring the
curvature of spherical objects.

Sphygmomanometer is an apparatus for measuring blood pressure.

Spring balance
is used to measure the mass of a body. It is preferred only
when quick but approximate determinations are to be carried
out.

Stereoscope
is an optical device to see two dimensional pictures as
having depth and solidity.

Stethoscope
is a medical instrument for hearing and analyzing the sound
of heart and lungs.

Stroboscope
is an instrument used for viewing the objects moving
rapidly with a periodic motion and to see them as if they
were at rest.

Tangent galvanometer
is an instrument for measuring the strength of direct
current.

Telemeter
is an apparatus for recording physical events happening at
a distance

Teleprinter
is a communication medium for
automatic sending, receiving and printing of telegraphic
message from distant places

Telescope is an instrument for viewing distant objects as magnified

Television
is an instrument used for transmitting the visible moving
images by means of wireless waves

Thermometer is an instrument to measure the temperature.

Thermoscope
is used for measuring the temperature change
(approximately) of the substances by nothing the
corresponding change in volume.

Thermostat is an automatic device for regulating constant tempera-tures.

Transistor
is a small device which may be used to amplify currents and
perform other functions usually performed by a thermionic
value.

Vernier
is an adjustable scale with marking of 10 sub-div isions of
one-tenth of an inch or any other suitable marking for
measuring small sub-divisions of scale

Viscometer
is an instrument for measuring the viscosity, i.e. the
property of resistance of fluid to relative motin within
itself
S.No.
Common
Name Zoological Name
Causative
Organism Disease
1 Mosquitoes
Anopheles
sps Plasmodium Malaria

Mosquitoes Culicine sps Wuchereria bancrofti


Mosquitoes Stegomyia sps Flavovirus Fibricus


Mosquitoes Aedes aegypti Dengue Virus


Rat Flea Xenopsilla Cheopsis Pasteurella Pestis Bubonic plague

Rat Flea Xenopsilla sps R. Typhi Endemic typhus
2 Flies Musca sps 1. Shigella sps Bacillary

Flies

2. salmonella typhi dysentery

Flies

3. Salmonella
paratyphi Typhoid fever

Flies

Hepatitis type Avirus
Paratyphoid
fever Infectious
hepatitis
3 Sand fly
Phlebotomus
Papatasi Virus Sand fly fever

Sand fly Phlebotomus Leishmania donovani Kala azar
4 Body louse Pediculus Rickettsia prowazeki Trench fever

Body louse

R. Quintana

5 Mite
Trombicula
akamushi R. Tsutsugamushi
Scrub typhus
(Tsutsugamushi
fever)
6 Itch mite Sarcoptes scabieri

Scabies
7 Tick fever Amblyomma sps R. rickettsiae
Rock mountain
Spotted
Theileriosis
8 House fly Musca domestica Vibrio cholerae Cholera

House fly

E. coli
Infantile
diarrhoea
9 Bed bug Cimex

Relapsing fever
10 Tse-tse fly Glossina palpalis
Trypanosoma
gambiense
Sleeping
sickness

S.No.DiseasePathogenHabitatMain SymptomsMode of
InfectionIncubation Period1CholeraVibrio comma (V.
cholerae)IntestineSevere diarrhea and vomitingBy contaminated food and water2 to 3
days2Diarrhoeal diseasesShigella dysenteriae, Salmonella, Escherichia coil,
CampylobacterIntestineDiarrheaBy contaminated food and water, Hands,
fomite3DiphtheriaCorynebacterium diphthriaeMucous membrane of nose, throat &
tonsilsSore throat, difficulty in breathingBy oral & nasal discharges2 to 5
days4GonorrhoeaNeisseria gonorrhoeaeUrinogenital mucosaBurning sensation in
micturitionBy sexual contact2 to 5 days5LeprosyMycobacterium lepraeMycobacterium
lepraeSkin mucous membranes, peripheral nervesHypopigmented skin patches, ulcers,
eformity of digitsLong and close contact with patients2 to 5 days6PlaguePasteurella
pestisBlood and lymphPainful pubo of lymph nodesBy rat-flea bite2 to 6
days7PneumoniaDiplococcus pneumoniaeLungsDifficulty in breathingBy patients Sputum1
to 3 days8Syphilis Treponema pallidiumOral, genital, rectal mucosaLesionsBy contact3
Weeks9Tetanus (Lockjaw)Clostridium tetaniTissuesPainful muscular spasms and
paralysisThrough wounds and burns4 days to 3 weeks10TuberculosisMycobacterium
tuberculosisLungsCough, bloody sputum, chest painBy patients
SputumVariable11TyphoidSalmonella typhiIntestineConstant feverBy contaminated food
and water1 to 3 Weeks12Whooping cough (pertusis)Bordetella pertussisRespiratory
tractSevere coughing characteristic gasping whoopBy throat discharges and contact10 to
16 days

MEDICAL INVENTIONS

Inventor Inventions
Jean-Baptostc Denys Blood Transfusion (1625)
William Harvey Blood Circulation (1628)
Rene Laennec Stethoscope (1819)
Samuel Guthrie Chloroform (1831)
Alexander Wood Hypodermic Syringe
(1853)
Joseph Lister Antiseptics (1867)
Sir Thomas Alllbutt Clinical Thermometer
(1867)
Robert Koch Cholera and TB germs
(1883)
Klebs N Loffler Diphtheria Germs (1884)
Scipione Riva-Rocci Sphygmomanometer
(1896)

Dr Felix Hoffman Aspirin (1899)
K Landsteiner Blood Group (1902)
William Einstoven Electrocardiogram (ECG)
(1903)
Frederick Banting/Charles
Best
Isolated Insulin (1921)
Alexander Fleming Penicillin; it paved the
way for antibiotics (1928)
Willem Kolff Kidney Dialysis Machine
(1944)
Ian Donald Ultrasound (1950)
Carl Djerassi Contraceptive Pill (1951)
John P. Merril Organ Transplant (1953)
Wilson Greatbatch Heart Pacemaker (1960)
Christian Barnard Heart Transplant (1967)
Godfrey Hounsfield CAT Scanner (1973)
Vaccines
Edward Jenner Vaccine for Small Pox
(1796)
Louis Pasteur Vaccine for Cholera
(1880)/Rabbies (1885)
Emil Adolf Von Behring & Vaccine for Diphtheria
and Tetanus
Shibasaburo Kitasato
Charles Nicolle Vaccine for Typhus
(1909)
Albert Calmette & Camille
Guerin
Vaccine forTB (1922)
John F Enders & Thomas
Peeble
Vaccine for Measles
(1953)
Albert Buce Sabin Oral Polio Vaccine (1955)
Jonas Salk Vaccine for Polio (1955)

Blood Groups : It is the grouping of people whose blood may be mixed without
clumping of blood vessels. A, B, AB and O are the main four groups. The group AB
can receive any blood and is called universal receiver. The group O can be given to
any group (universal donor), group A can receive only A (besides O), B can receive
only B (besides 0) and O can receive O. These groups were identified by Karl
Ladsteiner.




Donors of Blood
1. Group AB may give blood to AB.
2. Group A may give blood to A and AB.
3. Group B may give blood to B and AB.
4. Group O is universal donor for all groups.

Recipients of Blood
1. Group A B is universal recipient.
2. Group A may receive blood from group A and 0
3. Group B may receive blood from group B and O.
4. Group O may receive blood from group O.

Majority of the people around the world have type O positive blood.
Percentage of People
A + 34%
A - 6%
B + 8%
B - 1%
AB + 3%
AB - 1%
O + 40%

O - 7%
The endocrine system is made up of the endocrine glands that secrete hormones.
Although there are eight major endocrine glands scattered throughout the body, they
are still considered to be one system because they have similar functions, similar
mechanisms of influence, and many important interrelationships.
Light enters the eye through the cornea. After passing through the cornea, light travels
through the pupil (the black dot in the middle of the eye). The iristhe circular,
colored area of the eye that surrounds the pupilcontrols the amount of light that
enters the eye.
The pupil dilates (enlarges) andconstricts (shrinks) like the aperture of a camera lens
as the amount of light in the immediate surroundings changes. The iris allows more
light into the eye when the environment is dark and allows less light into the eye when
the environment is bright.
The size of the pupil is controlled by the action of the pupillary sphincter muscle
and dilator muscle.
Behind the iris sits the lens. By changing its shape, the lens focuses light onto the
retina.
The retina contains the cells that sense light (photoreceptors) and the blood vessels
that nourish them. The most sensitive part of the retina is a small area called the
macula, which has millions of tightly packed photoreceptors (the type called cones).


Light receptor cells called photoreceptors are two groups:
a) the rods and
b) the cones.

The rods respond to shades of light - they 'see' in black and white.
The cones respond to colours of light. There are 3 exciting varieties - blue, green and
red. So the red cones respond to red light, and so on.

Each photoreceptor is linked to a nerve fiber. The nerve fibers from the
photoreceptors are bundled together to form the optic nerve.
This retinal image is not the same as the object that is being looked at. The image is
inverted.


The photoreceptors in the retina convert the image into electrical signals, which are
carried to the brain by the optic nerve. The brain then translates the electrical signals
into the images we see.


Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have functions other than hormone
secretion. For example, the pancreas has a major exocrine portion that secretes
digestive enzymes and an endocrine portion that secretes hormones. The ovaries and
testes secrete hormones and also produce the ova and sperm. Some organs, such as the
stomach, intestines, and heart, produce hormones, but their primary function is not
hormone secretion.

GLAND HORMONE(S)
Adrenals Cortisol
Aldosterone
DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone)
Adrenals/ovaries
(women)
testosterone
estrogens - E1 (estrone), E2 (estradiol), E3 (estriol)
Adrenals/testes (men) testosterone
estrogens
Pancreas insulin
glucagon
GLP-1
Thyroid T4 (thyroxine), T3 (triiodothyronine)
Pituitary GH (growth hormone)
ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone)
prolactin
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
LH (luteinizing hormone)
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
Parathyroids PTH (parathyroid hormone)
Kidneys Vitamin D
DISEASES AND AFFECTED ORGANS
Filariasis Feet
Securvy Skin and BLood
Cyastritis Stomach
Eczema Skin
Appendicitis Appendix
Rickets Joints of children,s
Bones
Trachima Eyes
Cholera Stomach
Rabies Brain
Pneuminia Lungs

Malaria Liver and RBCs
Goitre Thyroid
Asthma Respiratory tract
Diabetes Pancreas
Polio Nervous system,
limbs
Typhoid Intestine
Mumps Salivary glands
Diphtheria Throat
Jaundice Liver
Atherosclerosis Heart and blood
vascular system
Gengivitis, Pyorrhoea Gums
Osteomyelitis Vertebral Column
Vaccine Discovered by
Small pox Edward Jenner
(1786) of
Gloucestershire made
the first, successful
small pox
vaccination.
Cholera Louis Pasteur (1880)
of France prepared
the first Cholera
vaccine.
Diphtheria and tetanus

Emil Adolf Von
Belming and
Shibasaburo Kitasato
of Germany and
Japan
respectively(1891)
developed anti-toxins
to treat diphtheria and
tetanus.

TB vaccine Leon Calmette and
Camille Guerin
(1992) Paris,
developed the first
TB vaccine.
Polio vaccine Jonas E. Salk (1954)
Pittsburgh (US).
Oval Polio Vaccine Albert Bruce Sabin
(1955) US
Measles vaccine John F. Enders
(1960) USA
Rabies Vaccine Typhus Vaccine
Charles Nicolle
(1909) France.
Vitamins serve crucial functions in almost all bodily processes (immune, hormonal
and nervous systems) and must be obtained from food or supplements as our bodies
are unable to make vitamins. There are thirteen vitamins classified as either water
soluble (C and B complex) or fat soluble (A, D, E and K).

Fat Soluble Vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed, together with fat from the intestine, into the
circulation. Any disease or disorder that affects the absorption of fat, such as coeliac
disease, could lead to a deficiency of these vitamins. Once absorbed into the
circulation these vitamins are carried to the liver where they are stored.
Vitamins A, D, E and K make up the fat soluble vitamins. Vitamins A, D and K are
stored in the liver and vitamin E is distributed throughout the body's fatty tissues.
Water Soluble Vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins, such as Vitamin C and the B vitamins are stored in the body
for only a brief period of time and are then excreted by the kidneys. The one
exception to this is vitamin B12, which is stored in the liver. Water-soluble vitamins
need to be taken daily.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and the B complex group make up the nine water soluble
vitamins. The B complex group comprises of vitamins:
B6 (pyridoxine)
B1 (thiamine)
B2 (riboflavin)
B12 (niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid and cobalamin)
Vitamin sources, uses and deficiency problems
Vitamin A (fat-soluble)
Sources: Dairy products, eggs, liver. Can be converted by the body from the
beta-carotene found in green vegetables, carrots and liver.
Uses: Maintains the health of the epithelium and acts on the retina's dark
adaptation mechanism.
Deficiency leads to: Keratinisation of the nasal and respiratory passage
epithelium, night blindness
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) (water-soluble)
Sources: Yeast, egg yolk, liver, wheatgerm, nuts, red meat and cereals
Uses: Carbohydrate metabolism
Deficiency leads to: Fatigue, irritability, loss of appetite; severe deficiency can
lead to beri-beri
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) (water-soluble)
Sources: Dairy products, liver, vegetables, eggs, cereals, fruit, yeast
Uses: Intracellular metabolism
Deficiency leads to: Painful tongue and fissures to the corners of the mouth,
chapped lips
Vitamin B12 (water-soluble)
Sources: Liver, red meat, dairy products and fish
Uses: Essential for manufacturing of genetic material in cells. Involved in the
production of erythrocytes
Deficiency leads to: pernicious anaemia
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) (water-soluble)
Sources: Green vegetables and fruit
Uses: Essential for the maintenance of bones, teeth and gums, ligaments and
blood vessels. It is also necessary for ensuring a normal immune response to
infection
Deficiency leads to: Scurvy
Vitamin D (fat-soluble)
Sources: Fish liver oils, dairy produce. Vitamin D is formed in the skin when it
is exposed to sunlight
Uses: Has a role in the absorption of calcium, which is essential for the
maintenance of healthy bones
Deficiency leads to: Rickets
Vitamin E (fat-soluble)
Sources: Pure vegetable oils; wheatgerm, wholemeal bread and cereals, egg
yoke, nuts sunflower seeds
Uses: Protects tissues against damage; promotes normal growth and
development; helps in normal red blood cell formation
Deficiency leads to: May cause muscular dystrophy
Vitamin K (fat-soluble)
Sources: Green vegetables
Uses: Used by the liver for the formation of prothrombin
Deficiency leads to: Bleeding due to delayed clotting times caused by lack of
clotting factors. Patients may show signs of bruising easily and have nosebleeds.
Daily Requirements
Vitamins contain no useful energy for the body but they do link and regulate the
sequence of metabolic reactions that release energy within the food we consume.
Vitamins cannot be made in the body and must be obtained in our diet. A well
balanced diet provides an adequate quantity of all vitamins regardless of age and
level of physical activity.
The recommended daily requirements (RDR or RDA) for men, women are shown in
the Table below. These requirements should be easily met if a balanced diet is
adhered to; however, there are groups that may be at greater risk of developing
vitamin deficiencies than others. These include those on restricted diets, patients
who have digestive disorders that affect the absorption of fat, patients on lipid-
lowering medication and those whose dietary choices are affected by financial or for
conscientious reasons (Trounce and Gould, 1997). For these groups there may be
advantages in taking a general or specific vitamin supplement following advice from
a doctor or nutritionist. However, for those on a balanced diet there is little to be
gained from taking additional vitamins (NHS Direct Online, 2003).
Vitamin Men Women
A 0.7mg 0.6mg
B1 1.0mg 0.8mg
B2 1.3mg 1.1mg
Nicin 19mg 15mg
B6 1.4mg 1.2mg
Pantothenic acid 5mg 5mg
Folic acid 0.2mg 0.2mg
Biotin 0.03mg 0.1mg
B12 0.002mg 0.002mg
C 40mg 40mg
D 0.01mg 0.01mg
E 10mg 8mg
K 0.8mg 0.06mg

Toxicity of Vitamins
Fat soluble vitamins should not be consumed in excess as they are stored in the body
and an excess can result in side effects. An excess of vitamin A may result in
irritability, weight loss, dry itchy skin in children and nausea, headache, diarrhea in
adults.
An excess of water soluble vitamins should not result in any side effects as they will
disperse in the body fluids and voided in the urine.
Free Radicals
Electron leakage in the electron transport system results in approximately 2 to 5% of
oxygen containing free radicals like superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl. The
body's level of pentane can be used to monitor the amount of free radicals.
Exercise increases the production of free radicals and a build up of free radicals
increases the potential for cellular damage to many biological substances. Research
indicates that the body's natural defences of a well nourished athlete are adequate
in response to increased amounts of free radicals.
Available research indicates that if supplements can be beneficial in combating free
radicals then vitamin E may be the most effective.
Vitamin and mineral interactions
Many vitamins and minerals interact, working alongside each other in groups e.g. a
good balance of vitamin D, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, fluoride, chloride,
manganese, copper and sulphur is required for healthy bones.
Many of them can enhance or impair another vitamin or mineral's absorption and
functioning e.g. an excessive amount of iron can cause a deficiency in zinc.
c



Age-Related Macular Degeneration:Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is
the physical disturbance of the center of the retina called the macula.

Bulging Eyes: Bulging eyes, or proptosis, occurs when one or both eyes protrude
from the eye sockets due to space taking lesions such as swelling of the muscles, fat,
and tissue behind the eye.

Cataracts: Cataracts are a degenerative form of eye disease in which the lens
gradually becomes opaque and vision mists over.


Cataracts in Babies: In rare cases, children develop cataracts in the first few years of
their lives.

CMV Retinitis: CMV Retinitis is a serious infection of the retina that often affects
people with AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) and that may also affect
people with other immune disorders.

Color Blindness: Color blindness is not actually blindness in the true sense but rather
is a color vision deficiencypeople who are affected by it simply do not agree with
most other people about color matching.

Crossed Eyes (Strabismus): Crossed eyes (or strabismus) occur when a person's eyes
are not able to align on the same point at the same time, and appear to be misaligned
or pointed in different directions.

Diabetic Macular Edema: Diabetic Macular Edema, DME, is caused by fluid
accumulation in the macula. Patients with DME typically experience blurred vision
which can be severe.

Eye Floaters and Eye Flashes: Floaters are small specks or clouds that move across
your field of visionespecially when you are looking at a bright, plain background,
like a blank wall or a cloudless blue sky.

Glaucoma:Glaucoma occurs when a build-up of fluid in the eye creates pressure,
damaging the optic nerve.

Keratoconus: When the cornea in the front of the eye, which normally is round,
becomes thin and cone shaped.

Lazy Eye: Commonly known as lazy eye, amblyopia is poor vision in an eye that
does not receive adequate use during early childhood.

Low Vision: Whenever ordinary glasses or contact lenses don't produce clear vision,
you are considered to have low vision.

Ocular Hypertension: Ocular hypertension is an increase in pressure in the eye that
is above the range considered normal.

Retinal Detachment: When the retina detaches, light sensitive membrane in the back
of the eye becomes separated from the nerve tissue and blood supply underneath it.


Uveitis: Uveitis is the inflammation of the inside the eye, specifically affecting one or
more of the three parts of the eye that make up the uvea.
Humans, as you know, have 23 pairs of chromosomes, such that each pair is made up
of homologous chromosomes. Cells that have this type of arrangement of their
chromosomes, meaning, cells that have pairs of chromosomes, are called diploid.
Some organisms are composed of cells with only one of each type of chromosome.
These cells do not have homologous chromosomes and are called haploid.
Some other organisms contain cells that are made up of many of each type of
chromosome, so they have 3 or 4 or 6 or whatever homologous chromosomes!
These are called polyploid.

Different organisms contain different numbers of chromosomes.
The number of different types of chromosomes is represented by "N." In a haploid
cell, where no pairs of chromosomes are found, the number of chromosomes that it
has is simply N. In a diploid cell, the number of chromosomes is 2 times the number
of different types of chromosomes, because it has pairs of chromosomes. So the
total number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is 2N. Humans have 46 chromosomes
in total. But we also are diploid. So we have 23 pairs of chromosomes (only 23
different types of chromosomes). A diploid organism containing 28 chromosomes
would have N = 14 (because 2N = 28).
What does chromosome number have to do with cell division?
Meiosis, as you read in the introduction for this lesson, is the way we make our
gametes. A man and a woman each have 46 chromosomes. To have a child through
sexual reproduction, they have to jumble up their genes and combine them together
using their gametes. If the man put all of his 46 chromosomes in his sperm and the
woman put all of her 46 chromosomes in her egg, when the sperm and the egg
combined, the zygote would have 92 chromosomes! That is way too many! The
zygote could not develop into a person. So, instead, the man and woman have to
only put half the number of chromosomes into each gamete. That means that the
sperm would get 23 chromosomes, the egg would get 23 chromosomes, and the
zygote would end up with the correct number of chromosomes, 46, after
fertilization.
To reduce the number of chromosomes from 46 to 23 in the gamete, the gamete
has to be made through meiosis. And, now that you know a lot about homologous
chromosomes, it should make sense to you that the only way to cut down the
number of chromosomes while still ensuring that each parent gets to contribute an
allele to each gene, is to only give one of each pair of chromosomes. When we do
that, we take our diploid cells and make haploid gametes out of them.
Therefore, humans do have some haploid cells-- but they are all located in our
gonads (testes and ovaries). There are no haploid skin or liver cells.

And, also, that means that if we are going to make new cells (the gametes), but
make them different from the parent cell (haploid, not diploid, gametes), we can't
use mitosis to make them. And Pasteur showed us that we can't wait for
spontaneous generation to make them. So we need to use another method of cell
division... and that method is meiosis. So, meiosis serves to make haploid cells out of
a diploid one.

Common Name Genus and Species Diploid Chromosome
Number
Buffalo Bison bison 60
Cat Felis catus 38
Cattle Bos taurus, B. indicus 60
Dog Canis familiaris 78
Donkey E. asinus 62
Goat Capra hircus 60
Horse Equus caballus 64
Human Homo sapiens 46
Pig Sus scrofa 38
Sheep Ovis aries 54

The process, by which waste product of metabolism from the system of an organism
are eliminated from the body.
Organs of the Excretory System in Animals:
Lungs removal of excess carbon dioxide
Liver produces urea and uric acid as a by-product of the breakdown of proteins
Skin removal of excess water, salt, urea and uric acid
Urinary System kidneys filter the blood to form urine, which is excess water, salt,
urea and uric acid.
Excretion in insects: Insects excrete carbon dioxide and uric acid crystals. Uric acid
being a nitrogenous waste product is excreted by the malpighian tubules which are
found between the junctions of the mid gut projecting into the blood filled cavity.
Excretion in annelids: Excretion in the annelids such as the earthworms is carried out
by the niphridia which are found in each segment. They release the waste products
through the opening s found on the body surface

Excretion in birds: Birds excrete carbon dioxide and uric acid. They use the lungs to
excrete carbon dioxide and the kidney to excrete uric acid.
Excretion in plants: The main excretory products include water and oxygen. These
wastes diffuse out of the plant through the stomata and lenticels of stems as they are
formed. Other plant wastes include; tannins, alkaloids, anthocyanins which are
converted into insoluble compounds like granules and oil droplets which remain in the
cells and are got rid of when certain parts of the plants e.g fruits, leaves and flowers
fall off from the plants.
Excretion in Higher Plants:

Green plants utilize carbon dioxide for photosynthesis which is a metabolic waste
product of respiration. Some of the methods of excretion in plants are As follows.
1. Resins, latex, rubber and gums are exuded from various parts of the plant body.
2. In some deciduous plants, the excretory matter is thrown out when the leaves fall.
3. In some plants, tannin is stored in the bark and woody part of the trunk. Due to
this the wood appears dark.
4. In the different parts of the plant body, crystals of some chemical substances are
set aside, for example calcium carbonate crystals in the leaf of fig, calcium oxalate
crystals in the leaf of colocasia. These excretory materials do not harm the plant.
Saprophytic plants such as Mucor, Rhizopus and Penictllium excrete their wastes
through diffusion. These products maybe poisonous, however many have found use
in everyday life of humans, such as latex which is used to produce gloves and
clothing.

Excretion in plants differs from that in animals because of the following reasons
1. Plants have got a lower metabolic rate compared to animals therefore the
rate of accumulation of metabolic waste is very low
2. Plants are autotrophs and therefore synthesize their own organic
requirements according to the demand for them. There are never excess proteins
in plants therefore very little excretion of nitrogenous wastes
3. Plants have a capacity to store excretory products in some structures
where they can be lost at a later stage e.g. fruits, flowers, leaves, barks etc.
4. Much of the plant structure is based on carbohydrate and not protein.
The products of carbohydrates carbon dioxide and oxygen can be used in
photosynthesis as raw materials. The oxygen given out as a byproduct of
photosynthesis can be used in respiration
Osmoregulation in plants: Plants are divided into four main groups depending on the
amount of water available to them. They are; halophytes, mesophytes and
hydrophytes, xerophytes.
Hydrophytes: These are plants which live partially or completely submerged in
water. They have thin or no cuticle at all, no vascular tissue and reduced root systems
because water is readily available to them, they also have many stomata on the upper
surface.
Halophytes: These are plants that live in salty waters; they have special cells which
have a higher concentration of solute than those of the ordinary plants. As a result
they are able to take up water in the normal way
Mesophytes: These are plants which grow in normal water well watered soils and
water lost by transpiration is replaced by absorption. They have no special means of
conserving water although most of them have a well developed root system.
Xerophytes: These are plants which live in arid conditions such as deserts, and have a
problem of dehydration. They have the following adaptations for their survival
1. Some xerophytes have thick waxy cuticle impermeable to water e.g.
cactus
2. Some have leaves modified into thorns or spines to reduce the surface
area which minimizes on the rate of transpiration
3. Some shed off their leaves (deciduous) to reduce on the transpiration
through the leaves
4. Some roll their leaves to trap still and damp air that reduces
transpiration.
5. Some have sunken stomata which are guarded by hairs, the hair traps
moisture which reduces on the rate of transpiration
6. Some have succulent tissues like stems which store water
7. They have a well developed tap root system for absorbing water from
deep areas
Archimedes' Principle: It states that a body, when immersed in a liquid, experiences
an upward thrust equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.

Avogadro's Hypothesis: It is a modification of Berzelius' hypothesis. It states that
equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal number of molecules. Avogadro's law is applicable only to gases.

Boyle's Law: states that the volume of certain gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure at a constant temperature. In other words the product of pressure and
volume remains constant provided the temperature is kept constant i.e., P x V = a
constant if T remains the same.

Charles's Law: It states that at constant pressure all gases expand by 1/273 of their
volume at 0C for a rise in temperature of 1C i.e., the volume of a given mass of gas
at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

Dulong and Petit's Law: states that the product of atomic weight and specific heat of
solid elements is nearly equal to 6.4 i.e., At wt. x sp. heat = 6.4 approx.

Gay-Lussac's Law of combining volumes: Gases react together in volumes which
bear simple whole number ratios to one another and also to the volumes of the
products, if gaseousall the volumes being measured under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure.

Graham's Law of Diffusion: states that the rates of diffusion of gases are inversely
proportional to the square roots of their densities under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure.

Kepler's Law: According to this law, a line drawn from the sun to a planet, moving
around it, sweeps over a fixed area in a given interval of time.

Law of definite proportions: A chemical compound is always found to be made up of
the same elements combined together in the same ratio by weight.

Law of Floatation: for a body to float, the following conditions must be fulfilled: (1)
The weight of the body should be equal to the weight of the water displaced. (2) The
centre of gravity of the body and that of the liquid displaced should be in the same
straight line.

Lenz's Law: When there is change in the magnetic flux linked with a circuit, the
electric current induced in the circuit will have a magnetic field opposing the change
producing it.

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: states that "Every portion of matter attracts
or tends to approach every other portion of matter in the universe with a force
proportional to the masses and inversely as the square of the distance."

Newton's First Law of Motion: "A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless compelled by an external force to change that state."

Newton's Second Law of Motion: "The rate of change of momentum is proportional
to the impressed force and takes place in the direction of the force."

Newton's Third Law of Motion: "To every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction."
Newton's Law of Cooling: states that the rate of loss of heat of a hot body is directly
proportional to the difference of temperature between the body and the
surroundings and is independent of the nature of the body.

Ohm's Law: states that the ratio of the potential difference between the ends of a
conductor and the current flowing in the conductor is constant, e.g., for a potential
difference of E volts and a current I amperes, the resistance R, in ohms is equal to
E/I.

Principle of conservation of energy: It states that, in any system, energy cannot be
created or destroyed; the sum of mass and energy remains constant.

Snell's Law: It states that the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction remains constant for any two given media.

Specific heat of substance: The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 gram. of a substance through 1C.
Sound - Important Points -Properties, Characteristics, Types, Speed, Production-
General Knowledge & Awareness
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves. Sound waves are produced by
compression and rarefaction of the particles of the medium.
Sound is a form of energy that causes the sensation of hearing.
Sound needs a medium to travel. Sound travels through gases, liquids and
solids. Sound does not travel through vacuum.
Sound waves are reflected, refracted, and diffracted, and exhibit
interference
The speed of sound is the maximum in solids, less in liquids and the least in
gases.
Sound cannot travel through vacuum. In humans, sound is produced by the
voice box or the Larynx. Vocal cords in the larynx vibrate and produce sound.
Sound wave always needs an fluid medium to be heard, though it can travel
through any material medium but to have an effect on our eardrums a fluid medium is
necessary.
Sound Travel with a speed of 332 m/s at 0 C. The denser the medium, the
greater the speed of sound whereas the opposite is true of light.
The sound waves have only the characteristics of waves, whereas light has a
wave particular duality in nature. They exhibit properties of both waves and particles
and are said to be composed of packets of light called photons
The speed of propagation of the sound waves is dependent on the wave
frequency. This implies that there is a medium and the medium has atoms, molecules,
or some structure. The dependency of the speed of propagation on frequency also
implies that there is a minimum wavelength. There is a frequency cut-off.

Characteristics of sound waves:



Sound waves have following three characteristics.
Intensity: Intensity of sound at any point of space is defined as amount of energy
passing normally per unit area held around that point per unit time. SI unit of intensity
is watt/m2 .
Intensity of sound at a point is,
(i) inversely proportional to the squire of the distance of point from the
source.
(ii) Directly proportional to squire of amplitude of vibration, squire of
frequency and density of the medium.
Due to intensity, a sound appears loud or faint to the ear. Actually, the sensation of
the sound perceived in ear is measured by another term called loudness which
depends on intensity of sound and sensitiveness of the ear. Unit of loudness is bel. A
practical unit of loudness is decibel (dB) which of equal to1/10th of bel. Another unit
of loudness is phon.
Pitch: Pitch is that characteristic of sound which distinguishes a sharp sound from a
grave (dull or flat) sound. Pitch depends upon frequency. Higher the frequency, higher
will be the pitch and shriller will be the sound. Lower the frequency, lower will be the
pitch and grave will be the sound.
Quality: Quality is that characteristic of sound which enables us to distinguish
between sounds produced by two sources having the same intensity and pitch. The
quality depends upon number, frequency and relative intensities of overtones.
Effect of Pressure, Temperature & Humidity on Sound:
Effect of pressure on speed of sound: The speed of sound is independent of pressure
i.e. speed remains unchanged by the increase or decrease of pressure.
Effect of temperature on speed of sound: The speed of sound increases with the
increase of temperature of the medium. The speed of sound in air increases by 0.61
m/s when the temperature increased by 1 C.
Effect of humidity on speed of sound: The speed of sound is more in humid air then in
dry air because the density of humid air is less than the density of dry air.
According to their frequency range, longitudinal mechanical waves are divided
into the following categories:


1. Audible or Sound waves
The longitudinal mechanical wave which lie in the frequency range 20 Hz to 20000
Hz are called audible or sound waves. These waves are sensitive to human ears. These
are generated by the vibrating bodies such as tuning fork, vocal cords etc.
2. Infrasonic Waves
The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies less than 20 Hz are called
Infrasonic. These waves are produced by sources of bigger size such as earth quakes,
Volcano eruptions, meteors, ocean waves and by elephants and whales. Elephants
have the ability to emit infrasound to communicate at distances of up to 10 miles (12 -
35 Hz.). Even tigers emit infrasound.
Application/Uses of Infrasonic Waves:
Infrasonic waves can carry over long distances [thousands of kilometres] and are less
susceptible to disturbance or interference than waves of higher frequencies.
A. Medical: (therapeutic devices)
- Several studies conducted in Russia and Europe reported that infrasound has
therapeutic effects.
- Infrasound peumomassage: At 4 Hz, the progression of myopia in school children
can be stabilized.
- Infrasound phonophersis in antibacterial drugs: In treatment of patients with
bacterial keratitis, it is as effective as local instillations of the same drugs.
B. Monitoring activities of the atmosphere:
Infrasonic waves will be influenced by the atmosphere during its propagation, which
is closely related with the distribution of temperature and wind in the atmosphere.
By measuring the propagation properties of infrasonic waves generated by natural
sources, one can detect some characteristics and rules of the large scale
meteorological motions.
C. Forecasting natural disasters:
Many disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, land-slides and clear-air
turbulences, radiate infrasound in advance .
By monitoring the infrasound waves , we can forecast these disasters.
How Bad are Infrasonic Waves:
Infrasound is especially dangerous, due to its strong vibrations, or oscillations. They
hug the ground, travel for long distances without losing strength, and are unstoppable.
3. Ultrasonic Waves
The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies greater than 20000 Hz are
called Ultrasonic Waves. But certain creatures like dog, cat, bat, and mosquito can
detect these waves. Bat not only detect by also produce ultrasonic waves. Humans
cannot hear the sound of inaudible range.
Applications of Ultrasonic Waves:
1. For sending signals.
2. For measuring depth of sea.
3. For cleaning cloths, aeroplanes and machinery parts of clock.
4. For removing lamp-shoot from the chimney of factories.
5. In sterilizing of a liquid.
6. In Ultra-Sonography.
7. Doppler effect: Doppler effect to assess whether structures (usually blood) are
moving towards or away from the probe , and its relative velocity .
8. Whales make use of ultrasounds for communication purposes. Individual pods of
whales have their own distinctive dialect of calls, similar to songbirds.


Speed of Sound:
Speed of sound is different in different mediums. In a medium, speed of sound
basically depends upon elasticity and density of medium.Speed of sound is maximum
in solids and minimum in gases.
When sound enters from one medium to another medium, its speed and
wavelength changes but frequency remains unchanged. In a medium, the speed of
sound is independent of frequency.
Medium Speed of sound (In
m/s)
Carbon
dioxide
260
Air (0 C) 332
Air (20 C) 343
Steam (100 C) 405
Helium 965
Alcohol 1213
Hydrogen 1269
Mercury 1450
Water (20 C) 1482
Sea Water 1533
Copper 3560
Iron 5130
Glass 5640
Granite 6000
Aluminum 6420

What is Audible Range of Sound?
Sounds with frequency between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz are called audible sound. The
hearing range of human beings is between 20 hertz to 20,000 hertz. Sound with
frequency below 20 hertz and above 20,000 hertz is called sound of inaudible range.
Humans cannot hear the sound of inaudible range. Many animals, such as dogs, cats,
etc. can hear the sound with frequency above 20,000 hertz
How sound is produced by Humans?

Larynx is composed of two stretched membranes; with some gap between them.
When air passes through the larynx, the membranes or vocal cords vibrate and
produce sound. That is why larynx is also known as sound box.
Various Ways Pleasant Sound is Produced:
Some instruments produce sound due to the
-vibration of membranes,
-vibration of strings, and
-vibration of an air column.
The to and fro or back and forth motion of an object is called vibration. The sitar,
veena, violin, guitar and ektara are some stringed instruments.
The tabla, cymbals, ghatam, kartal and manjira are some instruments that work on the
vibration of a membrane.
The instruments like the flute and the trumpet produce sound due to the vibration of
an air column present in them.
Sonar and its Working Principle:
SONAR means SOund NAvigation and Ranging. Sonar is an instrument that use
ultrasonic wave for sound ranging. It measures even short time intervals quite
accurately.
Sonar works on the principle of echo. A strong and short (ultrasonic) sound signal is
sent towards the bottom of the ocean. Echo of the signal is then detected and depth of
ocean is calculated.
What is Echo?
The sound waves received after being reflected from a high tower or mountains is
called echo.
To hear echo, the minimum distance between the observer and reflector should be
17m (16.6 m).
Persistence of ear (effect of sound on ear) is 1/10.
Doppler Effect: If there is a relative motion between source of sound and observer.
The apparent frequency of sound heard by the observer is different from the actual
frequency of sound emitted by the source. This phenomenon is called Doppler Effect.
When the frequency between the source and observer decreases, the apparent
frequency increases and vice-versa.
What is Mach Number?
Mach Number: It is defined as the ratio of speed of sound source to the speed of
sound in the same medium under the same condition of temperature and pressure.
If match number >1, body is supersonic.
If match number >5, body is called hypersonic.
If match number < 1 -the body is said to be moving with subsonic speed.
Some reasons commonly asked in Exam:

Children and women produce sound of high frequency and their sound is
shriller and of higher pitch. On the other hand, an adult male produces sound of lower
frequency and his sound is less shrill and has lower pitch.
A drum produces sound of lower frequency which is less shrill and has lower
pitch, while a whistle produces sound of higher frequency which is shriller and is of
higher pitch.
A lion produces a sound of lower frequency which is less shrill and has lower
pitch, while a bird produces sound of high frequency which is shriller and has higher
pitch. However, sound of lion is louder than the sound of a bird.
We know that the speed of light much more than the speed of sound. Due to
this, light reaches to us faster than sound. Hence, during lightning we see the streak of
light earlier than hearing the sound of thunder.
Due to refraction, sound is heard at longer distance in nights than in day.
Resonance: If the frequency of the imposed periodic force is equal to the
natural frequency of a body, the body oscillates with a very large amplitude. This
phenomenon is called resonance.
Interference of sound: The modification or redistribution of energy at a point
due to superposition of two (or more) sound waves of same frequency is called
interference of sound. If two waves meet at a point in same phase, intensity of sound
is maximum at that point. Such type of interference is called constructive interference.
Similarly, if the two point meet at a point in opposite phase, intensity of sound at that
point is minimum. Such type of interference is called destructive interference.
Diffraction of sound: Wavelength of sound is of the order of 1 m. If an
objective of that range appears in the path of sound, sound deviates at the edge of
obstacle and propagates forward. This phenomenon is called diffraction of sound.
Shock waves: A body moving with supersonic speed in air leaves behind it a
conical region of disturbance which spreads continuously. Such a disturbance is called
shock waves. These waves carries a huge energy and may even cracks in window
panes or even damage a building.
Bow waves: When a motor boat travels faster than sound, then waves just like
shock waves are produced on the surface of water. These waves are called bow waves.

Some Questions:
Which of the following is true? a) Sound waves exhibit interference b) Light waves
exhibit interference c) Both the light and sound waves exhibit interference d) Neither
sound waves nor light waves exhibit interference.
Effects of Refraction of Light
1. A swimming pool always looks shallower than it really is, because the
light coming from the bottom of the pool bends when it comes out at the
surface due to refraction of light.
2. A straight stick which is immersed partly in water always looks to be
bent at the surface of water, because the light coming from the stick bends
when it comes out at the surface due to refraction of light.
3. A coin or stone lying at the bottom of a container filled with water
appears to be raised because of refraction of light.
4. A line or a spot of ink on a paper always appears to be raised when
viewed through the glass slab due to the refraction of light.
5. Twinkling of stars is due to the refraction of light.
6. Optical illusions such as mirage and looming are also produced due to
refraction of light.



Essential Conditions for Total Internal Reflection
There are two conditions which are essential for total internal reflection. These are:

1. The light should travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence of light traveling in denser medium should be greater
than the critical angle of the medium

Effects of total internal reflection of Light
Twinkling of Stars: The light rays coming from a star reaches our eyes after passing
through the atmosphere having different air layers of different optical densities. But
the optical densities of different layers of air keep on changing continuously due to
change in temperature conditions. Due to which, the light rays coming from a star are
refracted to different amount at different moments of time, and the path of refracted
rays keep on changing. As a result, sometimes more light is refracted towards our eyes
and the star appears bright to us, whereas sometimes less light is refracted towards our
eyes and the star appears dim to us. This gives rise to the twinkling effect of a star.

The Sun is visible to us 2 minutes before actual sunrise and 2 minutes after the
actual sunset: The Sun is visible to us 2 minutes before actual sunrise and 2 minutes
after the actual sunset due to atmospheric refraction. Actually when the Sun is slightly
below the horizon, then the light rays emitted by the Sun are refracted downwards
when passing through the optically rarer air layers into the optically dense air layers of
atmosphere. Due to which, the Sun appears to be slightly raised above the horizon and
is visible 2 minutes before actual sunrise and 2 minutes after the actual sunset.

Mirage : Mirage is an optical illusion which occurs usually in deserts on hot summer
days due to atmospheric refraction and total internal reflection of light rays. In mirage,
the object such as a tree appears to be inverted as if it is situated on a bank of a pond
of water.
Looming: Looming is also an optical illusion which occurs usually in very cold
regions. In looming, a distant object such as a ship moving in polar areas appears to be
hanging in midair due to atmospheric refraction and the total internal reflection of
light rays.

Brilliance of diamond: The brilliance of a diamond is due to the total internal
reflection of light. We know that the refractive index of diamond is 2.42, and the
critical angle for diamond is 24
0
. The diamond is cut in such a way so that the light
which enters the diamond from any face suffers multiple total internal reflections at
the various faces before coming out of the diamond. Due to this, the diamond
sparkles.

Rainbow (refraction + total internal reflection)

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

The dispersion of light is the phenomenon of splitting of a beam of white light into
its seven constituent colours when passed through a transparent medium. It was
discovered by Isaac Newton in 1666. Newton discovered that light is made up of
seven different colours. hus the spectrum is a band of seven colours which is
obtained by splitting of white light by a glass prism. The order of colours from the
lower end of spectrum is violet (V), indigo (I), blue (B), green (G), yellow (Y), orange
(O), and red (R). The sequence of the 7 colours so obtained in a spectrum can be
remembered by using the acronym VIBGYOR.

Effects of Dispersion:
a) Prisms and rain drops both create rainbows because of this effect. n the case of a
rainbow, the droplets of water on the ground act as the prism, refracting the light
twice and dispersing it into all of the colors of the rainbow.


b) Rainbow Formation: The formation of rainbow is based on the process of
dispersion of light. It is the most enchanting example of dispersion of light which
takes place naturally. Usually a rainbow of seven colours is seen in the sky just after
the rain when the Sun is shining. The essential condition to see the rainbow is that the
observer must stand with his back towards the sun, when seeing the rainbow.
Solar system and planets Wiki. The solar system consists of the Sun and 8 planets
revolving around it in different orbits.
SUN
Age: About 5 Billion years
Distance: 149.8 Million Kms
Diameter: 1,38,400 Kms.
Photosphere temperature : 5,770 K
Core temperature: 150,000,000 K
Absolute visual magnitude: 4.75
Rotation (as seen from the earth at the equator): 25.38 days
Rotation (near the poles): 33 days
The sun consists of 71% of Hydrogen, 26.5% Helium and 2.5% of other
elements.
The rays of the Sun take about 8 minutes to reach the earth.
The Sun resides in one of the Milky Way's outer spiral arms, known as
the OrionCygnus Arm or Local Spur.
Next closest star is the triple star system Alpha Centauri(A, B and C), which is
about 4.4 light years away.
The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard's Star (at 5.9 light
years), Wolf 359 (7.8 light years), and Lalande 21185 (8.3 light years). The largest
star within ten light years is Sirius.

What is Galactic Year?
The Sun lies between 25,000 and 28,000 light years from the Galactic Centre, and its
speed within the galaxy is about 220 kilometres per second (140 mi/s), so that it
completes one revolution every 225250 million years. This revolution is known as
the Solar System's galactic year.

What are the conditions to be satisfied for planet-hood status? Why Pluto was
removed from Planet list, which conditions it satisfied and where it failed?

1. A planet has to orbit the Sun. Pluto does that.
2. A planet needs enough gravity to pull itself into a sphere. Okay, spherical. Plutos
is spherical.
3. A planet needs to have cleared out its orbit of other objects. Uh oh, Pluto hasnt
done that.
For example, planet Earth accounts for a million times the rest of the material in its
orbit, while Pluto is just a fraction of the icy objects in its realm.

PLANETS
Comparison of planets based on size, radius, density, surface gravity:
Body Mean
radius
(km)
Volume
(10
9
km
3
)
Mass
10
21
kg
(Yg)
Density
g/cm
3

Surface
gravity
(m/s
2
)
Sun 696,000 1,412,000,000 1,989,100,000 1.409 274.0
Jupiter 69,911 1,431,280 1,898,600 1.33 24.79
Saturn 58,232 827,130 568,460 0.70 10.445
Uranus 25,362 68,340 86,832 1.30 8.87
Neptune 24,622 62,540 102,430 1.76 11.15
Earth 6,371.0 1,083.21 5,973.6 5.515 9.78033
Venus 6,051.8
(w/o gas)
928.43 4,868.5 5.24 8.872
Mars 3,390.0 163.18 641.85 3.94 3.7
Mercury 2,439.7 60.83 330.2 5.43 3.7
Moon 1,737.1 21.958 73.5 3.3464 1.625
The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the
terrestrial planets and asteroids. The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense,
rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed
largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates, which form their crusts and
mantles, and metals such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the
four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to
generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift
valleys and volcanoes.

(1) MERCURY
It is the planet nearest to the earth and smallest one in solar system.
Mercury has no natural satellites
Average distance to the Sun : 57.6 Million Kms.
Diameter : 4,849.6 Kms.
Period of revolution : 88 days
Period of rotation : 58 days 15 hrs 30 mts. 34sec.

(2) VENUS
It is also known as the Morning Star or the Evening Star.
It is the brightest of all the planets. is close in size to Earth (0.815 Earth masses) and,
like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere,
and evidence of internal geological activity.
Venus has no natural satellites.
It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 C (752F), most likely
due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
Diameter : 12,032 Kms.
Period of revolution : 225 days
Period of rotation : 243 days 14mts.

(3) EARTH
Surface Area : 510,100,500 Sq.Kms.
Polar radius : 6,357 Kms.
Land Surface : 148,950,800 (29.08%)
Water Surface : 361,149,700 (70.92%)
Equatorial circumference : 40,075 Kms.
Polar circumference : 40,008 Kms
Equatorial radius : 6,377 Kms.
Equatorial Diameter : 1,22,756 Kms.
Polar Diameter : 12,714 Kms.
Mean distance from the Sun : 14,95,97,900 Kms.
Period of revolution : 365 days 5 hours 48 mts. 45.51 Sec.
Period of rotation : 23 hrs. 56 mts. 4.091 Sec.
Escape Velocity from the earth : 11 Km per Sec. (minimum)

Some important Data about Earth:
The Earth is a sphere but it is not a perfect sphere. It is slightly
flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. The circumference of the earth is
approximately 25,000 miles (40,000 Kms).It rotates on its axis once in every 24
hours, spinning from west to east. Besides spinning on its axis, it also moves round
the Sun, called the revolution.
Its orbit round the Sun is oval or ecliptical. The time taken to complete one
revolution is approximately 365 days or one year. For convenience, one year is
taken as 365 days and the shortfall of day each year is made good in the
Leap Year which consists of 366 days. The Earths axis inclined to the plane of its
orbit at an angle of 66 position in the course of its revolution about the Sun, and to
the inclination of its axis. The Equator is an imaginary line drawn round the Earth
midway between the Poles. There are two other lines, namely, Tropic of Cancer (23
N) and the Tropic of Capricon (23 S). The word tropic means, turning place. The
inclination of the Earths axis together with its revolution round the Sun is the cause
of the varying length of day and night in different parts of the world. On March 21
(Vernal Equinox) and September 23 (Autumnal Equinox) the Sun is over- head at the
Equator. On these dates, except at the Poles,
(a) days and nights are equal all over the world; and
(b) the Sun rises exactly due east and set exactly due west at all places on the Earths
surface.
At the Equator itself days and nights are equal throughout the year.
Between March 21 and September 23, when the North Pole is tilted towards the
Sun, the days are longer than the nights throughout the Northern Hemisphere and
there is continuous daylight at the North Pole. Similar conditions are experienced in
the Southern Hemisphere and the South Pole between September 25 and March 21.

(4) MARS
Diameter : 6,755.2 Kms. is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses).
Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and rift valleys such
as Valles Marineris.
Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil.
Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured
asteroids
Distance from the Sun : 225.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 687 days
Period of rotation : 24 hrs 37 mts. 22.663 sec.

Outer planets of Solar System:
he four outer planets, or gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively
make up 99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun

(5) JUPITER : This is the largest planet in the solar system.
Diameter : 141,968 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 772.8 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 11.9 years
Period of rotation : 9 hrs 50 mts. 30 sec.
It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates
a number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and
the Great Red Spot.
Jupiter has 67 known satellites.
The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa.
Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System.

Topics To Be Read (6) SATURN : It was discovered by
Galileo.
Diameter : 119,296 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 1,417.6 Million
Kms.
Period of revolution : 29.5 years
Period of rotation : 10 hrs 14 mts.
least dense planet in the Solar System.
>>ELEMENTS OF WEATHER
>>Deserts - Definition - Types - Deserts in
India
>>Himalayas of India
>>How to measure rainfall in an area?
>>Solar System and Planets for Civil
Services
>>Distribution of Temperature and the
Heat Zones
Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites; two
important moons are Titan and Enceladus.
Titan, the second-largest moon in the Solar
System.
>>Land forms produced by Internal and
External processes of EarthLand forms
produced by Internal and External
processes of Earth

(7) URANUS
Diameter : 52,096 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 2,852.8 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 84 years
Period of rotation : 16 hrs 10 mts.
its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic.
Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel,
Ariel, and Miranda.

(8) NEPTUNE
Diameter : 49,000 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 4,497 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 165 years
Period of rotation : 18 hrs 26 mts.
Neptune has 14 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with
geysers of liquid nitrogen

(9) PLUTO : It's not a planet anymore. But it is the coldest and smallest of all
planets. It is also the most distant one(while it was planet)
Diameter : 3,040 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 5,865.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 248 years
Period of rotation : 6 days 9 hrs and 18 mts.

MOON : Monn is a dead planet. Moon is earth's satellite. Its period of rotation and
Period of Revolution are the same. i.e.29.5 days.

Some other Important Points:
The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter
Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid, a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet
Uranus and Neptune are called Ice Giants.
Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth.
Eris (68 AU average) is the largest known scattered disc object, and caused a
debate about what constitutes a planet.

What is Kuiper belt?
The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting
mainly of objects composed primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from
the Sun. The Kuiper Belt is a disc-shaped region of icy objects beyond the orbit of
Neptune -- billions of kilometers from our sun. The makeup of Kuiper Belt Objects is
similar to the composition of comets a mixture of frozen water, ammonia and
various hydrocarbons, such as methane.

What are Centaurs?
The centaurs are icy comet-like bodies with a semi-major axis greater than Jupiter's
(5.5 AU) and less than Neptune's (30 AU). The first centaur discovered, 2060 Chiron,
has also been classified as comet (95P) because it develops a coma just as comets do
when they approach the Sun.

What is comet, how is it different from Asteroid?
Comets have eccentric orbits so their distance from the Sun varies considerably. The
nucleus of a comet is composed of volatile material. When a comet is far from the
sun, this material usually stays pristine but when the comet comes closer to the sun,
solar radiation and solar winds cause it to lose some volatile compounds from its
surface. This gives it a coma i.e. a nebulous appearance and a thin, transient
atmosphere, which differentiates it from asteroids.

Whats the difference between a comet, asteroid, meteoroid, meteor & meteorite?
Comet: A comet is a relatively small solar system body that orbits the Sun. When a
comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to
sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the
naked eye.

Asteroid: Asteroids are small solar system bodies that orbit the Sun. Made of rock
and metal, they can also contain organic compounds. Asteroids are similar to comets
but do not have a visible coma (fuzzy outline and tail) like comets do.

Meteoroid: A meteoroid is a small rock or particle of debris in our solar system. They
range in size from dust to around 10 metres in diameter (larger objects are usually
referred to as asteroids).

Meteor: A meteoroid that burns up as it passes through the Earths atmosphere is
known as a meteor. If youve ever looked up at the sky at night and seen a streak of
light or shooting star what you are actually seeing is a meteor.

Meteorite: A meteoroid that survives falling through the Earths atmosphere and
colliding with the Earths surface is known as a meteorite.

What is Heliopause?
The region surrounding the solar system at which pressure from the outgoing solar
wind equals the pressure from the interstellar medium (made up mostly of hydrogen
and helium), and the solar wind can penetrate no further. It is considered to be the
outer boundary of our solar system
S
No Physical Quantity Units
1 Length Metre
2 Time Second
3 Mass Kilogram
4 Area Square metre
5 Volume Cubic metre
6 Velocity Metre / second
7 Density
Kilogram / Metre
Cube
8 Energy Joule
9 Force Newton
10 Pressure
Pascal or Newton /
Square Metre

11 Frequency Hertz
12 Power Watt
13 Weight
Newton or
Kilogram
14 Heat Joule
15 Temperature Kelvin
16 Resistance Ohm
17 Electric current Ampere
18
Electromotive
force Volt
19 Intensity of Sound Decibel
20 Power of lens Dioptre
21 Depth of Sea Fathom
22 Magnetic Intensity Orsted
23 Electric Power Kilo Watt or Watt
24 Acceleration
Metre / Second
Square
25 Momentum
Kilogram Metre /
Second
26 Work Joule
27 Impulse Newton- Second
28 Angular velocity Radian / Second
29 Viscosity Poise
30 Surface tension
Newton / Square
Metre
31
Absolute
temperature Kelvin
32
Electrical
conductivity Ohm / Metre
33 Electric Energy Kilo Watt hour
34 Charge Coulomb
35 Magnetic induction Gauss
36 Luminous flux Candela


Factor Prefix Symbol
10
18
exa E
10
15
peta P
10
12
tera T
10
9
giga G
10
6
mega M
10
3
kilo k
10
2
hecto h
10
1
deka da
10
0

10
-1
deci d
10
-2
centi c
10
-3
milli m
10
-6
micro m
10
-9
nano n
10
-12
pico p
10
-15
femto f
10
-18
atto a
What is Ore? Type of different ores of everyday used metals -
General Knowledge
Labels: general Awareness, Physics & Chemistry at 10:57 PM Posted by Saidul Naik
A mineral or rock, which contains enough of a chemical element to make it
economically feasible to mine, is called an ore. A mineral which contains a high
enough percentage of a metal for economic extraction is called a metal ore. The
recovery of metals from their ores is one area of the field of metallurgy. The
separation of the desired element is done by roasting, smelting, electrolysis or
various chemical treatments. Important ores of aluminum, iron, manganese, and tin
are oxides; Important ores of antimony, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, silver, and zinc
aresulfides.
Names of the
Elements
Ores Chemical
Formulae
Aluminium
(Al)
(a) Bauxite Al
2
O
3
. 2H
2
O
(b) Corundum Al
2
O
3

(c) Kryolite Na
3
AlF
6

Iron (Fe) (a) Haematite Fe
2
O
3

(b) Magnetite Fe
3
O
4

(c) Iron Pyrite FeS
2

(d) Siderite FeCO
3


Copper (Cu) (a) Copper
Pyrite
CuFeS
2

(b) Copper
Glance
Cu
2
S
(c) Malachite 2CuCO
3
.
Cu(OH)
Zinc (Zn) (a) Zinc Blende ZnS
(b) Calamine ZnCO
3

Sodium (Na) (a) Rock Salt NaCl
(b) Sodium
Carbonate
Na
2
CO
3

Potassium (K) (a) Karnalite KCI MgCl .
6H
2
O
(b) Salt Petre KNO
3

Lead (Pb) (a) Galena PbS
(b) Anglesite PbCl
2

Tin (Sn) (a) Tin Pyrites Cu
2
FeSnS
4

(b) Cassiterite SnO
2

Silver (Ag) (a) Silver
Glance
Ag
2
S
Gold (Au) (a) Calverite AuTe
2

(b) Syvanite AgAuTe
2

Mercury (Hg) (a) Cinnabar HgS
(b) Calomel Hg
2
Cl
2

Magnesium (a) Dolomite MgCO
3
. CaCO
3

(Mg) (b) Karnalite KCl MgCl
2
.
6H
2
O
Calcium (Ca) (a) Lime Stone CaCO
3

(b) Dolomite MgCO
3
. CaCO
3

Phosphorous
(P)
(a) Phosphorite Ca
3
(PO
4
)
(b) Floreapetite 3Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
CaFe
2


Fact to remember Name of the metal
Metal most abundant in earths crust Aluminium
Metal which forms amalgam with other
elements
Mercury
Metal used in a fuse wire and also in solder Lead-tin alloy
Metal used in the filament of a bulb Tungsten
Metal which pollutes the air of cities having
large number of vehicles
Lead (reason for using
unleaded petrol)
Metal used in the filaments of electric heaters Nichrome
Metal used as radiation shield Lead
Metal into which Uranium turns when it loses
all its radioactivity
Lead
Metal used for making boats because it does
not corrode by seawater
Titanium