Example:

An Si pn junction diode have across sectional area of 1mm2, an acceptor concentration

of 5×1018 cm-3 on the p-side and a donor concentration of 1016 cm-3 on the n-side. The
life time of holes in n-region is 417 ns and the life time of electrons in the p-region is 5
ns. The drift mobilities of electron in p-regions and hole in n region are 120 and 440
cm2 V-11s-11, respectively.

a.Calculate the minority diffusion lengths at 300K.

b.What is the current when there is a forward bias of 0.6V across diode at 300 K?

a) L = Dτ

De =
kT
μe =
0.026eV
(120) = 3.10 cm 2 s −1
e e

Dh =
kT
μh =
0.026eV
(440) = 11.39 cm 2 s −1
e e
Le = Deτ e = (3.10 cm s )(5 ×10 s ) = 1.2 ×10 cm
2 −1 −9 −4

Lh = Dhτ h = (11.39 cm s )(417 ×10 s ) = 21.8 ×10

2 −1 −9 −4
cm 34
b) What is the current when there is a forward bias of 0.6V across diode at 300 K?

⎡ ⎛ eV ⎞ ⎤
J = J so ⎢exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎦

⎛ eDh eDe ⎞ 2
J so = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ni
⎝ Lh Nd Le Na ⎠
⎛ eDh eDe ⎞ 2
I=AJ I so = A⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ni
⎝ Lh Nd Le Na ⎠
For V>>kT/e, (V=0.6 V, and kT/e=0.026 V)

⎡ ⎛ eV ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ eV ⎞
I = I so ⎢exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ≈ I so exp⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ kT ⎠

35
 ⎛ eDh eDe ⎞ 2
⎜
I so = A⎜ + ⎟⎟ni
⎝ Lh Nd Le Na ⎠
⎛ 11.39 cm2 s−1 3.1cm2 s−1 ⎞ 10 −3
( )(
= 0.01cm 1.6×10 C ⎜⎜
2 −19

×
)(-4 16
)(
−3
+
×) (
-4
× 18
)( −3
) (
⎟⎟ 10 cm )
⎝ 21.8
21 8 10 cm 10 cm 1
1.2
2 10 cm 5 10 cm ⎠
= 8.36×10−14 A

⎛ eV ⎞ −14 ⎛ 0.6V ⎞ −3
I = I so exp⎜ ⎟ = 8 .36 × 10 A exp⎜ ⎟ = 0.96 × 10 A
⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ 0.026V ⎠

36
Example:
Consider a pnp Si BJT that has the following properties. The doping concentrations in
emitter, base and collector are 2×1018,1016, 1016 cm-3. The intrinsic concentration is
1010 cm-3 The width of emitter and base are 2 μm under the active operation. The hole
drift mobility in the base is 400 cm2 V-1 s-1 and electron drift mobility in the emitter is
200 cm2 V-1 s-1. The cross section of the device is 0.02 mm2, The hole lifetime in the
cross-section
base is 400ns. Assume the emitter has 100% emitter efficiency. Calculate the CB
current transfer ratio α and current gain β. What is the emitter-based voltage if the
emitter current is 1mA?

Dh =
kT
μh =
0.026eV
(400) = 10.36 cm 2 s −1
e e
The minority carrier transit time τt across the base.

τt = WB2/2Dh= 2×10-44 cm/(2×10.36 )=1 93 ×10-99s

10 36 cm2s-11)=1.93

The base transport factor is

τt 1.93 × 10 −9 s
α = αT γ = 1 − = 1 − = 0.99517
τh −9
400 × 10 s 45
The current gain β of the transistor is

α 0 . 99517
β = = = 206 . 2
1−α 1 − 0 . 99517

The emitter current is due to the hole diffusion since the emitter efficiency is 1,

eAD h p n 0 ⎛ eV EB ⎞ ⎛ eV EB ⎞
IE = exp ⎜ ⎟ = I so exp ⎜ ⎟
WB ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎠

=
n i2
=
( ) = 10 cm
10 10
2
4 −3
p no
Nd ( )
10 16

=
eAD h p n 0
=
(1 .6 × 10 C )(0 .02 × 10 cm )(10 .36 cms )(10
− 19 −2 2 −1 4
cm − 3 )
I so
WB (2 × 10 cm )
−4

= 1 . 66 × 10 −14 A

kT ⎛ I E ⎞
V EB = ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0 . 64 V
e ⎝ I so ⎠ 46
Example

A solar cell under an illumination of 500Wm-2 has a short circuit current Isc of 150 mA
and an open circuit output voltage Voc of 0.530 V, what is the short circuit current and
open circuit voltage when the light intensity is doubled? Assume ideality factor η=1.5.

The I-V characteristic under illumination is given

⎡ ⎛ eV ⎞ ⎤
I = − I ph + I o ⎢exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎣ ⎝ ηkT ⎠ ⎦

For open circuit, I=0

At RT, V >> ηkT

eV

⎛ eV ⎞ ηkT ⎛ I pph ⎞
I = − I ph + I o exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0 Voc = l ⎜⎜
ln ⎟⎟
⎝ ηkT ⎠ e ⎝ Io ⎠
89
 Isc = −Iph = −KI
The short circuit current is the photocurrent, so at double the intensity this is

⎛ I2 ⎞
I sc 2 = I sc1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = (150mA)(2 ) = 300mA
⎝ I1 ⎠

At given temperature, the change in Voc is

⎛ I ph 2 ⎞ ηkT ⎛ I 2 ⎞
ηkT
Voc 2 − Voc1 = ln⎜ ⎟= ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
e ⎜I ⎟ e
⎝ ph1 ⎠ ⎝ I1 ⎠

η=1.5, the new open circuit is

⎛ I2 ⎞
ηkT
Voc 2 = Voc1 + ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.530 + (1.5)(0.026 ) ln (2 ) = 0.557
e ⎝ I1 ⎠
90
 Chapter 5: nanoelectronics- The quantum dots
p
•optical pproperty
p y
•Single electron device

91
Principle of the quantum dots

One free electron is in three dimensional infinite potential box.

h2 ⎛ n12 n 22 n 32 ⎞
E n1 n 2 n 3 = ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟⎟
8m ⎝a b c ⎠

a=b=c E n1 n 2 n 3 =
( )
h 2 n12 + n 22 + n 32
=
h2N 2
2
8 ma 8 ma 2

h 2 (2n + 1)
ΔE = En +1 − En =
8ma 2

Energy difference is smaller as a increases to macroscopic dimensions,

a →∞ ΔE→ 0, 0 for a completely free electron its energy is continuous
Difference between nanoparticle and quantum dots:

Quantum dots: the size of quantum is small enough that the energy difference between
the consecutive energy levels can be distinguished, namely, the energy is discrete and
not continuous.

Nanopartilce: the size of nanoparticles is small (nanoscale) and the energy difference
between the consecutive energy levels cannot be distinguished, namely, the energy is
continuous.

Characteristic size:

Methods for calculating the critical size:

1.De Broglie
g wavelengthg at Fermi energy gy (metal)
( )
2.Exciton radius (semiconductor)
a should be comparable to the De Broglie wavelength of the electron

h
p= , p 2 = 2me* E
λ
h
λF =
2me* EF

2/3
⎛ h2 ⎞⎛ 3n ⎞
EF = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 m *
e ⎠⎝ π ⎠

2π
λF =
(3nπ ) 2 1/ 3

For Copper, n=8.85×1028 m-3, λF=0.46 nm, if the particle size is

smaller
ll or comparable
bl to 0.46nm,
0 46 it
i is
i called
ll d quantum dots.
d
 Si bulk single crystal, the number of atoms is
very large, therefore the conduction band and
valence band are continuous

For nanoscale-size, the number of

the atoms is significantly reduced

The energies in conduction band and

valence band become discrete
m

1 Direct-gap interband transitions in quantum

Eg dots from nth level valence band to mth
level conduction band can occur for
1 incident photon energies.
n
hϖ = E g + E n + E m
 hϖ = E g + E n + E m

h2n2
En =
8me* R 2

h2m2 h2n2
hϖ = E g + * 2 + * 2
8me R 8mh R

For n=1 and m=1

h2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
hϖ = E g + 2 ⎜⎜ * + * ⎟⎟
8 R ⎝ me mh ⎠
h2
= Eg + 2 *
8 R mr
me*mh*
m = *
*
r ,
me + mh *
Reduced mass

96
 Exciton:
Interband transition in semiconductor normally assumed that CB
the process of absorption (of a photon, thermal energy,
etc.)create free electron and a free hole. each of which can Ec
contribute
t ib t to
t conduction.
d ti
EFi
Another kind of transition: after the electron transition, the Ev
transited electron and created hole is bound together by
their mutual Coulomb attraction, forming a quasi particle VB
(electron and hole as a whole) known as an exciton.

97
 Exciton is very similar to the two-particle hydrogen system.
The mass of hole is much smaller than that of proton.
Therefore the exciton can move around the crystal.

The mass now is reduced mass:

* *
m m
mr* = * e h *
me + mh

The permittivity is ε0εr instead of ε0,

Substituting the ε0 with ε0εr and me* with mr* , the bind energy of electron
to hole and radius of ground state are given by

mr*e 4 mr* mr*

E = − 2 2 2 2 = − * 2 RY = − * 2 13.6eV
8ε 0 ε r h n me ε r me ε r

4πε 0ε r h 2 ε r me* ε r me* o

aex = * 4
= *
a 0 = *
( 0 .53 A )
mr e mr mr
98
 In quantum dots, exciton effects often play a dominant role in determining optical
properties since the hole and electron are very close in quantum dots.

The optical transition in quantum dots are usually associated with exciton and an
approximation expression known as the Brus equation model, the transition energy
in spherical dots:

h2 1.8e 2
hϖ = E g + 2 * −
8 R mr 4πε 0ε r R
me*mh*
m = *
*
r ,
me + mh *

99
In bulk semiconductors, the exciton radius is given by,

4πε 0ε r h 2 ε r me* ε r me* o

aex = * 4
= *
a 0 = *
( 0 .53 A )
mr e mr mr

For quantum dots, the actual separation between electron and hole is influenced
by the size of the dot. In this case, we will consider aex to be the excitation Bohr
radius, which is often taken as the measure of quantum confinement in quantum
dots.

• R>>aex, then the confinement effects will generally not be very important
• R>aex, then the confinement is weak;
• R<aex, then the confinement region is strong

100
Example:

For cadmium selenide (CdSe) particle with R=2.9nm. Given Eg (bulk)=1.74 eV,
me*=0.13me and mh*=0.45 me and εr=9.4, for transition from the conduction to
valence bandedge.

4πε 0ε r h 2 ε r me* ε r me* o

aex = * 4
= * a0 = * (0.53 A) Strong confinement
mr e mr mr
effect
= 4.93nm
Without considering the exciton effect,

h2 hϖ = 2.092eV
V
hϖ = E g + 2 * ,
8 R mr λ = 593nm

me*mh*
m = *
*
r ,
me + mh *
Yellow light

101
With considering the exciton effect,
effect Brus equation

2π h2 1.8e 2
hϖ = h = Eg + 2 * −
λ 8 R mr 4πε 0ε r R
λ = 580nm,

Well consistent with the experimental results

102
Bull's-eye. Red quantum dots injected into a live mouse mark the location of a
tumor.
tumor

X.H.Gao et.al. Science, 300 (2003) 80.

103