Climate Alteration and

Sustainability of Agrodiversity
in Conventional Farming of the
Darjeeling Himalaya
Dhiman Mukherjee
Assistant Professor (Agronomy)Regional Research Station
(Hill Zone), Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalimpong rDarjelling), West Bengal -734301
E-.m1. dhiman_mukherjee@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
The environment of the Eastern Himalayas is
.:. -";.,"": ~~:c--:of its climate, as much as the climate is
.:; -c:0:""- t of the mountains themselves. Climate
.: 10'1ge impact at the global level has become a
-:{;.",TJY" CO1U:R.rn today and Darjeeling Himalaya is
'!o exception. D,arjeeling district lies between 2631'
- 27 13' N latitudes and 87 59'- 88 53"E
longitudes. In the regional context, climate change
has contributed to unpredictable or erratic rainfall
pattern, drying up of local springs and streams,
species migration to higher elevations, shift of
sowing and harvesting period of crops, emergence
of invasive species and incidence of diseases /pests
in crops as well as in fodder species. The Darjeeling
hills has a traditional agriculture system
encompasses variation[i of agro-ecological zones that
cover a range of ecosystem diversity extending
between low to high altitude zone. The annual
precipitation fluctuates between 2000 and 4000 mm,
this fluctuation pattern now varies because of
shifting of climate changing pattern.. Every year
brings one or two days with rain above 100 mm and
once in 10 years above 300 mm. Two - three
successive days with rainfall of heavy downpour
character above 300 - 400 mm appear once in 5-10
years causing the formation of earth flows or debris
flows at a local scale. Extreme continuous rain
extending over a regional scale (at least several
thousand km2) is recorded once in 30-50 years and
may pass even 1000 mm in 3 days. All these changes
aredue to shifting of climate. This part of Eastern
Himalayas - a globally significant biodiversity
hotspot and houses a range of agro-biodiversity. The
tropical zone (>500 m) mostly follows rice
cultivation system in terraces and along the river
valleys. Above this are large cardamom-based and
farm-based traditional agroforestry in the
subtropical to warm temperate zones (600-2500 mY,
subsistence farming in the cool temperate and lower
alpine zones (2500-4000 m) and the upper
Himalayan nomadic agropastoral to pastoral
systems. Building resilience in both human and
ecological systems to an optimum level is the best
possible way to adapt to climatic variatio11.This
study has identified the primary challenges of
mountain farmers for ensuing adaptive capacity
and water security in the agriculture systems. High
levels of impact from climatic change was recorded
for paddy, maize, wheat, oil seeds, cardamom,
ginger, drinking water sources and springs and
fodder trees. Innovative coping mechanisms
developed by local farmers against emergence of
diseases and pests, invasive alien species, untimelJ
shift of crop sowing and harvesting season, rapidly
declining productivity, climatic variability etc.
INTRODUCTION
Darjeeling Himalaya suffers from a vicious
cycle of development process. Alongwith a
burgeoning population, there has been a constant
increase on the area under subsistence crops
followed by an increased dependency on
livestockfarming. Such sequences intensify the
demand on the fragile mountain land.Excessive
encroachment of forest lands to meet the
mushrooming demands forfodder, fuel wood, and
other requirements has led to unprecedented
damage to forest lands, livestock grazing more than
often in this fragile environmenthas led to
overgrazing impacting the environment.
Agrobiodiversity of this region, or agricultural
biodiversity, includes all the components of
biological diversity of relevance to food and
agriculture, as well as the components of biological
diversity that constitute the agro ecosystem
(Mukherjee, 2012 b). Little is known in detail about
the vulnerability of Darjeeling mountain
ecosystems to climate change. Intuitively it seeIIls
plausible that these regions, where small changes
in temperature can turn ice and snow to water, and
where extreme slopes lead to rapid changes in
climatic zones over small distances, will show
marked impacts in terms of agrobiodiversity, water
availability, agriculture, and hazards that will have
an impact on general human wellbeing. But the
nature of the mountains fragile and poorly
accessible landscapes with sparsely scattered
settlements and poor infrastructure means that
research and assessment are least just where they
are needed most. And this is particularly true for
theDarjeeling Himalayas, where few resources for
meeting the challenges of developing the detailed
scientific knowledge needed to assess the current
situation or make projections of the likely impacts
of climate change (Chakraborty et al., 2008). The
variety and variability of animals, plants and micro
organisms, at the genetic, species and ecosystem
levels, which sustain the functions, structure and
processes of the agro-ecosystem. Indigenous and
V01ume2014-15. Number 1 . April 2014
41
....
Dhiman Mukherjee
It
traditional agricultural communities throughout
the world depend on, and are custodians of
agrobiodiversity maintained within agricultural
landscapes through various forms of traditional
resource management. Presently under Himalaya
range interlocking stresses that result from
different aspects of global change, including the
problems related to population increase, insecure
and changing land ownership, environmental
degradation, market failures and market
globalization, and protectionist and inappropriate
policy regimes and climate change. Keeping above
aspect in mind climate change presents a major
concern, often interacting with or exacerbating
existing problems particularly in hill ecosystem. It
makes new demands for adaptation and coping
strategies, and presents new challenges for the
management of the environment and agro
ecosystems (Mukherjee, 2012). Agrobiodiversity
has also been largely overlooked in discussions on
climate change, despite its importance for the
livelihoods of rural communities throughout the
world and for the development of adequate
adaptation and mitigation strategies for
agriculture. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) report ignores the role of
diversity in production systems and the central role
that agrobiodiversity will have to play in both
adaptation and mitigation at the country,
landscape, community and farmer levels.
Indigenous and traditional agricultural commu-
nities are adapting to change and are developing
ways of strengthening the resilience of agricultural
landscapes through various local strategies based
on the protection of traditional knowledge and
agrobiodiversity. Over the past two years the
platform for agrobiodiversity research has been
collecting information on the ways in which
indigenous peoples and rural communities have
been using agrobiodiversity to help cope with
climate change (Wilson et aI., 2007). Many
adaptation initiatives mentioned in this paper are
initiated, supported or managed by indigenous
communities. Their adaptive capacity often
depends on their ability to access their ancestral
lands and protect their cultural heritage.
In a number of observations it is clear that an
innovation based on traditional knowledge can lead
to development of local adaptation measures that
protect ecosystems and agrobiodiversity, and
empower indigenous and traditional agricultural
communities. This link between empowerment of
communities and adaptation needs to be better
understood. These indicators will help to identify
what contribution agrobiodiversity can make and
where it is likely to be most useful. The need to
ensure continuing access to a range of diverse crop
varieties, agroforestry species and livestock types
and their maintenance, is essential. Agrobio-
diversity has a key role to play in adaptation to
climate change and to improving adaptability and
resilience in agro ecosystems. Keeping the above
aspect, climate alteration and its effective role in
agrobiodiversity conservation with improved
farming system approach study become much more
important in the present context. It is essential that
international and national policy debates on
adaptation to climate change begin to take account
of the rich experience and the actions already
undertaken by traditional communities and
indigenous peoples and to ensure their full
involvement in debates on policies and actions
required.
Materials and Methods
Present investigation confined to in the
Eastern Himalayas from 2010 to 2013 to assess the
vulnerability of agrobiodiversity of this region to
climate change. Darj eeling district is the
northernmost district of west Bengal. It is located
on the lap of the Himalayas. The district comprises
of four subdivisions namely, Darjeeling Sadar,
Kalimpong, Kurseong and Siliguri. Darjeeling
Himalaya forms a part of eastern Himalayan ranges
and is bounded by Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan on
the north, west and east respectively. Activities
included surveys at district level, workshops,
interaction with stakeholders at national and
regional levels, and development of technical
knowledge by individual experts in collaboration
with institutions that synth~sised the available
information on the region. Regular field trips to
different areas of Darjeeling - Sikkim hills were
conducted between September 2010 and October
2013 to collect the climate changing pattern
information and its impact to agrobio-
diverstiy.Glearly much more, and more precise,
information will be needed to corroborate these
preliminary present findings. Nevertheless, the
assessment highlighted the vulnerability of the
Eastern Himalayan ecosystems to climate change
as a result of their ecological fragility and economic
marginality.
Results and Discussion
As per climate alteration and sustainability
concerned, the climate of the Darjeeling Himalaya
region is very complex, because of the extreme
differences in elevation. Topography, aspect and the
location of the area, also have a substantial effect
upon the local climate. Therefore, within short
distances climates from sub-tropical to cold
Volume2014-15. Number 1 . Apri12014 42
Dhiman Mukherjee
temperate can be experienced, as per our day to day
survey revealed. These zones can be further
modified by rain shadows, as in the leeward side of
the High Himalaya mountain ranges. The
Darjeeling hillis in the monsoon climate zone, and
the weather regime of the region is directly
influenced by the global climate change issue,
summer monsoon rains which have been recorded
in excess of 3000mm in some places during the
winter season. Earlier,Jooduring1999 to 2005, more
than 90 % of the annual total rainfall was during
the summer monsoon (June and September), now
shifted to mid of July to end of August, and
occasionally until October. Besides the heavy
rainfall, many parts of the region experience severe
hail storms during the pre-monsoon period, which
can cause major damage to both crops and trees,
particularly as they invariably occur just prior to
the harvest of arable crops. Few places ofDarjeeling
- Sikkim Himtllaya, these-changes lead to change
in cropping pattern and farming system practices.
Temperatures ~ver the Himalaya range are affected
both by season, altitudinal variation and aspect.
South-facing slopes are hotter and drier than those
which face North. As per behaviour of natural
vegetation concerned, over 60 -70 %of the Eastern
hill confined to forest resources are in the mid-hill
region (Xu et al., 2008). Climate, rainfall,
temperature, altitude and human activities exert a
great influence on the ~atural vegetation. The main
zones identified would be :
Upper tropical ecoregion (300 to 1000masl) :
Observation revealed that sal (Shorea robusta) with
its common associates with Termina-
liaspp, Anogeissus spp, Lagerstroemia and
Syzygium spp. Along the Teesta and Rangit river
banks Khair (Acacia catechu) and Sisso (Dalbergia
sissoo), replace Sal with main associates of Bombax
ceiba, Syzygium spp., and Michelia champaca.
Sub-tropical zone (1000 to 2000m) : Chir pine
(Pinus roxburghii) with some Schima wallichi
and Castanopsis indica and scattered Sal in the
lower parts. Mostly in the lower region of Lava
(Kalimpong Block I) Alnus nepalensis colonises
new soil (eg. landslips) with scattered Lyonia
ovalifolia in places. Evergreen-type confined to
narrow strips along the rivers/streams with Toona
ciliata and Albizia spp.
Temperate zone (2000 to 3000m) : Mainly
characterised by different oaks (Quercus spp). with
Lauraceae family with Machilus, Neolitsea and
Michelia spp.Pure small patches of Pinus
wallichiana also found at frequent distance in
Darjeelinghill.
Cold temperate zone: (>3000m) : Predominantly
oak forest mainly wihth Quercus semicarpifolia
Increasing
biodiversity
Reduced
possibility, "
of pest
build-up
--------------------------------------------
Fig. 1. Agroecosytem responsible for diversity and combat to climate alteration problem
, under Darjeeling Himalaya.
Volume 2014-15. Number 1 . April 2014
43
I Tropical homegardens I
I
Perennial crop I
Agroforestry
I
based
I
P(antations
. I
I
Orct1ards
I
I
MIxed cropping
I
I
Annual crop
I
I
Rotations based
I J
Monocultures
.
I
I
Dhiman Mukherjee
with Rhododendron spp. and Ilex spp. as under
storey. Mixed broadleaved forest, mainly
Acer and Rhododendron spp. with occasional small
patches of Tusga dumosa.
Alteration of cropping sequence under
changing climate condition
The traditional farming practices of the region
have evolved into a complex system where livestock
husbandry, forestry and arable cropping are
practised together, and any changes in one
component will exert a significant effect upon the
others. The difficult topography, and the great
climatic variation, means that the whole farming
system is extremely labour intensive.
The whole cropping pattern in the region is
depend~nt upon and influenced by the application
of animal-based manure, and rainfall distribution
pattern under shifting climate change issue
(Mukherjee and Sharma, 2012). At the level ofthe
agricultural system, adaptation strategies include
integration of trees and livestock into production
systems; cultivation of a higher diversity of crops
(diversification); and improved crop, water and soil
management (Mukherjee, 2013). These are not
usually carried out singly but are combined in
different ways depending on the ecology, needs of
communities, availability of different materials and
the challenges faced. Most adaptation initiatives
particularly in this part of Himalaya, include the
use of approaches based on agroforestry and crop
diversification, which. are often combined with
improved crop, soil (including soil biota and
nutrients) and water management. Adaptation
activities include both the revival of traditional
production practices and the adoption and
development of new techniques (e.g. a switch to low
input agriculture and the use of alternative ways
of livestock management). Some of the strategy has
been adopted to mitigate and adaptation against
climate a!teration by the year of 2100 (Fig.2).
Mitigation
Efficiency
Climatic
Damages
Adaptation
Efficiency
.
.
2000 205(t 2100
Fig. 2 : Mitigation v,s. adaptation strategies
for combating climate change
Crop plants such as rice, maize, finger millet
(Eleusine), foxtail millet (Setaria), french bean
(Phaseolus), soybean (Glycine), blackgram (Vigna),
rice bean (Vigna), beans (Dolichus), winged bean
Table 1: Common hill cropping patterns in the Darjeeling himalaya.
Volume2014-15. Number 1 . Apri12014
44
~
-
Altitude
Land type Cropping patterns Shifting cropping pattern under
changing climate scenario
dOOOm Khet Rice-wheat-rice Rice-wheat- maizeRice- fallow-
Rice-wheat-fallow
late season winter vegetables.
Bari
Maize- fingermillet-fallow Maize+soyabean - vegetablesMaize
Maize-blackgram
- fallow
1000-2000m Khet Rice-wheat-fallow Rice/
Rice-potatoMustard / Pea
lentil or peas
Bari
Maize/fingermillet-wheat/ Maize/fingermillet- fallow
barley Maize/fingermillet
Maize -fallow
-mustard
2000-3000m Khet Maize - fallow
Buckwheat-Blackgram
Bari
Maize/fingermillet-fallow
Maize-fallow Potato fallow
Maize/fingermillet-wheat/
barley
Dhiman Mukherjee
(Psophocarpus), pumpkin (Cucurbita), cucumber
(Cucumber), okra (Abelmoschus), egg plant
(Solanum), chillies (Solanum), pointedgourd, ash
gourd (Lagenaria), taro (Colocasia), yam (Dioscorea,
Amorphophalus and Xanthosoma), citrus species
suchas lime, lemon, banana, tea (Thea), jute
(Corchorus), mesta (Hibiscus), large cardamom
(Ammomum), ginger (Zingiber), bitter gourd
(Momordica), long pepper (Piper), turmeric
(Curcuma), are being ct.ltivated in the traditional
farming system with greater diversity within each
speCIes. .
Two species of 'Fab.ar' viz., Fagopyron
esculentum (Meeta fabar) and F. tataricum (Teetha
fabar) are found in Darjeeling -Sikkim hill, the
former is more preferred. The conversion ratio from
whole grain to fabar powder is very low (300 g per
kilo of kernel). This can be improved to 400- 500 g
/ kg of kernel b;y selecting ~old kernel.
Ginger cultivar namely, Bhaise or bada aduwa,
Gorubathane, Jorethange, Nangrey or sano aduwa
and Majhauley:"The cultivar Bhaisepossess plumpy
rhizomes, long internode, pale brown non-
persistent scales, primary and secondary fingers
are bulky/plumpy, lemon yellow concentric ring
with creamy yellow core and light brown outer
layer, medium fibre and lesspungent. It is known
for its high yield (a plant can give 1.8 kg rhizome
from 50 g seed rhizome) hence not only popular
inDarjeeling - Sikkim but in other NER States.
Large cardamom is a perennial cash crop
grown beneath the forest cover on marginal land
throughout Da~jeeling hill, hence it is well-fitted
in the a'grofor~stry system. The extent of genetic
diversity within Amomum subulatum is quite high.
The present day clonal cultivars such as Ramsey,
Sawney, Golsey, Varlangey, Seremna(found in
Sikkim and Darjeeling), Ramsey (derived from
Bhutia language-Ram means mother and sey
means gold) is well suited tohigh altitude (1200-
1550m amsl) and in steep slopes but susceptible to
viral diseases Chirke and Foorkey. Sawney
(meaning harvested in Sawan i.e. August) gives
best quality cardamom with bigger and bolder
capsules containing 35-50seeds. Though this clone
is widely adapted its performance would be slightly
better in mid and high altitudes (700-1200m amsl).
Golsey (meaning round capsule) is suitable for low
altitude. Many sub-types (minor variants) of this
clone such as Seta Golsey, Pink Golsey, Green
Golsey, Dzongu Golsey, Ramnag and Madhusey are
found in Sikkim and Darjeeling.Dzongu Golsey is
very specific in Dzongu area of North Sikkim (1500
m amsl).
Finger Millet (ragi) differing in panicle type
and maturity are found in Darjeeling hill. They
were: Karthikey,Mangsirey, Murkey, Nangkatua,
Pangdur and Phangrey. Karthikey is the earliest
maturing millet (50% flowering in 85 days) variety.
Black gram cultivated throughout the hill as it
serve the purpose of soil conservation. Three forms
ofurdbean differing in seed colour viz., green seed,
brown seed and black seed are being cultivated in
Sikkim. The green seeded urd belongs to Vigna
mungo ssp. viridis and locally known as 'Pahenlo
dal'. It has price advantage compared to black
seeded urd. In hill, Pahenlo dal is boiled with little
spices and salt and consumed along with rice. The
other two types belong to Vigna-mungo ssp. niger,
locally known as 'Kalo dal'. The local Pahenlo dal
and Kalo dal are semi-spreading urd, takes
comparatively longer times to mature. However,
they were adapted to midhill climate and high
yielders.
Two forms of soybean namely 'Kala bhatmas'
(black seeded soybean) and Pahelo bhatmas (brown
seeded soybean) are found in cultivation. The 'Kala
bhatmas' is a high yielder. Both the forms of
soybean are consumed in three forms namely,
boiled fermented food (kinema), fried nut (buteko
bhatmas) and processed foods (soya milk, oil, etc).
Amongst various Beans, Rice bean (Vigna
umbellate), Butterbean {Phaseolus lunatus}, Rajma
and French bean {Phaseolus vulgaris} are cultivated
in small scale and in thehomesteads of eastern hill
. The infra-specific variability within each group is
fairly high. Among the beans greater variability has
been noticed in rice bean. Rice bean, locally known
as "Masyum dal". is an important ingredient of
pigfeed and therefore, forms an ideal component
in integrated farming system in the low and mid
hills. "
Tomato and Chilli are another importaht
agrobiodiversity observed in Darjeeling Himalaya.
Tomato was introduced roughly in 18th century and
most of the introductions are bred varieties, which
have adapted to this region. Germplasm of wild
species of tomato Lycopersicon esculentum
pimpinellifolium, has been found in this region.
Amongst chillies, three species of chillies namely,
Capsicum frutescence, C. chinensis and C. annuum
are found in Darjeeling hill. In each species, the
extent of intra-specific variability with respect to
fruit colour, fruit position, fruit shape and pungency
are rich. There are 200 landraces of chillies were
described from Northeast Region. In Darjeeling
Dalle khorsani (roundchillies), Thadey khorsani
(erect fruit), Thalo khorsani (vegetable type),
Jeerey khorsani (thin fruit), Lamchey khorsani
(medium size-less pungent) are seen. DaIle
khorsani belongs to C. frutescence. It has the twin
combination of high pungency and characteristic
Volume2014-15. Number1 . April2014
45
1.Jntman lV1URnerJee
aroma for which it is liked in Sikkim and fetch
premium price. Four sub-types of DaIle Khorsai .
were noticed.
Leafy vegetables variation are common feature
in throughout the hills. The important leafy
vegetables include lai (Brassicajuncea var. rugosa),
lafa (Malva vertic illata) and palak (Spinacea
oleracea). In addition to these a wide variety of
indigenous leafy vegetables are also available.
These are amaranth (Amaranth us spp.) poi sag
(Basell rubra and B. alba), sorrel (Rumex
rasicarius) etc. Other indigenous leafy vegetables
used occasionally are Jilmil sag (Chenopodium
album) and Kolmou sag (Ipomea reptans).
Amaranthus viridis, A. lividus, A. retroflexus and
A. spinosus are important leafy vegetable types
grown in North East India.
Tubers and Rhizomatous Crops: A number of
dioscorea species i.e. Dioscorea alata, D. bulbifera,
D. brevipetiolata, D. esculenta, D. hamiltonii, D.
hispida, D. kamaonensis were recorded in the NE
. Region. D. hamiltonii occurs in humid forests hills.
D. floribunda and D. deltoidea are certain medicinal
types, which are used for steroid. Tapioca, or
cassava has also been cultivated to some extent. In
Colocasia also there is a wide variability even in
one species such as Colocasia, Allocasia and
Xanthosoma. Sweet potato white and red skinned
are cultivated and around 50% is consumed as
animal feed.
In addition to the above there are a large
number of indigenous vegetables crops that are
used particularly by the tribal population. Tree
bean (Parkia roxburghii) is one of the most common
of multipurpose tree species in the Manipur and
Mizoram. In the hilly areas, tree tomato
(Cyphomandra betacea), a perennial shrub
producing egg shaped, reddish yellow in various
shades, smooth skinned and weighing 30-50 g is
also grown and used as such in chutney. It is grown
as backyard venture crop in Meghalaya. Another
vegetable tree growing in the lower altitude zones
and popular among the people is drumstick or horse
radish locally called Sajina (Moringa oleifera).
Rai sag (Brassica juncea var. rugosa), is an
important rabi leafy vegetable in Darjeeling locally
known as Layo patha. There were 4 distinct
morphological forms in rai sag namely-green leaf,
purple leaf, purple striped on green leaf and frego
or dissected leaf type.
Agroforestry is being an increasingly
important adaptation strategy for enhancing
resilience to adverse impacts of rainfall variability,
shifting weather patterns, reduced water
availability and soil erosion. To overcome
desertification and rehabilitate degraded land,
trees are planted in the fields and around villages
with a traditional water harvesting and soil
improvement technique in most part of the
Himalaya. This technique, in combination with crop
diversification and other techniques, through
innovation and experimentation, has resulted in the
.development of an integrated agro-sylvo-pastoral
system with higher resilience to rainfed condition
of eastern himalaya.Few pockets, in drought prone
regions, the resilience of traditional homestead
gardens is strengthened through intercropping of
fruit trees with vegetables, small-scale irrigation
and organic fertilizers.
Under rainfed condtion of hilly terrain, and
increasingly in the sub-tropics and the tropics, soil
productivity and water availability have decreased
due to a combination of climatic and non-climatic
factors such as ecosystem degradation and over-
exploitation. The most common methods for the
improvem.ent of soil productivity and water
availability are a combination of, minimum soil
disturbance, direct seeding or planting, live or
residue mulching, cover crops With deeper rooting
crops including annual and perennial legumes,
micro-catchment water harvesfing (e.g. infiltration
pits and planting basins) and re-vegetation. These
are key elements of practices that have become
known as Conservation Agriculture in which
ecosystem services of hill agroecosytem will be
enhanced within the production systems at the farm
and landscape level.Our experiences show that
Qrganic agricultural practices, both traditional and
innovative, can strengthen the resilience of local
food systems. Vermicomposting - a non-traditional
method of improving the nutrient content and
water-holding capacity of the soil is applied in
cultivation of stress-tolerant crops, crop
diversification, gre-en manuring and mulching. In
Darjeeling, farmers use traditional and non-
traditional organic agricultural practices to improve
water use efficiency, prevent erosion and improve
the productivity of cropping systems. In traditional
food systems a number of methods were used to
maintain soil productivity (e.g. intercropping, crop
rotation, fallowing). These practices continue to
ensure food and livelihood security under
increasing climate chJmge and variability. The
farmers cultivate crops, rear livestock, and manage
common pool resources such as communal grazing
land and communal forests for leaflitter and forest-
based food products (wild tubers, fruits, vegetables,
medicines etc). In times of crop failure due to
delayed or weak monsoon and pests, livestock and
wild foods meet the household nutritional
requirements. Various conventional farming system
play significant ~ole to combat alteration and
Volume2014-15. Number 1 . April 2014 46
.
Dhiman Mukherjee
sustainability of agrobiodiversity issue (Mukherjee
et aI., 2013). Maintenance of high levels of inter-
and intra-species diversity is a strategy to decrease
vulnerability and enhance resilience to climate
change and associated stresses. Adaptation
activities include the maintenance and
reintroduction of traditional varieties, the adoption
of new species and varieties to meet newly
developed production niches, and the development
of ways of ensuring that materials remain available
(e.g. community seed banks) and adapted (e.g.
participatory plant breeding). Linked with the
development of adapted and adaptable materials,
adjustments in cropping patterns and crop cycle
could be achieved.
Agroecosystem
Management
"'lPifinned
Biodiversity
, I :
vf I
Creates conditions
that' promote
\ :
, I
Associated
/1 Biodiversity
Biodiversity of
Surrounding
Environment
---..
Promotes
"
Ecosystem Function
e.g. pest regulation,
nutrient cycling, etc.
~ ,/
- - - - . - . -Promotes
, Fig. 3:: The relationship between
biodiversity andagroecosystem.
As a result of climate change, indigenous and
local crops and varieties, particularly drought-, salt-
and flood-tolerant, fast-maturing and early- or late-
sowing crops and varieties, are increasingly
cultivated. Their availability is improved though
the establishment of community seed banks. In the
areas experiencing an increased level of flooding
and salinization of freshwater and agricultural
land; salt- and flood-tolerant crops and varieties
have been introduced. In Kalimpong block of
Darjeeling hill, there is a shift in the planting date
of rice; rice seedlings are planted in end of April
instead of in mid of July. In Lava region of
Darjeeling block and part of North Sikkim hill,
farmers are planting early maturing crops and
sowing the seeds earlier than in previous years.
In West Bengal, in the foothills of the Himalayas,
communities are experiencing an increasing
frequency of flash floods, dry spells during floods,
changes in flood timing (longer, delayed or early);
increased duration and area of waterlogging; and
changes in time, volume, and pattern of rainfall.
Adaptation to climate change required the
development of a new crop calendar. Crops that are
fast-maturing, flood-tolerant and with soil-
rehabilitating characteristics are planted according
to the calendar. The selection of new varieties by
farmers and participatory plant breeding (PPB) are
supporting adaptation to changing production
environments. A key feature of annual cropping
systems is the nature and frequency of soil
disturbance regimes. Periodic tillage and planting
continually reverts the tilled area to an earlier stage
of ecological succession. Physical disturbance of the
soil caused by tillage and residue management is a
crucial factor in determining soil biotic activity and
species diversity in agroecosystems. Tillage usually
disturbs at least 15-25 cm of the soilsurface and
replaces stratified surface soil horizons with a tilled
zone more homogeneous with respect to physical
characteristics and residue distribution. The loss
of a stratified soil microhabitat causes a decrease
in the density of species that inhabit agroeco-
systems. Such soil biodiversity reductions are
negative because the recycling of nutrients and
proper balance between organic matter, soil
organisms and plant diversity are necessary
components of a productive and ecologically
balanced soil environment (Hendrix et al., 1990);
Some of the main adaptation strategies to
conserve agrodiversity at different levels
ecosystem
Activities at the ecosystem and landscape level
aim to mitigate and buffer the effects of climate
change through ecosystem protection and
restoration, landscape rehabilitation and ,the
sustainable use of natural resources. This is
possible with:
>- Reforestation of tropical hillsides, riparian
forests and mangroves.
>- Range land rehabilitation and improved
pasture management.
>- Restoration of wasteland, terrace land and
watersheds.
>- Re-vegetation in drylands.
>- Diversification of agricultural landscapes
(agroforestry).
>- Diversification of production systems
(cultivation of a higher diversity of crops and
varieties and crop-livestock-treesintegration.
>- Low-input agriculture, soil conservation and
improved water management and use
efficiency (mulching, cover crops, 'rainwater
harvesting, re-vegetation, fallow,
intercropping, crop rotation).
>- Adjustments in crop and herd management
Volume2014-15. Number 1 . April 2014
47
-'
-
Dhiman Mukherjee
, >-
(changes in crop cycle). Intra and inter-species
diversity is protected, used and redistributed
to strengthen the resilience of agricultural
systems and maintain production in stress-
prone environments. The main adaptation
measures are:
Use of stress-tolerant and fast-maturing crop
species and varieties; and stress-tolerant
species and breeds of cattle.
Protection, reintroduction and distribution of
traditional crops through community seed
banks and on-farm conservation.
Stress tolerance improvement through
farmers' selection and participatory plant
breeding.
L;
->
>-
Ad1!ptive management of agrobiodiversity
involves activities at both the individual and
community levels (Fig. 4). At the individual farmer
level, agricultural systems are diversified and
various management practices adjusted. However,
the adaptive management of water, soil and
agrobiodiversity takes place at the ecosystem or
landscape level and requires communal efforts,
often regulated through social institutions. Local
institutions that endorse the sustainable
management of agrobiodiversity and landscapes
have been re-established in several adaptation
strategies. The need to adapt to climate change has
often led to the revival of traditional practices and
agricultural systems. Traditional agricultural
practices and land-management techniques,
especially in stress-prone environments, can help
ensure productivity under adverse conditions
through the management of microclimate and soil
and water resources.
"'.""'"
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'
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Fig. 4: Adaptation dynamics against climate
alteration
Conclusion
Climate alteration is real and underway, so
there is a need of impact identification and adoption
to cope with vulnerabilities in agroecosytem.
Darjeeling himalaya being a least developed
mountain, it is moving towards vulnerable situation
due to climate change. As it is known, its effects
cannot be completely controlled but effective
planning and change in human habit towards a low
carbon economy can slower down possible disasters.
Darjeeling has various types of agricultural zones
like plains, hills, mid hills, high hills and
mountai~s. Changes in agri-zones lead to the
change in cropping pattern of the zone due to
alteration of climate. Further, these climate
parameters have potential impact to change the
ecological distribution of agricultural crops. If
shifting of climatic zones occurred rapidly due to
climate change, extinction of agrobiodiversity might
be severe. Effects are mainly on, herbs, pasture
land"s, tree lines and livestock. Increase in
temperature causes more damage on agricultural
sectors in Terai region and wilt be more favorable
to agriculture in the hills and mountains. As
temperature increases, croppiDg pattern as well as
vector born disease of human and livestock's can
be expected to shift in higher eco zones too. Some
lands, which are prel?ently undesirable due to
different weather factors, may be desirable in near
future. For example, maize, chilly, tomato and
cucumber are now being adopted in lava,
Sandhapukh region ofDarjeeling and part of north
Sikkim also.
References
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I
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~_.
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Dhiman Mukherjee
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China. Ecohealth, pp 1-11.
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49
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