Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Concrete repair is an art that has been practiced for many centuries.
Today it Is evolving into a complex science as tile demand for repair and
document is intended to serve as all informative source on current practice
and future trends in repair and strengthening of concrete strengthening of
concrete structures. The introductory part deals with the more general aspects
of repair and strengthening. The subsequent part presents all overview of the
conventional methods and materials used for this purpose. The principles
merits and demerits of each method are discussed. The conclusive part deals
with modem trends such as carbon fiber reinforced plastics C!R"#$ which
after a promising solution to the ever- growing problems.
1.1 Repairing and Strengthening an Over view
Concrete repairs may be broadly classified as structural and protective. It
should be indicated$ however$ that structural repair also must protect itself and
underlying concrete and reinforcing steel from premature deterioration and
corrosion. Structural forces apply in the case of structural repairs when
restoration to original as constructed condition is required to eliminate
strength in adequacies$ or to increase the load carrying capacity.
Countermeasure against inadequate design and construction increase in
live load on the structure$ deterioration of concrete and corrosion of
embedded reinforcement$ increase in fatigue capacity reduction of crac%
widths and reduction of excessive deflection are &ust some of the reasons why
a structure might become structurally deficient. 'nce this has happened two
alternatives of fixing the problem are to replace the structure or to strengthen
it (conomically$ repair and strengthening are often the only viable solution.
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Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
To desigli and select a repair * strengthening method and material
successfully a system concept must be employed. +o matter what
strengthening to perform as a whole as an integrated system . This can be
achieved only by providing ail adequate bond between the existing concrete
and the externally applied reinforcement the bon strength should be such that
the composite structure behaves monolithically. The bond must be durable
and long lasting the durability in this context may be defined as lasting
interfacial coexistence of two entirely different materials combined in a
composite system.
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Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
CHAPTER 2
REPAIR
- crac% occurs in a material when the tensile stress applied to that
material exceeds its tensile strength. Concrete has a low tensile strength.
hence it crac%s rather easily$ -dded to its low tensile strength is its tendency
to undergo large volume changes /ecause of the gel structure of its cement
paste binder$ concrete swells as it becomes wet and shrin%s as it dries
0henever a tendency to reduce in si1e or expand is wholly or partially
restrained. Tensile stresses result. Such restraint is present in footings in the
form of sub-grand friction and*or concrete$ drying or cooling at the exposed
surfaces tends to or cause a friction in si1e of the surface layers which are
restrained by the interior layers$ 0hile concrete is almost never used for
structural members in direct tension$ whenever it is used in beams or in
eccentrically loaded columns$ bending of the member may place as much as
half of more of the columns section in flexural#tension. The tension in flexural
members$ for example$ must be carried by steel tension in flexural members.
!or example$ must be carried by steel reinforcement$ and that reinforcement
must be proportioned in such a manner that the number and si1e of crac%s
are not ob&ectionable crac%-width control# In walls and slabs the designer
should provide grooves cast in the concrete and*or movement &oints The
former may instead be achieved by sawing through at an carly age The
crac%s in grooves $where there appearance gets hidden$ for this type of crac%
construction.
2.1 Intrinsi Cra!ing
2uch of the crac%ing which occurs in concrete however may be attributed to
inadequate selection of materials construction practices and crac%s caused as
a consequence of these can be cancerous in spread These crac%s
3
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
caused as a consequence of these$ can be cancerous in spread$ These
crac%s$ sometimes referred to as intrinsic crac%s are due to other than
structural loading effect and occur in advance of loading 'nly these types of
crac%s which are ignorantly and sometimes perhaps innocently not thought of
until after they appear# would be discussed in this chapter. Surprisingly$ very
many construction engineers with years and years of experience # are ether
either benignly or arrogantly ignorant$ or at best constructively ambiguous$
about the types$ causes and possible seriousness of such crac%s. These
crac%s can develop should the atmospheric limiting conditions$ the material
qualities$ the concrete mixing and placing practice not be followed carefully in
hot and windy weather such crac%s can show extensively4
2.1.1 T"PES O# INTRINSC CRAC$S
- Comprehensive listing of such crac%-types is shown in fig.5.) These may
be classified briefly as follows.
a# 6plastic intrinsic crac%$
b# 6early 7thermal contraction8 intrinsic crac%s$
c# 69ong-term drying shrin%age intrinsic crac%s$ and
d# chemically caused intrinsic crac%s e.g. those resulting form corrosion
of steel$ al%ali--ggregate reaction$ sulphate attac% on cement$ etc.#
The time-periods in which these types of crac%s appear are.
"lastic ones-first few hours$
Thermal contraction ones-one day to about three wee%s$
:rying shrin%age ones-after several wee%s or even months $
Chem&cally caused ones-after about two years or more and
depending on severity of existing conditions.
Some cause of crac%ing may involve combination of the various types.
Recommendations made to avoid one type of crac% may increase the ris% of
causing another type e.g. while resolute trowelling
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Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
To illustrate the crac%s discussed here$ fig$ 5., shows various types of
the intrinsic crac%s shown in typical situations. Table 5.) summarises the
characteristics of these crac%s.
2.1.2 Ear%& Ther'a% C(ntrati(n Cra!s
These are the most common type of intrinsic crac%s$
2.) str*t*ra% Cra!s
It is normal for reinforced concrete to crac% in the hardened state in the
tensile 1one when sub&ected to externally imposed structural loads including
self weight# since the very philosophy of reinforced concrete design is based
on neutral axis concept accepting that concrete in tension has little strength to
resist it. <ence merely sighting thin tension crac%s in reinforced concrete
under structural load$ in itself$ should not be cause for concern4 Theoretically
the tension crac%s should be normal to the principal bending reinforcement in
high-moment low-shear 1one$ becoming more and more inclined towards
high-shear low-moment 1one$ becoming more and more inclined towards
high-shear low-moment 1one$ limiting inclination being about ;= degrees to
the vertical in the highest-shear 1one$ These crac%s are in fact due to
principal tension whose value depends on bending tensile stress and shear
stress$ and as their values and correspondingly the inclination of the principal
plane change from high-moment to high-shear 1one$ so does the inclination of
these crac%s$ /y means of appropriate design and detailing these crac%s can
be limited to acceptable widths in terms of structural integrity#$usually about
>.,= mm in temperate atmospheric conditions.
2.+ #ACTORS A##ECTIN, CRAC$IN,
?ariables in the concrete it self can cause more or less8 crac%ing-materials
proportions$ and conditions of placing and curing :esign$ exposure$ and
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Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
service conditions also affect it. There is voluminous information on the
various separate contributing properties$ but little has been done to present
these in an integrated wor%man-li%e manner.
2.+.1 -ater
The amount and fineness of cement or per-cubic metre of concrete is an
important factor$ probably the single most important factor$ The more the
water$ greater the crac%ing tendency$ water increase shrin%age and reduced
strength.
2.+.2 Ce'ent
The amount and fineness of cement are important. in general$ the richer
concretes can crac% more.
!inely ground cements and cements high in silica are relatively high in heat
of hydration and shrin%age$ and therefore can accentuate crac%ing.
Carbonation but reduces subsequent drying shrin%age.
Research is being actively directed toward producing concretes of low
crac%ing tendency through such means as controlled expansive cements.
2.+.) Aggregates
The mineral composition. Shape. Surface texture$ and grading of
aggregates affect the concrete quality$ thermal coefficient$ drying shrin%age$
stiffness$ creep$ and strength of concrete$ 'bservation of structures in service
is a good basis for comparison of crac%ing as influenced by properties of
aggregates although even then conditions of mix. 0eather$ and placing may
influence the result. It is well established that quite small amounts of certain
clays in aggregates cause high shrin%age and crac%ing$ as clay shrin%s more
than cement gel$ The smaller the amount of the maximum si1e of well-graded
aggregate$ the shrin%age of concrete$ at the same strength. larger pieces and
@
amounts of coarse aggregates leave lesser space for the fines$ there bv
reducing the shrin%ing medium.
2.+.+ Ad'i.t*re
Some admixtures may affect crac%ing because of their effects on such
contributory factors as rate of hardening$ shrin%age$ and creep$ Calcium
chloride admixture as an accelerator increases shrin%age considerably$ and
thus can increase crac%ing Retarders would be expected to increase
extensibility and thereby reduce carly crac%ing.
2.+./ 0%eeding
Apward flow of water in fresh concrete causes poc%ets of watery paste
under the larger pieces of aggregate. Specially in deeper sections$ and thus
breed internal crac%s.
2.+.1 P%aing
The rate and conditions of placing concrete undoubtedly affect crac%ing
through such influences as bleeding$ segregation in forms and around
reinforcement$ and temperature. Aneven settlement of slab sub-grades also
causes crac%s.
2.+.2 C*ring
2oisture conditions$ during both early and subsequent stages of setting of
concrete are highly important$ Rapid drying of fresh concrete within minutes
of placing may cause such an evaporation as will exceed the rate of bleeding.
0hen this happens$ the surface of the concrete attains some initial rigidity
whereby it cannot accommodate the rapid volume change due to shrin%age of
concrete still in plastic state-which has not yet attained sufficient strength to
withstand the resulting tensile stress. Thus crac%s due to plastic shrin%age
appear.
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Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
2.+.3 Te'perat*re
This effects the rate of strength growth in concrete$ but its principal
influence on crac%ing lies in its fixing the base length during the carly hours
when the concrete turns rigid$ from which length subsequent lowering of
temperature will produce potential contraction. This effect is especially
important in hot weather and in large masses of lengths of concrete$ of
pavement cast during cool weather are less sub&ect to thermal crac%ing than
those on the same &ob but cast during hot weather7 and to various extents this
is true also for other structures. In hot weather$ concreting should be avoided
while ambient temperature exceeds abut 33 c in shade.
2./ CAUSES AND RE4EDIES O# P5ASTIC CRAC$S
-s their name implies$ plastic crac%s occur in concrete before it hardens
within the first @ hours or so after placing$ although they may often not be
noticed unit the following day$ generally they are of two types$ namely plastic
settlement type and plastic shrin%age type. If they occur$ plastic settlement
crac%s usually appear in deep sections$ but plastic shrin%age crac%s are
common in slabs which are exposed to higher rates of evaporation owing to
larger area. <owever$ both types can also occur phenomenon of bleeding.

2./.1 0%eeding
/leeding is the water in the mix rising towards the top of concrete
shortly after compaction. This water is forcer is forced upwards by the effect of
gravity that pulls the heavier solid particles downwards.
/leeding is neither a result of poor compaction$ nor can it be
eliminated by improved compaction. -ll concretes are sub&ect to
sedimentation$ but bleed water is seen at the surface only if the rate of
evaporation is less than the rate of bleeding4 0hen the rate of evaporation is
low$ bleeding will be seen as a layer of water on the surface of the concrete-it
5
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
2./.2 Ca*ses and 6(r'ati(n (6 p%asti Sett%e'ent Cra!s
"lastic settlement crac%s occur when there is a relatively high amount
of bleeding and there is some form of obstruction e. g$ reinforcement bars# to
the downward sedimentation of the solids$ These obstructions 6brea% the bac%
of concrete as it were$ and foment the formation of voids under their 6belly8
Thus we can have.
-Crac%s directly over formwor%-tie-bolts of over top of a section$
-Crac%s in narrow columns and walls where the said sedimentation is
-Crac%s at change of depth of section$
2./.) Preventi(n (6 P%asti Sett%e'ent Cra!s
There are three ways.
-reduce the bleeding and hence the settlement.
-reduce the obstruction to sedimentation.
-apply light re-vibration.
-ir entraining admixtures and plasticisers reduce water demand and
thus are the most effective way of reducing bleeding and sedimentation and
hence the plastic settlement crac%s$ These can also be eliminated by light
revibration of the concrete if and after they have formed.
!ig.
2./.+ Ca*ses and #(r'ati(n (6 P%asti Shrin!age Cra!s
"lastic shrin%age crac%s occur within a few hours of placing concrete$
although they may often not be noticed until the next day. They commence
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Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
from the exposed surface where the surface evaporation ta%es place which
caused shrin%ing of that layer. Concrete in plastic state$ having hardly any
2././ Preventi(n (6 p%asti Shrin!age Cra!s
The measures which have been found effective against plastic shrin%age
crac%ing are7
). :ampening the sub-grade and forms.
,. :ampening the aggregates if they are dry$ absorptive and hot.
3. starting curing as soon as possible after placing of concrete but
before the surface sheen fully disappears.
;. "rotecting the concrete with temporary coverings or applying a fog
spray during any appreciable delay between placing and finishing.
=. (recting windbrea%s to reduce the wind velocity over the surface of
the exposed plastic concrete.
@. "roviding sunshades to reduce the temperature at the surface of the
concrete.
)>
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
CHAPTER )
REPAIR TECHNI7UES O# CRAC$S
/efore attempting to repair any crac%s a full investigation should be
made of the cause8 of the crac%s$ (ach case should be considered from first
principles. -nalysis of the cause may lead to the conclusion that the crac%s
taper or that there is a possibility of ma&or faults within the structure which
might need extensive repairs4
/efore initiating remedial measures$ consideration should be given to
their necessity$ Crac%s in a floor slab which are not structurally significant and
where the floor is to be finished$ perhaps by a wearing course$ can well be left
alone4
-ll repairs will spoil the appearance of the concrete and additional
costs may be incurred in applying finishes to reduce the effect of this
deterioration4 Repairs to 6live8 crac%s cannot be easily covered up.
-utogemous healing$ automatic closure of a crac% either by subsequent
hydration of cement or by deposition of calcium carbonate formed by
atmospheric C', reacting with calcium hydroxide released from hydration of
cement$ will sometimes occur when crac%s are fine. It will generally ta%e place
in the first few days or wee%s of the life of a structure.
If repair is to be underta%en$ full consideration should be given to
consulting specialist companies in this field. -fter repairs have been
completer$ it may be prudent to ensure that the remedial measures have been
effective$ either by a test or by ta%ing conformatory cores.
).1 C%assi6iati(n (6 ra!s
Crac%s may be separated into two classes for purpose of deciding upon
the type of repair.
a# 6:ormant8 crac%s which are unli%ely to open$ close or extend further$
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Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
b# 69ive8 crac%s which may be sub&ect to fur her movement i.e. opening
up#.

). 2. 4ateria%s 6(r Repair
6Rigid8 fillers for 6:ormant8 Crac%s# To close a crac% against surface water
penetration it may be sufficient to brush and push in a cement grout. The
crac%s should be three to four times wider than the largest particle si1e The
grout can be modified by adding a synthetic latex which will improve adhesion
to the surface of the crac% and reduce shrin%age of the grout.
:uring the last two decades epoxy resins have become the most
commonly used materials for in&ection and sealing dormant crac%s and it is
claimed that come formulations can penetrate crac%s as fine as >.>) mm.
(poxies re the preferred materials because.
a# !ormulations are available which can harden even in wet conditions
and will adhere even to moist concrete4
b# (xcellent adhesion to fresh and hardened concrete can be obtained.
c# They have low curing shrin%ages.
d# They have good mechanical strength even in the presence of water
and are resistant to a wide range of chemicals$ including al%alis and
aggressive ground waters$ even at reasonably low and high
atmospheric temperatures4
"olyester resins and types of synthetic latex have also been used for
in&ection repairs$ polyester resins cost less than epoxies$ and have lower
viscosities and thus achieve better penetration <owever. <ardening of
polyesters is adversely affected in wet conditions. they have higher curing
shrin%age and are less resistant to al%ali attac%4
Synthetic latex such # is cheaper than even polyesters$ but has
considerably less strength than epoxy or polyester resins and may suffer loss
of adhesion in conditions of constant immersion$ e.g. underground structures
of water retaining structures.
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Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
6flexible8 sealants for8 9ive8 crac%s # a wide range of sealants for moving
&oints and live crac%s is available. The most commonly used are bitumen
based compounds$ polysulphides and polyurethanes. Rubber-7modified
bitumens and tar-modified polyurethanses are included in these groups.
There is a much wider choice of cootings and membrane material which can
be used for the surface
).) Use (6 84e'9rane: in Case S*r6ae Sea%ing is Re;*ired
t( 9e D('e (6 E.tensive ra!ing
0here there are a large number of crac%s$ the most practical method of
sealing the surface is to treat the complete area with a membrane. The
vacuum repair method described earlier may also applicable. 2embranes can
be applied either as liquids or as preformed sheets.
a# 9iquids
/itumen or latex emulsion$
/itumen or pith solutions$ and
Resin coating$ including epoxy and polyurethane
b# "reformed Sheets
/utyl rubber$
"olyvinyl chloride "?C#.
"olyethylene$
Chlorosulphonated polyethylene e.g. <ypalon#$
/ituminous plastic film carrier e.g. /ituthene#$ and
"itch "olymers
If no further crac%ing is anticipated$ one of the 6liquid8 emulsion or
solution# treatments will often be adequate to prevent water penetration into
the concrete. 0here further crac%ing or movement is anticipated$ the
application of a preformed sheet material is advisable$ if a preformed sheet
material is used it is preferable to select one which is fully bonded to the
concrete$ because if the membrane is damaged$ water will then have only
limited access to the structure and the damage can be easily located.
)3
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
CHAPTER +
STREN,THENIN,
There is a growing need to strengthen existing reinforced concrete
structures. This applies both to buildings$ bridges and other structures also.
Two fundamental types of strengthening*repair are possible with epoxy
resin adhesives$ namely.
a# increasing the section depth of a structural element by adding a new
layer of concrete resin on top of an existing cross-section and bonding the
two with epoxy resin adhesive$ and
b# enlarging the total reinforcement cross-section by bonding on
additional steel plates.
Its range of application can be defined roughly as follows.
-Refurbishing of structures or parts of them by rectifying constructional
shortcomings that impair their safety$ e.g.$ as a result of faulty dimensioning$
reinforcing bar corrosion$ overloading$ etc.$
--Strengthening of a structural element by increasing its load-bearing
capacity$
-ltering a load-supporting structure8s system$ e.g.$ changing spans by
shifting or removing a support$ conversion of continuous beams to single-span
beams$ and vice-versa$ etc.
The first attempts to strengthen structures with bonded reinforcements
were carried out in france in )C@;-@=4 Initial practical applications date bac% to
)C@@-@B in france and south -frica. The first bridges were reinforced this way
in Dapan and Russia at the beginning of the seventies. In Swit1erland the
method has been applied increasingly to both buildings and bridges for nearly
); years.
Repair and strengthening of Concrete Structures
+.1 IN#OR4ATION #RO4 SO4E O# THE TESTS
CONNDUCTED
);
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
The federal 2aterials Testing Institute in )CB3 started conducting tests
with bonded reinforcements$ the ob&ective being to accumulate a body of
dimensioning data for concrete structures strengthened with external
reinforcements.
Three types of tests were involved .preliminary$ main and long-term
testing.
The shear reinforcing plates were carefully arranged in the area of high
transverse shear stress. !ollowing sandblasting the plates were primed with
two coats of a solvent-type epoxy resin primer.
The bonded steel plates along the soffit generally cannot be carried
past the bonded steel plates along the soffit generally cannot be carried past
the supports for obvious physical reasons. Therefore tests have also been
done accordingly so that the critical section was between the support and the
end of the bonding tension plate.
The load*deflection diagrams are virtually identical. Rupture in all cases
as a result of concrete strain in the compression 1one$ approximately at mid
span$ with simultaneous flow in the external reinforcement In the area of
constant bending moment$ the steel plate sprung away from the adhesive
when the load was removed. outside of this area$ failure occurred in the
concrete.
(ven though the first applications of bonded reinforcement date bac%
more than ten years and no failures of such reinforced structures have yet
+.2 E<4P5ES O# REPAIR=STAEN,THENIN, -OR$S
ACTU455" CARRIED OUT CO44ERC5A55"
+.2.1 E.a'p%e (6 Strengthening Rein6(red C(nrete #ra'es
-9/- -luminium Smelter$ /ahrein The prefabricated concrete frames
serve as supports for the melting ladles7 in addition$ they transmit the
materials handling loads to the foundation soil$ /ecause these handling loads
)=
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
proved substantially greater than assumed in the calculation$ crac%s
developed in the frame cross-section$
In al$ B>> concrete frames had a single steel plate measuring ,5>*5 to
,5=> mm bonded to the underside of the crossbeam. -fterwards$ the crac%s
were in&ected with an epoxy resin.
It is interesting to note the temperature levels to which the adhesive is
continuously sub&ected in the melting shop. They vary betweenE,= c and EB>
c The repair wor% was done in )CB;.
+.) C(nventi(na% Strengthening 4eth(ds
Since the advent of concrete$ demands have been made to repair and
strengthen structures to deal with deterioration*distress$ inadequate design
and construction problems $ or anticipated additional loads.
The conventional strengthening methods are discussed in the following
section.
+.).1 Seti(n En%arge'ent
This method is as old as concrete construction. (nlargement is the
placement of additional reinforced concrete on an existing structural member.
Columns beams slabs bridge dec%s$ and walls call be enlarged to add load-
carrying capacity. The enlargement should be bonded to the existing concrete
to produce a monolithic member- a composite system$ cement mortar is used
for these enlargements.
- later development was the use of sprayed concrete and mortar$ the
process referred to as shortcrete. This process fits neatly into the overall
development of concrete technology. The process was introduced is )C)) at
the time when innovations in reinforced concrete technology were evolving.
The widest use of section enlargement is in bridge dec% rehabilitation
and strengthening. The benefits of the increased structural depth of a dec%
)@
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
overlay can only be ta%en into account if monolithic structural action up to
critical limit state can be assured. The monolithic action required good bond or
hori1ontal shear transfer capacity at the interface which does not prematurely
deteriorate under cyclic traffic$ environmental conditions$ and temperature
loads.
The section enlargement method is relatively easy to construct and
economically effective. The disadvantages of this method are a high ris% of
corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel and concrete deterioration. These
problems are associated with relative dimensional incompatibility between
existing and new concrete. The existing concrete phase of the system$ in
most cases is no longer affected by volume changes. The restrained volume
charges of new material are inducing tensile stresses that may lead to
crac%ing and delamination when the induced tensile stresses are greater than
tensile strain capacity of tile new material.
The way to ma%e this strengthening technique effective in the future is
to use materials with higher tensile strain capacity$ with low shrin%age
properties. Some of tile materials available today are capable of satisfying
these requirements.
+.).2 P(%&'er C(nrete C('p(sites
The first protective$ nonstructural epoxy polymer concrete overlay on a
highway was applied in )C=3 in Sacramento. Calif It was done even before
the first patent on polymer concrete was issued in )C=@.
The polymer-concrete composites are generally categori1ed as follows.
"olymer cement concrete$ which is prepared by adding polymer
or monomer to ordinary fresh cement concrete during mixing.
"olymer impregnated concrete$ prepared by monomer or
polymer impregnation of hardened cement concrete$ and followed by inside
concrete polymeri1ation.
)B
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
"olymer concrete$ prepared by mixing synthetic resin or
monomer as a binder with all aggregate$ followed by poly meri1ation.
"olymer concrete composites are widely used for repair and strengthening
applications$ particularly in structures that are sub&ected to severed
deleterious effects of corrosive and erosive elements. This is mainly due to
several advantages of composites$ such as high strength$ low permeability$
excellent resistance to chemicals$ and abrasion resistance.
:espite these advantages$ polymer concretes have several
shortcomings.
Crac%ing due to restrained volume changes and corrosion of
embedded steel.
"oor resistance to ultraviolet A?# radiation.
"oor fire resistance.
Tile mechanical properties of polymer composites are highly
susceptible to temperature variations. /esides temperature variations$ other
parameters which affect mechanical and durability properties depend on the
nature and amount of polymer content and also tile conditions of hardening.
The polymer composites also undergo considerable creep at high
temperatures.
The present experience on the sub&ect of polymer concrete behavior
shows that these materials are influenced by environmental conditions during
the curing phase and in service. 0hile cement concrete is slightly affected by
these conditions$ principally during curing the polymer concretes are
significantly affected and may$ in some cases be completely inhibited.
+.).) P(st>tensi(ning
The most significant property for structural applications such as
strengthening is creep$ and especially the variation of this property under
different environmental conditions.
)5
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
(xternal "restressing was already a mode of construction in the )>=>s.
-fter lying dormant for some time$ it has been rediscovered as an attractive
application of prestressing$ adopting recently developed prestressing
technology. (xternal prestressing is now widely developed for concrete
strengthening in the Anited states$ Dapan$ and Swit1erland. (xternal
prestressing techniques have been employed with great success to correct
excessive and undesirable deflections in existing structures. They have also
been used to strengthen existing concrete structures to carry additional loads.
"restressing may be used on tile inside of box girders or the outside of
I-girders to increase the capacity of existing bridges and to provide improved
resistance to fatigue and crac%ing.
The following are the advantages of external prestressing.
). Simple construction methods
,. Simple strand or tendon profile resulting in simple construction on tile
site.
3. !ew or no problems with tendon grouting.
;. "ossibility of inspection during the lifetime of the structure with F-ray or
other
=. nondestructive detection techniques.
@. Replaceabilty of strands and tendons.
The disadvantages of external prestressing are those which arise from
it location outside the structure. Three disadvantages in particular are
mentioned below.
). ?ulnerability of corrosion.
,. ?ulnerability to fire.
3. ?ulnerability to acts of va tidal
"rotection of an externally mounted prestressing system against
aggressive exterior elements and fire is usually provided by encasement in
concrete or shotcrete.
)C
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
+.).+ 0(nded Stee% P%ates
In the )C@>s in Swit1erland and Germany a method of strengthening
reinforced concrete structure by application of bonded steel plates was
developed based on the wor% of 98<ermite and /resson. The principle of the
method is quite simple-steel plates or other steel elements are glued to the
concrete surface by a two-component epoxy adhesive creating a three phase
concrete-glue-steel composite system.
The bonded steel plates area supplement to the existing embedded
reinforcing steel$ and are considered secondary reinforcement provided to
reduce stress in existing reinforcing steel to allowable levels. This is a method
of exterior strengthening via the H.covercrete. is of critical importance.
-s mentioned earlier$ the principle of the bonding method is to glue tile
steel plates with a two-component epoxy adhesive to the concrete surface
creating a concrete-ad lies I ve-steel composite system. /ut the application of
this method requires high quality wor%manship. The preparation of all
surfaces to be executed with great case$ because their effectiveness governs
the structure8s durability.
0hen a structure is strengthened by bonding of any type of external
reinforcing the most important aspect of its behavior is the composite action of
the system- capacity of the adhesive to transfer stresses. This in turn depends
on the adhesive-concrete and adhesive plate bonding afia interface shear
stresses$ as well as tile stiffness$ flexibility$ and viscosity of the adhesive. 'ver
strengthening and excessive deflection are to be avoided.
/onding of steel plates to concrete has been shown to be an effective
strengthening method when three important factors are followed$ !ist the
surface to be bonded must be clean. -brasive blasting for the steel and
concrete surfaces is preferred although other methods have been used
effectively. Second the epoxy should have a bond strength of at least that of
the concrete. The epoxy should be usable under the prevailing environmental
regulation. Third$ plates must be long and then to avoid all undesirable brittle
,>
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
plate separation failure$ although additional anchorage at the ends of the plate
can also be used to avoid this type of failure. /y following these guidelines$
steel plates have been used effectively and economically to improve tile
strength and serviceability of existing relnt8orced concrete structures.
- ma&or practical problem with steel plates oil site is their weight and
the consequent restriction on tile length of individual plates In terms of
manipulation and handling. Ill addition the method of bonding steel plates
often requires considerable site wor% to accurately locate the existing
reinforcement in the structure so that anchors can be added to assist in
supporting the steel plates$ elaborate and expensive false wor% is required to
maintain the steel wor% in position during bonding.
+.+ SO4E CO44ENTS ON E<ECUTION O# 0ONDIN, -OR$
+.+.1 Stee%
/asically$ any grade of structural steel is suitable for bonded
reinforcing plates for thic% plates it is advisable to use higher quality steels$
e.g.$ grade =,. particularly where &oints and girders are being reinforced$
weldable qualities should be used end anchors$ spot welding on shear plates$
etc# for obvious reasons$ the steel plates should be %ept as thin as possible$
for a given cross-section$ this means they must be wider where thin plates are
used$ the force is transmitted into the concrete over a shorter path than is the
case with thic%er plates.
"late gauges below 3 mm are not suitable$ because among other
things # sandblasting can deform them.
+.+.2. C(nrete
'ne of the factors involved in the dimensioning of a bonded &oint is the
concrete8s resistance to shear. This is directly proportional to its tensile
strength. It is not possible to state exactly when there is no longer any point in
reinforcing a concrete cross-section. /ut a useful rule of thumb is a minimum
tensile strength of about ,> %g*cm
,)
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
+.+.). pretreat'ent
-ccording to the !rench recommendations$ the surface should be
protected with a solvent-type primer with an epoxy resin base immediately
after the blasting operation when the primer has cured$ the plates should be
wrapped in polyethylene film for storage at the &ob site. 'n the other hand$
many plate reinforcement &obs have been carried out without priming the
retreated steel surfaces The adhesive is then applied immediately after
blasting This procedure is probably acceptable for buildings$ but where the
structural elements being reinforced are exposed directly to weathering-as in
the case of bridges$ structures near the ocean etc.$ a primer should be used
as additional protection for the steel This is true even if an adhesive.
The reason this precaution has to be ta%en is that the concrete cross
sections requiring to be reinforced usually have large enough crac%s in the
tension 1one can serve as the starting point for corrosive attac%

+.+.+ 0(nding Pr(ed*res
The concrete surfaces should be dust-free$ clean and dry$ and the steel
surfaces should be free of free of film rust. 0hether the plates have primed or
not$ they should be degreased with a solvent immediately prior to the
application of adhesive$
The bonding wor%$ i.e. mixing of the adhesive$ should not be started
until it certain that the successive wor% steps can be carried out without any
interruption. To avoid mixing errors on the &ob site$ one should use only
adhesive in the proper wor%ing pac%s.
The adhesive is applied to the steel plate$ and then the plate is pressed
on to the concrete in such a way that the adhesive ma%es contact with the con
create all over and surplus adhesive is pressed out at edges. "ressing is done
with timbers or steel &oists and the usual ceiling braces To ma%e sure that the
may be advisable to drive in wooden wedges. !rom both sides between the
,,
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
timber or steel &oist # and the steel plate it is also possible to press the steel
plates on with plugs anchored in the concrete high-tensile bolts or prestressed
bars This type of installation is appropriate$ for instance$ in the case of very
high ceilings$ the underside of bridges and vertical surfaces.

+.+./ 4at*rit& (6 0(nd Thr(*gh Adhesive
-ssuming adequate cure temperatures$ bonded reinforcements can be
sub&ected to full loading after B days. /ut it should be %ept in mind that the
new reinforcement participates increasingly in the transmission of loads as the
adhesive gains in strength
/onding wor% should be done only by contractors with suitably trained
personnel. :etailed %nowledge of the necessary safety precaution is also very
important.
+./ The Anti>C(rr(sive Pri'er
To protect the steel plate against corrosive attac%$ a primer is applied
on both the surfaces. This commercially available product +uvo%at is a
solventtype epoxy isocyanate-based primer it can be applied by either
spraying or brushing The mixing ratio of resin to hardener is ;.) parts by
mass#. The manufacturer of the primer states the other specification details as
follows
+.1 The Anti -eathering Paint
/ecause some of the strengthened reinforced concrete beams may be
weathered out-of Idoors$ it is necessary to protect the air-side of the steel
plate against corrosion with a weatherproof plaint on top of the primer the
commercial enamel employed has following specifications$ as supplied by the
manufacturer.
,3
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
+.2 SO4E CONSIDERATIONS A##CTIN, STREN,TH
O# REPAIR
+.2.1 E66et (6 S*r6ae C(nditi(ns: On 0(nd
It the high demands placed on adhesives in structural applications are to be
met$ it is essential that precise directions be issued on wor%ing procedures
and adhesive use Such directions are extremely are extremely important
wherever load bearing elements and components have to be bonded together
with adhesive. !ailure of the bond would have very serious consequences in
such cases. !or these reasons$ the surface conditions of the elements being
bonded and climatic conditions during the bonding phase are of utmost
importance.
+.3 SO4E CAUTIONS
a# -lthough the bonded plate reinforcing process for strengthening
structures made of reinforced concrete has been employed successfully for
over )> years in a number of countries under various conditions the method
can also be employed in combination with prestressed concrete cements and
structural steel.# the static limit of the process is established by the load-
bearing capacity of the concrete compression 1one and the technical limit it by
the shear strength of the adhesive at high temperatures.
b# In principle$ the method outlined is elegant for strengthening an
existing concrete structure that is otherwise healthy.
c# The method is still relatively young and more information is awaited
for ascertaining the long-term behaviour of structures repaired by this
method.
d# Todate there is limited experience in this methodology.
e# The technology is considerably sophisticated and requires extreme
care in.
-"reparing the 6bonding surfaces8
-controlling the humidity across these surfaces$
,;
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
-"reparing the bonding agent with its limited pot life and effective setting
time i.e. open#.-preparing dependable anchoring8 arrangements for shear
and tension plats$
-ensuring the structural safety if the tension plate has to stop short of
supports$ as it may not be possible to cross the supports. (nsuring force-
transfer at butt-&oints of bonded plates
g# <owever$ most important is to remember that such repairs are possible
only where the structural strength of an otherwise healthy concrete8 structure
has to be enhanced for increased loading etc.$ but is meaningless where the
concrete is already 6sic% owing to inadequate quality control and construction-
practice that went into its very ma%ing.
+.? C(n%*si(ns
Concrete is an extremely versatile, fascination material. As the new
millennium, approaches, much is changing in the perception of concrete, concrete
repair, and strengthening and in the understanding of materials and methods. However
this requires the concrete community to loo for ways to facilitate real !nnovation."o
extend infrastructure service life into #$% Century su&stantial reha&ilitation programs
need to &e enacted for the repair and strengthening of existing concrete structures. As
the Conroe repair industry moves toward a more ' quality oriented% approach it is
anticipated that the use of new advanced materials will increase partially replacing
more traditional materials. (odern technology pleas challenging demands on the
performance capa&ilities of materials !ncluding concretes, )olymers fi&ers and their
composites---for new applications.As for the future, there are clearly many material
options availa&le for repair arid strengthening. Such options extend to *R) while
others employ the conventional uses &ut with enhanced relia&ility and cost
containment, e.g., section enlargement external prestressing &onded steel plates, etc.
applied research programs are necessary to study the dura&ility of *R) strengthening
systems to enhance the understanding of their performance characteristics under
different environmental conditions to develop relia&le standard test methods and to
develop design guidelines that will ensures successful and economical use.
#+
Repair and Strengthening of Concrete-Structure
RE#ERENCES
). +eelamegam 2$. H(xternal /ending of "lates- a simple technieque
for rehabilitation of concrete beams H$ proceedings of national
conference on civil engineering materials arid structures$ 'smania
Aniversity <yderabad.
,. /hattacharya D.$ H 2aintenance of Concrete Structures using
polymersJ$ International Symposium on Innovative materials$
Calcutta.
3. Seymour R./.$ H Reinforced "lastics properties and -pplications the
materials &ournal society$ )CC>.
;. Raina ?.K. Hconcrete for constructionJ. !acts and practice
=. The Indian concreate &ournal .
@. G.Sriram and /. 2rinal Rao H Concrete Stuctures

,@
CONTENTS
C-"T(R
+'
:ISCRI"TI'+ "-G(
+'
) I+T':ACTI'+
).) Repairing and Strengthiening Ian over view
)
)
, Repair
,.) In trinsic crac%ing
,., Structural crac%s
,.3 !actors affecting crac%ing
,.; Causes and Remedies of plastic crac%s
3
3
=
@
5
3 Repair Technicues of crac%s
3.) Classification of crac%s
3., 2aterial of Repair
3.3 Ase of membrance in case surface sealing is
Required to be dome of extensive crac%ing
))
))
),
)3
; Strengthening
;.) Information frome some of the test conducted
;., (xmples of Repair strengthening wor% actumlly
carried out commercially
;.3 Conventional strengthening methods
;.; Some comments of execution of bonding wor%
;.= The anti- corrosive primer
;.@ The anti-weathering paint
;.B Some consideration affecting strength of repair
;.5 Some cauting
;.C Conclusions
);
);
)=
)@
,)
,3
,3
,3
,;
,=
R(!(R-+C(S ,@