LECTURE 1

THE CONTENTS OF THIS LECTURE ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 ATKINSONS EQUATION
3.0 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
FACTOR ()
3.1 By Analogy With Similar Airways
3.2 From Design Tables
3.3 From Geometric Data

REFERENCES

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
We have already learnt about the head loss in case of laminar flow as well as
turbulent flow. We have also concluded that laminar flow rarely exits in
mines. All of us know that energy is required for flow of air in mines. Head
loss of travelling air in mines suggests that a resistance to airflow exists
during the course of its travel. Head loss derived in case of mines is
dependent on factors like roughness of walls, velocity of air, shape and size
of airways, etc. Atkinson was the first one who came up with qualitative
approach of RESISTANCE OF MINE AIRWAYS and parameters governing it.
Since, then ATKINSONS EQUATION is one of the most widely accepted and
used equation for underground mine environment. Let us see expression for
Atkinsons equation.
2.0 ATKINSONS EQUATION
From Chezy-Darcy equation we have

2
=
2
We know that mean hydraulic diameter, is given by
=

Substituting the value of =

2
=
8
Where,
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in Chezy-Darcy equation, we have

 = frictional pressure drop (Pa)

= Darcy Weisbach resistance coefficient or resistance coefficient
(dimensionless)
= Density of air (Kg/m3)
= Length of the airway (m)
= Perimeter of the airway (m)
= Velocity of air (m/s)
= Area of cross section of the airway (m2)
The above equation can be written in the form

, where

We know that air flow i.e. quantity of air-flow is related with velocity of air
and cross-section area of airways as

Substituting for = in the above equation we have

2
3

= 2

Where,

R is known as Atkinsons resistance or frictional resistance of airway which

has units of Ns2/m8
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= Air flow (m3/s)

= Atkinsons friction factor or coefficient of Atkinsons resistance (Ns2/m4)

From the expression for Atkinsons resistance, we can easily mention the
parameters on which the frictional resistance of a mine airway depends.
They are:
a. Length of the mine airway ()

b. Cross section area of mine airway ()

1
3

c. Perimeter of mine airway opening ()

Note : The parameters length and perimeter together constitute the rubbing
surface area ( = ). Hence, .
Having discussed all the three parameters related to shape and size we can
also say that
d. Roughness of wall

=
8

Where
= ( )
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If we keep the density of air constant throughout the course of its travel in a
mine, k attains a constant value. But, ideally it is not possible, especially
when the length of airway is large. Hence, we apply a density correction to
Atkinsons equation when we make use of a constant value of k (calculated
for air density 1.2) for calculation.
The modified Atkinsons equation is given by

=
=

2
3
2
3

= 2

1.2

(for air-density 1.2)

= 2

1.2

(for variable air density)

, in the above two equations is constant (same value for both equation)
and is given by,

1.2
8

Let me tell you that Atkinsons equation is also called SQAURE LAW because
the pressure drop is proportional to the square of the volume of air-flow
rate.
You must we wondering, why do we apply density correction formula and
constant value of for calculation. Instead we can use a variable value of
according to density variation of air. Both are same thing. But the former
one is easy to apply. The reason being, we need to determine the value of
each time which is a very cumbersome task compared to using density
correction formula for better results.

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Fig.1 Graph Illustrating Square Law

3.0 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION FACTOR ()

First of all question arises that why do we need to determine the coefficient
of friction factor,. We all know that expansion of mining areas or
development is very common in mining practices. In underground mining,
development includes making galleries, drifts and panels. Many times, we
may seal some part of mining areas. All these aspects are to be taken into
account while planning of a mine. At this stage, we have to make an
approximation of the resistance that would be encountered and then the
subsequent cost of ventilation, the power of fans to be setup, etc. Hence, we

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estimate resistance as well as cost of ventilating mine galleries or airways

even when their construction has not started. Here, we also need to plan the
shortest possible mine airway network with highest effectiveness. Thus,
determination of coefficient of friction factor is a must.
Various methods are there for determining coefficient of friction factor. The
three main methods generally employed are (after McPherson, 1993):
o By analogy with similar airways
o From design table
o From geometric table

3.1 By Analogy with Similar Airways

In

this

method

of

determining

we

choose

some

airways

as

representatives or standard airways. These representatives or standard

airways may be from intakes, returns, conveyor roadways, roadways
consisting of a particular support system. For these airways, their geometry
and density of air in them are determined. Then the corresponding value of
friction factor is calculated for these airways and referred to standard density
as:
K1.2 =

p
Q2

A3

1.2

L per

kg/m3

These values of friction factor are then standardized and are used to
calculate the resistances of other similar airways for different air densities
also. The factor 1.2 / is called density correction and we can use it to
calculate k values for airways of different densities.

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While using these standard values one should be careful that any unwanted
blockages or obstructions in those airways are not overlooked.
This method is advantageous in cases where the number of airways is too
many and vast amount of data is to be collected.

3.2 From Design Tables

According to this method, the value of friction factor is calculated based on
the empirical data of ventilation surveys which have been obtained through
various tests and observations in various mines, countries and airway
conditions. Such tables should be used only as a guide and only when the
friction factors pertaining to a particular area is not available. Table 1 gives
the friction factor at air density of 1.2 kg/m3 and the coefficient of friction
(independent of air density).

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Table 1 Friction factors and coefficients of friction (after, McPherson, 1993)

Friction factor, k
(kg/m3)

Coefficient of
friction, f*
(dimensionless)

0.004
0.0055
0.009
0.0095
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.019
0.04

0.0067
0.0092
0.015
0.0158
0.020
0.023
0.027
0.032
0.067

0.004
0.006
0.0075

0.0067
0.010
0.0125

0.009
0.012
0.016

0.015
0.020
0.027

0.003
0.004
0.0065
0.0075
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.007 0.014
0.018
0.022

0.005
0.0067
0.0108
0.0125
0.0167
0.020
0.023
0.0012 0.023
0.030
0.037

0.035
0.05
0.065

0.058
0.083
0.108

0.0037
0.011
0.0024
0.0021

0.0062
0.018
0.0040
0.0035

Rectangular airways
Smooth concrete lined
Shotcrete
Unlined with minor irregularities only
Girders on masonry or concrete walls
Unlined, typical conditions, no major irregularities
Unlined, irregular sides
Unlined, rough or irregular conditions
Girders on side props
Drift with rough sides, stepped floor, handrails
Steel arched airways
Smooth concrete all round
Bricked between arches all round
Concrete slabs or timber lagging between
flanges all round
Slabs or timber lagging between flanges to spring
Lagged behind arches
Arches poorly aligned, rough conditions
Shafts
Smooth lined, unobstructed
Brick lined, unobstructed
Concrete lined, rope guides, pipe fittings
Brick lined, rope guides, pipe fittings
Unlined, well trimmed surface
Unlined, major irregularities removed
Unlined, mesh bolted
Tubbing lined, no fittings
Brick lined, two side bun tons
Two side buntons, each with a tie girder
Longwall faceline with steel conveyor and powered supports
Good conditions, smooth wall
Typical conditions, coal on conveyor
Rough conditions, uneven faceline
Ventilation ducting
Collapsible fabric ducting (forcing systems only)
Flexible ducting with fully stretched spiral spring reinforcement
Fibreglass
Spiral-wound galvanized steel

*Average values of f (=/4) and k for air density=1.2 kg/m3

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3.3 From Geometric Data

In this method, the friction factor is calculated as a function of the ratio e/d,
where
e = height of the roughening
d= hydraulic mean diameter of the airway or duct (d = 4A/per)
The application of this method is limited to those areas where the height of
the roughenings can be measured. The technique is applicable for supports
that project a known distance into the airway. The curve given in Fig. 2 is
according to Von Karman equation, which is -:
/4 = f

k1.2
1

0.6 4[2 log10 (d/e) 1.14]2

Fig. 2 Variation of coefficient of friction with the height of

roughening to airway diameter ration. e/d (after, McPherson, 1993)

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REFERENCES
Banerjee S.P. (2003); Mine Ventilation; Lovely Prakashan, Dhanbad, India.
Hartman, H. L., Mutmansky, J. M. & Wang, Y. J. (1982); Mine Ventilation and Air
Conditioning; John Wiley & Sons, New York.
McPherson, M. J. (1993); Subsurface Ventilation and Environmental Engineering;
Chapman & Hall, London.
Misra G.B.

(1986); Mine Environment and Ventilation; Oxford University Press,

Calcutta, India.
Vutukuri, V. S. & Lama, R. D. (1986); Environmental Engineering in Mines;
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

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