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CHAP 8: Civil engineering structures & construction

activities in rock mass:
mass:
Construction problems in rock mass is shown in Fig.
8.1. It involves factors of:
Rock mass properties (intact rock + discontinuities).
In-situ & induced stresses (due to geological
conditions e.g. fold & construction activities).
Groundwater conditions.
The above factors, together with the design
procedures & construction methods must be
carefully considered so that disturbance induced
into the rock mass is as minimal as possible.

Engineering structures & construction activities:

activities:
Disturbance induced into the rock mass (e.g.
construction induced stresses) must be kept to a
minimal level !!
WHY??? This is to maintain the integrity & the
inherent strength of the rock mass hence, ensuring
long-term stability for the structure. This reduces
cost on stabilisation & maintenance after
construction.

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Figure 8.1: Construction problems in rock masses

consists of intact rock & discontinuities together with
the effect of stress (in situ & induced) & groundwater.

Rock material (intact) and rock mass (discontinuous)

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Engineering structures & construction activities

Construction in rock mass disruption/disturbance
to the rock at the vicinity of the construction area
must be minimised so any induced negative impacts
occur in a controlled manner and covers a smaller
area/volume (see the following figure).

YIELD ZONE
(ZON ALAH)

CIRCULAR
TUNNEL

SURROUNDING
ROCK MASS

As soon as a tunnel is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be

disturbed formation of yield zone. Design & method of construction
must be carefully considered so that disturbance to surrounding
rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

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YIELD ZONE
(ZON ALAH)

CUT SLOPE

SURROUNDING
ROCK MASS

As soon as a slope is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be

disturbed formation of yield zone. Design & method of construction
must be carefully considered so that disturbance to surrounding
rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

Stress distribution around circularcircular-shaped tunnel

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Stress distribution around oblongoblong-shaped tunnel

Stress distribution around rectangularrectangular-shaped tunnel

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Stress distribution around a cut slope

Stress distribution in a rock sample at different

level of stress
Loading
at 10 kN

Loading
at 100 kN

Loading
at 200 kN

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Engineering structures & construction activities

Category of rock engineering structure include:
Structure foundations: A rock body is used to bear
load of a structure (e.g. a building founded on
bedrock). This can be a deep-seated rock mass. Rock
is usually an excellent foundation materials, but near
surface rock can be fractured & weathered. It is
necessary to establish the competence of the rock to
bear the designed load. Important rock properties
triaxial compressive strength; strain at failure &
modulus of elasticity.

Engineering structures & construction activities

Rock slopes: The basic modes of failure of rock (plane,
wedge, toppling, flexural etc.). Shear strength, types &
orientation of weakness planes are among the
important parameters in slope design. The potential
for failure in any of these modes can be identified
(Part 5). The need and scope for a more detailed
analysis can then be evaluated.

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Engineering structures & construction activities

Shafts & tunnels: Stability of these structures depends
on discontinuities & geological structures in rock, in
situ stress, groundwater flow, shape of tunnel &
construction technique. Rock properties like triaxial
compressive strength, shear strength, types &
orientation of weakness planes are important design
parameters. Method of stabilisation & F.O.S depends
on the purpose of the tunnel. F.O.S. used in designing a
tunnel for civil engineering purposes (highways &
railway lines) is usually > 2.0.

Rock as foundation

Slope cut in rock

Tunnel excavated in rock

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Underground cavern: Similar to tunnel but larger in

size. Methods of excavation & stabilisation are
important e.g. Power house cavern, sport complex etc.
Mining: Structure is not permanent. Objective is to
extract minerals/precious stones at maximum rate &
safety but, at minimal hazardous & pollution effect.
Thermal energy: To extract thermal energy from
earths crust. Deep excavation, rock permeability &
rheological characteristics are important.
Radioactive waste disposal: Excavation is deep in the
earths crust (safety). Rocks must be massive &
impermeble. Method of excavation is important.
Permanent structures.

Effect of size of rock mass discontinuities on size of

engineering structure:
Size of structure being constructed in rock mass is
greatly influenced by the size of structural
discontinuities (weakness planes) in the rock mass.
In Fig 8.2: smaller tunnel size means less number of
weakness planes intersecting the tunnel, i.e. more
stable. Deeper depth means less weakness planes
hence, tunnel located deep below the surface is more
stable.

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Size of rock mass discontinuities and size of

engineering structure:
Properties of rock mass (sifat massa / jasad batuan
keseluruhan) is important in designing & construction
of a structure in the field (actual conditions).
The actual rock mass properties cannot be evaluated
using small size rock samples as in the case
laboratory tests. Laboratory size samples contain only
small-scale weaknesses (e.g. lamination, micro
fractures & voids).

Fig 8.2: Effect of number of discontinuities in rock mass

on size of structure

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Fig 8.3: Effect of number of discontinuities in rock

mass on size of samples

Fig 8.4: Effect of depth of structure on conditions of rock mass; at

depth means less number of discontinuities & rock is under
confined condition (p = gh).

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Structural discontinuities (struktur ketakselarasan) in

rock mass:
mass:
Based on size, structural discontinuities/weakness in
rock are categorized into 2 groups:
Large-scale discontinuities sizes ranging between
few m and km. Affect the properties & behaviours of
rock mass. Stability of slope & tunnel is affected by
these large-scale discontinuities.
Large size samples in in situ /field tests can
accommodate the effect of these structures however,
not for small samples used in laboratory tests.
Types of large-scale discontinuities (discussed in
Chapter 5) include fault, joint & bedding plane/fold.

Inclined bedding planes (folds) in clastic

sedimentary rocks

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Joints & joint sets that present in all rock types

Inclined bedding planes in sedimentary rocks (shale,

Labuan)

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Inclined bedding planes in sedimentary rocks

(sandstone, Labuan)

Thinly bedded & folded sedimentary rocks (shale,

Labuan)

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Intersecting of more than 3 joint sets is common in

rock mass (granite, Lahad)

Joint can occur in various orientation in rock (granite,

Kuantan)

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Structural discontinuities in rock mass:

mass:
Small-scale discontinuities measuring from few mm
to cm. Direct effect on rock material properties & but
may have minimal effect on rock mass (at a larger
scale).
Data obtained from laboratory test on small size
samples can be affected by these properties.
(Bah. 3 kesan syistositi ke atas batuan jelmaan syis).
Common types - foliation, lamination, cleavage, microfractures & voids.
Note: Effect of these discontinuities on rock material
properties will impose indirect impact on stability of
structures like foundation, slope & tunnel.

Effect of minerals arrangement (foliation & schistosity) on

strength & failure strain of small rock sample

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Minerals arrangements due

to sedimentation
(lamination
lamination)) and due to
metamorphism (foliation
(foliation))
are is small scale
discontinuities rock (e.g.
shale, sandstone slate &
schist)

Being small scale discontinuities, they occur in laboratory rock

sample. Fracture/failure can be easily induced along the
lamination/foliation, but not perpendicular to it. Thus rock sample
displaying lamination/foliation may display different strength
when loaded at different direction

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The influence of weakness planes on strength joint

orientation with respect to loading axis

Stress versus strain

250

Stress (MPa)

200

150

100

50

0
0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

Strain (%)

Effect of loading orientation on UCS of sample displaying

lamination (metamorhic rock e.g. schist)

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EXISTING FRACTURE AFECT FAILURE LOAD

Loading axis

Compressive Load

Existingweakness
fracture plane
Existing
plane

[a]

[b]

[c]

[d]

Effect of orientation of
existing fracture on
test data is more
significant for Brazilian
& PointPoint-load test

SLATY - minerals rearrangement due to metamorphism;

changing of shale to slate

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Slaty in slate

SCHISTOSITY (flaky)(flaky)- minerals rearrangement due to

metamorphism; changing of shale to schist

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Minerals arrangement in metamorphic rocks schistosity &

slaty

Minerals arrangement in metamorphic rocks schistosity &

slaty

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Failure of rock slopes in metamorphic rock slate & schist

Failure of rock slopes in metamorphic rock slate & schist

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Discontinuities in rock mass:

mass:
Large-scale discontinuities affect the whole rock
body/rock mass i.e. rock conditions on site. Effect on
engineering structures is that these discontinuities
weaken to whole rock mass directly.
Small-scale discontinuities affect rock material
properties e.g. properties of small sample in lab test.
Strength of rock obtained from lab test is usually
higher than the actual strength of rock mass in the
field (in situ strength).
Value of FOS (e.g. > 2.0) used in design is to cater for
the weakening effects of structural discontinuities in
rock on engineering structures, as their effects are
difficult to be assessed and rated numerically.

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