Modelling of Vertical Drains With Smear Installed in Soft Clay

University of Wollongong
Research Online
University of Wollongong Thesis Collection
University of Wollongong Thesis Collections
2005
Modelling of vertical drains with smear installed in

soft clay
Iyathurai Sathananthan
University of Wollongong
Recommended Citation
Sathananthan, Iyathurai, Modelling of vertical drains with smear installed in soft clay, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, School of Civil,
Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong, 2005. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1924
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MODELLING OF VERTICAL DRAINS WITH SMEAR

INSTALLED IN SOFT CLAY
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements

for the Award of the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
from
UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG
by
IYATHURAI SATHANANTHAN, BSc Eng (Hons)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG, AUSTRALIA.
2005
AFFIRMATION
I, Iyathurai Sathananthan, declare that I am the sole author of this dissertation. The wo
presented in this thesis is original unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged and has
been carried out in the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of
Wollongong. The document has not been submitted for any other degree at any other
academic institution.
I authorise the University of Wollongong to lend this thesis to other institutions or

individuals for the purpose of scholarly research.
Iyathurai Sathananthan
September 2005
11
List of Publications
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
The following publications were generated during my research period.
Book Chapter
Indraratna, B., Sathananthan, I., Bamunawita, C. and A.S. Balasubramaniam. (200

Theoretical and Numerical Perspectives and Field Observations for the Design
and Performance Evaluation of Embankments Constructed on Soft Marine Clay.
A Chapter in Ground Improvement - Case Histories Book (Volume 3), Edited by
Indraratna, B. and Chu, J., Elsevier, London, Chapter 2:61-106.
Journal Papers
Indraratna, B., Sathananthan, I., Rujikiatkamjorn, C. and A.S. Balasubramania

(2005). Analytical and Numerical Modelling of Soft Soil Stabilized by
Prefabricated Vertical Drains Incorporating Vacuum Preloading. International
Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE, 5(2): 114-124.
Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C. and Sathananthan, I. (2005). Analytical and
numerical solutions for a single vertical drain including the effects of vacu
preloading. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 42(4):994-1014.
Sathananthan, I. and Indraratna, B. (2005). Laboratory Evaluation of Smear Zon
Correlation between Permeability and Moisture Content. Submitted to Journal o

Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE (in press).
iii
List of Publications
Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C. and Sathananthan, I. (2005). Radial Consolidation
of Clay using Compressibility Indices and Varying Horizontal Permeability.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal (in press).
Conference Papers
Indraratna, B. and Sathananthan, I. (2004). Numerical Prediction of Soft Clay

Consolidation with Geosynthetic Vertical Drains Using Plane Strain Solution.
Proceedings of the 9 Australia NewZealand Conference on Geomechanics.
Auckland, NewZealand. Vol.2. 633-639.
Indraratna, B. and Sathananthan, I. (2003). Comparison of Field Measurements and

Predicted Performance beneath Full Scale Embankments. Proceedings of the 6th
International Symposium on Field Measurements in Geomechanics. Oslo,
Norway. 17-27.
Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C. and Sathananthan, I. (2005). Analytical Modelling

and Field Assessment of Embankment Stabilized with Vertical Drains and
Vacuum Preloading. The 16th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering. Osaka, Japan (in press)
Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C, Sathananthan, I., Shahin, M. and Khabbaz, H.

(2005). Analytical and Numerical Solution for Soft Clay Consolidation using
th
Geosynthetic Vertical Drains with Special Reference to Embankments. The 5

International Geotechnical Engineering Conference, Cairo. Egypt. 55-86.
IV
Abstract
ABSTRACT
In this research, analytical, experimental and numerical investigations were carried o

to pursue a better understanding of the consolidation of soft clay stabilized with
prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) subjected to preloading (with and without vacuum
pressure application). This investigation was carried out in fourfold. First, an analyt
solution based on Cylindrical Cavity Expansion analysis incorporating the Modified
Cam Clay theory has been formulated to estimate the extent of the smear zone. Second,
the smear zone characteristics were evaluated using a large-scale radial drainage
consolidometer and then compared with predicted values. Third, the existing
axisymmetric and plane strain theories of a unit cell were modified and incorporated
with a linearly distributed (trapezoidal) vacuum pressure for both Darcian and nonDarcian flow. Finally, multi-drain plane strain analysis was conducted on a number of
case histories taken from Australia and Thailand to study the performance of the entir
embankment stabilised with vertical drains.
A series of large-scale model tests were conducted using a specially designed

consolidometer 650 mm diameter by 1040 mm high to study the characteristics of the
smear zone. A central vertical drain was installed in soil specimens (previously place
inside a large cell) with a band shaped (rectangular, hollow) steel mandrel, during wh
any variations in pore water pressure along the radial direction were recorded. Then,
surcharge load was applied in stages up to 200 kPa and the clay then consolidated. At
the end of consolidation, soils samples were collected from several locations in order
carry out a number of oedometer and triaxial tests to establish the variations of soil
properties. It was observed that drain installation disturbed the soil immediately
Abstract
adjacent to it, creating a "smear zone" in which a change in clay properties was caused
by reconsolidation due to dissipation of excess pore pressure, and remoulding due to
shear from the periphery of the mandrel. The smear zone was 2-3 times the equivalent
radius of the mandrel with horizontal permeability (in the smear zone) varying from
1.09 to 1.64, an average of 1.34 times smaller than that of the undisturbed zone. The
estimated extent of smear zone from the large-scale test was very close to the predicted
value, based on Cavity Expansion analysis.
The analytical solutions are incorporated in the finite element code (e.g. PLAXIS,
ABAQUS) employing the Modified Cam Clay theory. Selected numerical analysis
incorporating the proposed solution was carried out to study the behaviour of a number
of case histories, in view of various ground improvement schemes applied to stabilize
the soft clay foundation and the predictions are compared with available field data. A
good agreement between the finite element analysis and field data was found. Finally,
numerical analyses incorporating the proposed solution were conducted to study the
effect of embankment slope, construction rate, drain spacing, the characteristics of
smear zone, multi-stage loading and surface crust on the failure of the soft clay
foundation.
VI
Acknowledgments
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author takes this opportunity to express his profound gratitude to Professor
Buddhima Indraratna for his enthusiastic guidance, invaluable suggestions, constructive
criticisms, and constant encouragement throughout this research project. His patience
and availability for any help whenever needed with his heavy workload is appreciated.
From Professor Indraratna, the author realized n e w ways of thinking about soil
mechanics, of blending complex mathematics with the principles of mechanics. This
guidance into n e w avenues of knowledge will be useful to author throughout his career.
I would like to express my gratitude to senior technicians Alan Grant for his
continuous help with the initial set-up of equipment and during the laboratory work. 1
appreciate Cholachat Rujikiatkamjorn, a fellow doctoral candidate for sharing views
and mutual help. A special note of sincere appreciation also extends to Dr. Hadi
Khabbaz, Professor A.S. Balasubramaniam, Dr. G.S.K. Fernando and Dr. Brett Lemas
for their continuing support and good wishes.
I would also like to extend thanks to fellow postgraduate friends for their
discussions, support, and social interaction outside the "geotechnical" world. M y
appreciation is also extended to all past and present members of the Department of
Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong for their
warm-hearted cooperation. The author w a s financially supported by the Australian
Commonwealth
(IPRS and U P A Scholarships) fund administered through the
University of Wollongong and this deserves special acknowledgment.

My special and sincere gratitude is offered to my beloved wife Ramani for her
constant love, prayers, encouragement and m a n y sacrifices throughout the research
period; her constants affection and forbearance has been a source of strength.
Last but not the least, the author humbly dedicates this piece of work to his
beloved parents, wife, brothers and sisters, without whose sacrifice and understanding
the author could never have reached where he is today.
I. Sathananthan,
University of Wollongong, Australia.
vii
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Affirmation ii
List of Publications iii
Abstract v
Acknowledgments vii
Table of Contents viii
List of Figures xix
List of Tables xxviii
List of Symbols xxix
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Use of Vertical Drains 3
1.3 Methods of Deformation Analysis 5
1.3.1 Analytical Method 5
1.3.2 Numerical Analysis 6
1.3.3 Observational Methods 7
1.4 Scope and Objective of Study 7
viii
Table of Contents
1.5
Organization of the Dissertation
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.1 History and Development of Vertical Drains 12
2.2 Types of Vertical Drains 13
2.2.1 Sand Drains 13
2.2.2 Prefabricated Vertical Drains 14
2.3 Installation and Monitoring of Vertical Drains 16
2.3.1 Inclinometers 18
2.3.2 Settlement Indicators 19
2.3.3 Piezometers 19
2.4 Drain Properties 19
2.4.1 Diameter of Influence Zone 19
2.4.2 Equivalent Drain Diameter of Band Shaped Vertical Drain 20
2.4.3 Filter and Pore Size 23
2.4.4 Discharge Capacity 24
2.5 Factors Influencing the Vertical Drain Efficiency 29
2.5.1 Smear Zone 29
ix
Table of Contents
2.5.1.1
Soil Macro Fabric
2.5.1.2 Size and Shape of the Mandrel 34
2.5.1.3 Installation Procedure 35
2.5.2 Effect of Sand Mat 36
2.5.3 Well Resistance 37
6 Development of Consolidation Theories 39
2.6.1 One-Dimensional Consolidation 39
2.6.2 Coupled Consolidation Theory 41
2.6.3 Development of Vertical Drain Theory 42
2.6.3.1 Rendulic and Carillo Diffusion theory 43
2.6.3.2 Barron's (1948) Suggestion - Equal Strain Hypothesis 44
2.6.3.3 Rigorous Solution (Yoshikuni and Nakanode, 1974) 47
2.6.3.4 Hansbo (1981)-Analysis with Smear and Well Resistance 48
2.6.3.5 X Method (Hansbo, 1979 and 1997) 49
2.6.4 2-D Modelling of Vertical Drains 50
2.6.4.1 Shinsha et al. (1982)-Permeability Transformation 52
2.6.4.2 Hird et al. (1992)-Geometry and Permeability Matching 52
33
Table of Contents
2.6.4.3
Bergado and Long (1994) -Equal Discharge Concept
53
2.6.4.4 Chaietal. (1995)-Well Resistance Matching 53
2.6.4.5 Lee etal. (1997)-Time Factor Analysis 54
2.6.4.6 Indraratna and Redana (1997) - Rigorous Solution for Parallel Drain
Wall 55
2.6.5 Simple Method of Modelling (1-D) 58
2.7 Evaluation of Design Parameters 59
2.7.1 Vertical Coefficient of Consolidation and Permeability 60
2.7.2 Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation and Permeability 62
2.7.3 Coefficient of Consolidation with Radial Drainage 63
2.7.3.1 Log U vs t Approach 63
2.7.3.2 Plotting Settlement Data (Asaoka, 1978; Magnan et al., 1980) 64
2.8 Constitutive Models for Soils 67
2.8.1 Linear Elastic Model 67
2.8.2 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Model 67
2.8.3 Critical State Models 67
2.8.3.1 Cam-Clay Model 72
xi
3 0009 03366597 2
Table of Contents
2.8.3.2
Modified C a m Clay Model
74
2.9 Salient Aspects of Numerical Modelling 75
2.9.1 Drain Efficiency by Pore Pressure Dissipation 76
2.9.2 Deformation as a Stability Indicator 77
2.10 Summary 79
3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 82
3.1 Prediction of Smear Zone Caused by Mandrel Driven Vertical Drains using
Cavity Expansion Analysis 82
3.1.1 General 82
3.1.2 Basic Assumptions and Definition of the Problem 83
3.1.3 Elastic Analysis 84
3.1.4 Plastic Analysis 86
3.1.4.1 Stress at Elastic-Plastic Boundary 86
3.1.4.2 Strain in Plastic Zone 87
3.1.4.3 Effective Stress in the Plastic Zone 89
3.1.4.4 Total Stress in the Plastic Zone 90
3.1.4.5 Pore Water Pressure in the Plastic Zone 90
xii
Table of Contents
3.1.4.6
Prediction of Smear Zone
91
3.1.4.7 Solution Procedure 91
3.1.4.8 Illustrated Application 91
3.2 Analytical Solution for Vertical Drain with Vacuum Preloading 95
3.2.1 General 95
3.2.2 Modelling of Axisymmetric Solution with Applied Vacuum Pressure.. 97
3.2.2.1 Excess Pore Water Pressure 107
3.2.2.2 Hydraulic Gradient 107
3.2.3 Modelling of Plane Strain Solution with Applied Vacuum Pressure.... 108
3.2.4 Comparison of Axisymmetric vs Plane Strain Conditions 114
3.2.5 Matching Approach and Theoretical Considerations 116
3.3 Plane Strain Consolidation Equation for a Single Drain under Non-Darcian
Flow
121
3.3.1 General
121
3.3.2 Proposed Plane Strain Solution
122
xiii
Table of Contents
3.3.2.1
Excess Pore Water Pressure
3.3.3 Matching with Axisymmetric Consolidation 131
3.4 Summary 136
4 LABORATORY TESTING AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 138
4.1 General 138
4.2 Experimental Set-up and Testing Procedure 140
4.2.1 Apparatus 140
4.2.2 Testing Procedure 141
4.2.2.1 Preparation of Reconstituted Clay 142
4.2.2.2 Preparation of the Apparatus 143
4.2.2.3 Preparation of the Vertical Drain 144
4.2.2.4 Testing Procedure 144
4.3 Presentation of Results 146
4.3.1 Evaluation of Compressibility Indices 146
4.3.2 Pore Pressure Variation during Mandrel Installation 147
4.3.3 Permeability Tests 152
xiv
127
Table of Contents
4.3.4
Variations of Water Content
155
4.3.5 Comparison of Surface Settlement 160
4.3.6 Comparison of Excess Pore Water Pressures during Consolidation 161
4.4 Summary 162
5 CASE STUDY 1: SUNSHINE MOTORWAY (QLD, AUSTRALIA) 163
5.1 General 163
5.2 Finite Element Analysis 166
5.2.1 Element Types used in PLAXIS 167
5.2.2 Types of Material Models used in PLAXIS 169
5.2.2.1 Mohr-Coulomb Model 169
5.2.2.2 Soft Soil Model 170
5.2.3 Variation of Extent of Smear Zone 170
5.2.4 Plane Strain Permeability 171
5.2.5 Numerical Calculations and Comparison with Field Observations 172
5.2.5.1 Displacement Boundary 173
5.2.5.2 Drainage and Loading Boundary 173
5.2.5.3 Comparison of Centreline Settlement 174
xv
Table of Contents
5.2.5.4
Comparison of Lateral Displacements
177
5.2.5.5 Comparison of Excess Pore Pressure Variation 179
5.3 Summary 183
6 CASE STUDY 2: SECOND BANGKOK INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

(SUVARNABHUMI, THAILAND) 185
6.1 General 185
6.2 Finite Element Analysis 189
6.2.1 Element Types used in ABAQUS 190
6.2.2 Variation of Extent of Smear Zone 191
6.2.3 Plane Strain Permeability 192

6.2.4 Numerical Predictions and Comparison with Field Data 194
6.3 Summary 2^0
7 NUMERICAL MODELLING OF VERTICAL DRAINS AND DESIGN
IMPLICATIONS
202
7.1 General..
202
7.2 Design of Embankment Constructed on Soft Clay without Vertical Drain
7.2.1 Effect of Embankment Slope on Foundation Failure 205
7.2.1.1 Surface Settlements and Displacement 205

xvi
Table of Contents
7.2.1.2
Lateral Displacement
208
7.2.2 Effect of Loading Rate on Foundation Failure 210
7.3 Design of Embankment Constructed on Soft Clay with Vertical Drains 213
7.3.1 Effect of Drain Spacing 214
7.3.2 Effect of the Extent of Smear Zone 216
7.3.3 Effect of Smear Zone Permeability 219
7.3.4 Effect of Stage Loading 221
7.3.5 Effect of Surface Crust 224
7.3.6 Identification of the Critical Location 226
7.4 Summary 233
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 235
8.1 General 235
8.2 Specific Observations 236
8.2.1 Mathematical Formulations and Modifications to the Existing Theories.

236
8.2.2 Laboratory Program 237
xvii
Table of Contents
8.2.3
Case History Analysis
239
8.2.4 Application of Finite Element Modelling for General Design 241
8.3 Suggestions for Future Research 242
BIBLIOGRAPHY 246
Appendix 1: Relationship between Isotropic and Conventional Overconsolidation Ratio

262
xvm
List of Figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Potential benefit of vertical drains (adapted from Lau et al.2000) 4
Figure 2.1 Typical types of PVD (company brochure) 15
Figure 2.2 Typical installation rig (Source: Colbond bv, The Netherlands) 16
Figure 2.3 Basic instrumentation for a highway embankment (After Rixner, 1986) 17
Figure 2.4 Schematic of vacuum preloading consolidation (Tang et al., 2000) 18
Figure 2.5 Typical drain installation patterns and the equivalent diameters 20
Figure 2.6 Conceptual drawing of a PVD and equivalent diameter well 21
Figure 2.7 Equivalent diameters of band-shaped vertical drains 22
Figure 2.8 Possible deformation modes of PVD (adapted after Holtz, et al. 1991) 25
Figure 2.9 Typical values of discharge capacity (data from Rixner et al., 1986) 27
Figure 2.10 a) Schematic section of the test equipment showing the central drain and
associated smear zone; and b) locations of small specimens obtained to determine
the consolidation and permeability characteristic (Indraratna and Redana, 1998) .32
Figure 2.11 Ratio of kyfkv along the radial distance from the central drain (modified
Indraratna and Redana, 1998) 33
Figure 2.12 Approximation of the disturbed zone around the mandrel (Rixnet et al)....
Figure 2.13 Minimum discharge capacity required (based on Eqn. 2.20) 38
xix
List of Figures
Figure 2.14 Unit cell model of a drain surrounding by soil cylinder
42
Figure 2.15 Schematic of soil cylinder with vertical drain (after Hansbo, 1979) 46
Figure 2.16 Average consolidation rates a) for vertical flow, b) for radial flow 47
Figure 2.17 Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into plane strain condition 51
Figure 2.18 Comparison of average degree of consolidation (data from Chai et al.,
1995) 54
Figure 2.19 Comparison of excess pore pressure variation (data from Chai et al., 1995)
55
Figure 2.20 Average degree of consolidation (modified after, Indraratna et al., 2000).
Figure 2.21 Comparison of the average surface settlement (Indraratna et al., 2000) 58
Figure 2.22 Comparison of the excess pore pressure (Indrarataa et al., 2000) 58
Figure 2.23 Effect of Cdon degree of consolidation (Chai et al. 2001) 60
Figure 2.24 Aboshi and Monden (1963) method for determining Ch 64
Figure 2.25 Asaoka (1978) method to determine Ch 65
Figure 2.26 Isotropic normal consolidation line plot in critical state theory 69
Figure 2.27 Position of the critical state line 70
Figure 2.28 Position of the initial specific volume 71
Figure 2.29 Yield locus of Cam Clay and Modified Cam Clay model 73
xx
List of Figures
Figure 2.30 Percentage of undissipated excess pore pressure at drain-soil interfaces

(Indraratna et al., 1994) 77
Figure 3.1 Expansion of a cavity 83
Figure 3.2 Normalized pore water pressure variation with radius 94
Figure 3.3 Consolidation process (a) conventional loading (b) vacuum preloading 96
Figure 3.4 Schematic of soil cylinder with vertical drain (adapted from Hansbo, 1979)
98
Figure 3.5 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different vacuum
pressure distribution 104
Figure 3.6 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different drain spacin
105
Figure 3.7 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different smear zone
parameters 106
Figure 3.8 Plane strain unit cell 108
Figure 3.9 Comparison of average excess pore water pressure distribution 115
Figure 3.10 Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into plane strain condition (adapt
from, Hird et al., 1992; Indraratna and Redana, 1997) 117
Figure 3.11 Ratio between coefficients of permeability of undisturbed zone of

equivalent plane strain cell to those of axisymmetric cell as a function of n 119
xxi
List of Figures
Figure 3.12 Ratio between smear zone permeability to undisturbed zone permeability of
equivalent plane strain cell as a function of n, s and kh/kh 120
Figure 3.13 Exponential correlation (modified after Hansbo, 2001) 121
Figure 3.14 The variation of function gp (n, y) withy for selected n 124
Figure 3.15 The variation of function/^, (n, y) withy for selected n 126
Figure 3.16 Variation of average degree of consolidation with exponent n 129
Figure 3.17 Variation of normalized excess pore pressure with exponent n 130
Figure 3.18 Variation of normalized hydraulic gradient with exponent n 131
Figure 3.19 Equivalent plane strain ap value as a function of Blbw, bjbw and KhJKs of
axisymmetric cell for different n values 133
Figure 3.20 Equivalent plane strain J3p value as a function of B/bw, bslbw and KH/KS of
axisymmetric for different n values 134
Figure 3.21 Ratio between coefficients of consolidation of undisturbed zone of

equivalent plane strain cell to those of axisymmetric cell as a function of B/bw ..135
Figure 3.22 Ratio between undisturbed zone permeability to smear zone permeability of
equivalent plane strain cell as a function of Blbw, bjbw and KH/KS of axisymmetric
cell for different n values 136
Figure 4.1 Large-scale radial drainage consolidometer 141
xxii
List of Figures
Figure 4.2 Location of pore pressure transducers and cored samples
142
Figure 4.3 Mandrel, Guider, PPT and prepared sample 144
Figure 4.4 Variation of void ratio with consolidation pressure 146
Figure 4.5 Pore pressure variation during mandrel installation for different initial
surcharge pressure (preconsolidation pressure) 149
Figure 4.6 Normalized pore water pressure variation with distance 152
Figure 4.7 Variation of (a) horizontal permeability, (b) vertical permeability, (c)
permeability ratio, and (d) the normalized permeability, with radial distance .... 154
Figure 4.8 Variation of (a) water content and (b) normalized water content reduction,
with radial distance at a depth of 0.5 m 157
Figure 4.9 Variation of water content with depth and radial distance for an applied
pressure of 200 kPa 158
Figure 4.10 Correlation between the reduction of permeability and the water content
within the smear zone 159
Figure 4.11 (a) Comparison of surface settlement, and (b) FE mesh used in Plaxis.... 1
Figure 4.12 Comparison of excess pore water pressure 161
Figure 5.1 Map of Australia showing the location of the study area 164
Figure 5.2 Profile of the Geotechnical characteristics (Sunshine Motorway Stage 2

Interim Report, 1992) 164
xxiii
List of Figures
Figure 5.3 Plan view of Trial Embankment
165
Figure 5.4 Typical cross-section of embankment with selected instrumentation points

166
Figure 5.5 Types of element used in PLAXIS (Version 8) 168
Figure 5.6 Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their
connection to soil elements 168
Figure 5.7 Normalised pore water pressure variation with radial distance 171
Figure 5.8 Variation of extent of smear zone with depth 171
Figure 5.9 Finite element mesh used to analyse Section B 173
Figure 5.10 Construction History of the Trial Embankment 174
Figure 5.11 Centreline settlement of trial embankment sections 175
Figure 5.12 Settlement contours at the end of construction 176
Figure 5.13 Settlement contours at the end of 100 days 176
Figure 5.14 Lateral displacement profile at the middle of the main batter 177
Figure 5.15 Lateral displacement profile at the toe of the berm 178
Figure 5.16 Lateral displacement contours at the end of construction 180
Figure 5.17 Lateral displacement contours at the end of 100 days 180
Figure 5.18 Excess pore pressure variation with time beneath the middle of the berm 181
xxiv
List of Figures
Figure 5.19 Variation of excess pore pressure below the embankment centreline
182
Figure 6.1 Location of SBIA site (after Moh and Lin, 1997) 186
Figure 6.2 General soil properties at SBIA site (modified after Sangamala, 1997) 18
Figure 6.3 Compressibility parameters at SBIA site (adopted from Sangmala, 1997). 18
Figure 6.4 Cross section of embankments with key instrumentation at SBIA (modified
after Indraratna et al., 2005) 188
Figure 6.5 Construction loading history 189
Figure 6.6 Types of elements used in ABAQUS (Hibbitt et al., (2004) 191
Figure 6.7 Normalized pore water pressure variation with radial distance 192
Figure 6.8 Variation of extent of smear zone with depth 193
Figure 6.9 Finite element mesh used in the analyses (Model 2) 194
Figure 6.10 Measured total pore pressure and simulated vacuum pressure at surface.
Figure 6.11 Settlement variation with depth for embankments (a) TV1 and (b) TV2.. 1
Figure 6.12 Variation of excess pore water pressure at 3m depth below ground level,
0.5m away from the centreline for embankments (a) TV1 and (b) TV2 198
Figure 6.13 Lateral displacement profiles (after 150days) through the toe of the
embankments (a) TV1 and (b) TV2 199
Figure 7.1 Finite element mesh (consists of 15-node elements) used in this analysis
xxv
List of Figures
Figure 7.2 Surface settlement at the embankment centre with fill height 206
Figure 7.3 Surface heave at embankment toe with fill height 206
Figure 7.4 Displacement contours for different slopes 207
Figure 7.5 Lateral displacement contours for different slopes 208
Figure 7.6 Excess pore pressure contours for different slopes 209
Figure 7.7 Surface settlement at embankment centreline with fill height 210
Figure 7.8 Displacement (heave) at embankment toe with fill height 211
Figure 7.9 Contour plots for a loading rate of 0.2 m/week (the height and the slope of
the embankment are 1.5m and 3:1, respectively) 212
Figure 7.10 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for different drain spacing 215
Figure 7.11 Displacement at embankment toe for different drain spacing 215
Figure 7.12 Lateral displacement contours for different drain spacing 216
Figure 7.13 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for two different smear zones
218
Figure 7.14 Displacement at embankment toe for two different smear zone 218
Figure 7.15 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for different permeability

ratios 220
Figure 7.16 Displacement at embankment toe for different permeability ratios 220
xxvi
List of Figures
Figure 7.17 Construction loading history 222
Figure 7.18 Surface settlement at embankment centreline with (a) time, (b) fill height
222
Figure 7.19 Displacement contours when the fill height is 1.6 m 223
Figure 7.20 Lateral displacement contours when the fill height is 1.6 m 223
Figure 7.21 Effect of surface crust 224
Figure 7.22 Increment contours when the embankment height increases from 1.8 to 2.0
m (a) vertical displacement, (b) lateral displacement, and (c) shear strain 225
Figure 7.23 Measured settlement of Muar test embankment, Malaysia (after Indraratna
etal., 1992) 227
Figure 7.24 Typical embankment 227
Figure 7.25 Variation of induced vertical stress and shear stress 229
Figure 7.26 Variation of shear stress with horizontal direction at different depths 23
Figure 7.27 Shear stress distribution with normalized depth under embankments 231
Figure 7.28 Variation of lateral displacement at different cross section 232
Figure Al Variation of the isotropic and conventional overconsolidation ratio with slo
of critical state line 264
xxvn
List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Percentage of discharge capacity of deformed drain condition 27
Table 2.2 Short term discharge capacity, in m3/year (Hansbo, 1981) 28
Table 2.3 Current recommended values for specification of discharge capacity 29
Table 2.4 Proposed smear zone parameters (After Xiao, 2001) 34
Table 2.5 Summary of proposed well resistance indexes 39
Table 2.6 Normalized deformation factors (modified after Indraratna et al. 1997) 79
Table 3.1 Input MCC parameters and calculation sheet 92
Table 4.1 Engineering properties of selected sample 142
Table 4.2 Modified Cam Clay Parameters 147
Table 5.1 Modified Cam-clay parameters used in the finite element analysis 167
Table 5.2 Mohr-Coulomb parameters of the sand layer 167
Table 5.3 Equivalent Plane Strain permeabilities of embankment sections 172
Table 6.1 Modified Cam-clay parameters of SBIA site (Indraratna et al., 2005) 190
Table 6.2 Axisymmetric and Plane Strain permeabilities for both embankments 193
Table 7.1 Soil parameters used in finite element analysis 204
Table 7.2 Equivalent permeability 214

xxviii
List of Notations
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A Cross sectional area
a Width of band drain
Radius of cavity after time t
av Coefficient of compressibility
B Equivalent half width of the plane strain cell
b Thickness of band drain
bs Equivalent half width of smear zone in plane strain
bw Equivalent half width of drain (well) in plane strain
c Vacuum propagation factor
Cc Compression index
Cf Ratio of field and laboratory coefficient of permeability
Ch Coefficient of horizontal consolidation
Ck Permeability change index
Cr Recompression index
c Undrained shear strength
cv Coefficient of vertical consolidation
Ca Secondary compression index
De Diameter of effective influence zone of drain
dm Diameter of mandrel
xxix
ds
Diameter of smear zone
dw Equivalent diameter of band drain

D15 Diameter of clay particles corresponding to 15% passing
E Young's modulus
Ei Shearing strain in conventional triaxial tests
_ Strain from pressure meter tests
Ei Strain from simple shear tests
Eu Young's modulus for undrained shear
e Void ratio
ecs Void ratio on the critical state line for value of p'=l
e0 Initial void ratio
Ft Influence factor of drain due to time
Fc Influence factor of drain due to drain deformation
Ffc Influence factor of drain due to clogging
F(n) Drain spacing factor
G Shear modulus
Well resistance factor
Gs Specific gravity
xxx
Soil thickness
Hd The longest drainage path

H0 Initial thickness of compressible soil
Ip Plasticity index
i Hydraulic gradient
i0 Threshold hydraulic gradient
ii Limiting hydraulic gradient
k Permeability
kax Axisymmetric permeability
kfliter Permeability of filter
kh Horizontal coefficient of permeability
k'h Horizontal coefficient of permeability in smear zone
khp Equivalent undisturbed zone permeability in plane strain
k'hp Equivalent smear zone permeability in plane strain
kpi Plane strain permeability

ks Smear zone permeability
ksoii Permeability of soil
kv Vertical coefficient of permeability
kve Equivalent vertical coefficient of permeability
kw Coefficient of permeability of drain
xxxi
/ Length of drain
/ Maximum discharge length
LL Liquid limit
M Oedometer modulus
Slope of critical state line
mv Coefficient of volume change
N Volume on the normal consolidation line corresponds to p'=l
n Spacing ratio
Exponent factor (non-Darcian flow)
O15 Size of particle which is larger than 15% of the fabric pores
O50 Size of particle which is larger than 50% of the fabric pores
O95 Apparent opening size
OCR Conventional (1-D) overconsolidation ratio
p Total mean stress
p' Effective mean stress
p c Stress representing the reference size of yield locus
p 'c0 Maximum stress on yield locus
p o In situ mean effective stress
PI Plasticity index
xxxii
PL
Plasticity Limit
Q Discharge capacity
q Deviator stress
qp Deviator stress at elasto-plastic boundary
qreq Theoretical discharge capacity calculated from Barron's theory
qw Axisymmetric discharge capacity
qW(min) Minimum discharge capacity
qz Plane strain discharge capacity
R Radius of axisymmetric unit cell
Isotropic overconsolidation ratio
r Radius
R\ Index of well resistance
/- Permeability anisotropy (permeability ratio)
rm Radius of mandrel
rp Radius of plastic zone
rs Radius of smeared zone
rw Radius of vertical drain (well)
S Field spacing of drains
s Smear ratio
xxxiii
Thickness of the drain walls in 2-D model
Time
Ty, Time factor for horizontal drainage
Thp Time factor for horizontal drainage in plane strain
Tv Time factor for vertical drainage
Tr5o Time factor for 50% consolidation of radial flow
Tso Time factor for 50% consolidation of laminar flow
Tr9o Time factor for 90% consolidation of radial flow
Tgo Time factor for 90% consolidation of laminar flow
u Pore water pressure
ux Displacement along the x\ direction
u0 Initial pore water pressure
Up Average degree of pore pressure dissipation
ur Excess pore water pressure due to radial flow only
Us Degree of consolidation settlement
usur Applied surcharge pressure
uvac Applied vacuum pressure
uw Pore water pressure
uz Excess pore water pressure due to vertical flow only
Uax Degree of consolidation in axisymmetric
xxxiv
List of Notations
Upi
Degree of consolidation in plane strain
Uio 10 % degree of saturation

U Average degree of consolidation
u Average excess pore pressure throughout the soil mass

Ur Average degree of consolidation for radial flow only
ur Average excess pore pressure throughout the soil mass due to radial flow
uvac Average applied vacuum pressure

Uz Average degree of consolidation for vertical flow only
uz Average excess pore pressure throughout the soil mass due to vertical flow
V Volume
Specific volume
v Specific volume
v Smear factor
Velocity of flow
W Well resistance factor
w Water content
Width of band drain
WL Liquid limit
wp Plastic limit
XXXV
List of Notations
Horizontal distance from centre of drain
x\ Cartesian coordinates
z Depth (thickness) of soil layer
Greek Letters
a Geometric parameter representing smear in plane strain under Darcian flow
A parameter representing the smear and well resistance in axisymmetric

consolidation under non-Darcian flow
Ratio of maximum lateral displacement to settlement
/? Geometric parameter representing smear in plane strain
A parameter representing the smear and well resistance in axisymmetric

consolidation under non-Darcian flow
Bj Ratio of maximum lateral displacement to corresponding fill height
B2 Ratio of maximum settlement to corresponding fills height
s Strain
sj Final settlement of the soft soil equivalent to 25% of the drain length installed
sr Radial strain
0 Circumferential strain
Consolidation scalar potential
xxxvi
List of Notations
</) Effective friction angle
r Volume on the critical state line corresponds to p-1; r=ecs+\
yoc1 Octahedral strain
ys Saturated unit weight of soil
Yw Unit weight of water
n. Stress ratio
Slope of unloading-reloading line in v-lnp
space
Coefficient of permeability in non- Darcian flow
A Plastic volumetric strain ratio
Slope of normal compression line in v-lnp
space
Coefficient of consolidation in non- Darcian flow
fi Smear and well resistance factor in axisymmetric under Darcian flow
JUP Smear and well resistance factor in plane strain under Darcian flow
v Poisson's ratio
9 Geometric parameter representing well resistance in plane strain
p Settlement
o Total stress
xxxvii
Effective stress
c_ Internal cavity pressure at time t
cr'ho In situ effective horizontal stress
o~rp Stress at elasto-plastic boundary
CvmaxMaximum effective vertical stress (past)
crr Radial stress
o~z Vertical stress at depth z
G'V Effective vertical stress
cr In situ effective vertical stress
o~e Circumferential stress
o~o Initial internal cavity pressure
o~i Axial stress or Major principle stress
(72 Confining stress or Intermediate principle stress
0-3 Confining stress or Minor Principle stress
r Shear stress
to Radial speed of soil element
E, Displacement
xxxviii
Subscripts
ax Axisymmetric
h Horizontal or Undisturbed zone
p Plane strain
r Radial
s Smear zone or Shear
v Vertical or Volumetric
0 Initial
0 Circumferential
Superscript
/ Effective parameter or Smear zone parameter
p Plastic
xxxix
Chapter 1 Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Rapid development and associated urbanization have compelled engineers to construct

earth structures including major highways over soft clay deposits of low bearing
capacity coupled with excessive settlement characteristics. In the coastal regions of
Australia and Southeast Asia, soft clays are widespread and extensive, often in the
vicinity of capital cities. These grounds have low shear strength and bearing capacity as
well as high compressibility and excessive settlements over long periods of time. When
these areas are selected for development work, the ground level must be raised above
the flood level with fill, but unacceptable differential settlement due to the heterogeneit
of the fill and compressibility of the underlying soft soils may cause the structures to be
damaged. Therefore, it is essential to stabilize the existing soft clay foundations prior t
construction in order to avoid excessive and differential settlement.
Even though there are a variety of soil improvement techniques available to
stabilize the soft ground, the application of preloading with prefabricated vertical drains
is still regarded as one of the classical and popular methods in practice. It involves the
loading of the ground surface to induce a greater part of the ultimate settlement of the
underlying soft strata. In other words, a surcharge load equal to or greater than the
expected foundation loading is applied to accelerate consolidation by rapid pore
pressure dissipation via vertical drains. Application of vacuum pressure with surcharge
loading can further accelerate consolidation while reducing the required surcharge fill
material without any adverse effects on the stability of an embankment built on soft
clays. The rate of consolidation attributed to vacuum-assisted preloading is greater than
the conventional method because of an increase in the lateral hydraulic gradient.
1
The major use of preloading and vertical drains is that preloading on its own can
reduce total and differential settlement facilitating the choice of foundations, whereas
when vertical drains are used with preloading, the settlement process can be accelerated
considerably. Soil consolidation is the process of decreasing the volume in saturated
soils by expelling the water that occupies inside the pores between the solid soil
particles. Therefore, the rate of consolidation is governed by the compressibility,
permeability and length of the drainage path. The amount of settlement is directly
related to the change in void ratio, which in turn is directly proportional to the amount
of dissipation of excess pore water pressure.
A number of researchers (e.g. Barron, 1948; Yoshikuni and Nakanodo, 1974;

Hansbo, 1981; Onoue, 1988; Hird and Russell, 1992; Indraratna and Redana, 1998)
have investigated the factors affecting the progress of consolidation with vertical drains
The influence of smear on consolidation and the discharge capacity of the drain have
been the main focus of such investigations. The term 'smear zone' is generally referred
to as the disturbance that occurs when installing a vertical drain. This causes a
substantial reduction in soil permeability around the drain, which in mm retards the rate
of consolidation. In reality, the discharge capacity of a drain can be reduced due to well
resistance as a result of kinking, folding etc and also due to clogging of drain filters
during installation. The difficulties and uncertainties that prevent a proper assessment
radial consolidation around vertical drains arise from the following aspects:
(i) Obtaining accurate and representative soil parameters, especially hydraulic
properties, from laboratory and/or field tests;
(ii) Estimating the smear effect due to insufficient knowledge of smear zone
characteristics;
(iii) Incorporating variations of soil properties with consolidation;
2
(iv) Oversimplifying the loading history and stress condition;

(v) Inability of the existing theories to completely model the consolidation;
(vi) Evaluating the effectiveness of vertical drains and discharge capacity; and
(vii) Difficulties in incorporating installation details.
Some of these uncertainties and difficulties are due to a lack of understanding,
which could be overcome through research such as this, and indeed, the main focus of
this thesis is the effect of smear, which is a significant and unavoidable problem.
In this study, the effectiveness of vertical drains was evaluated by modelling its
behaviour in large-scale laboratory consolidation tests. Special attention was given to
modelling the smear zone developed during installation. The extent of the smear zone
was determined in the laboratory utilising the large-scale consolidometer apparatus and
verified with proposed analytical smear zone. A plane strain model including smear
effect is introduced by modifying Hansbo's axisymmetric solution of vertical drains.
The sub-soil properties were modelled according to the Modified Cam-clay theory, and
the finite element technique was adopted as the main tool for numerical analysis.
1.2 Use of Vertical Drains
Vertical drains are artificially created drainage often used in soft deposits to accelerat
primary consolidation by shortening the drainage path such that dissipation of pore
water pressure can occur radially rather than the vertically. The main advantages of
vertical drains are as follows:
(i) Increase the shear strength of soil by decreasing the void ratio;
(ii) Decrease the preloading time to minimize the same level of post-construction
settlement;
3
Chapter 1 introduction
(iii) Reduce differential settlements during the primary consolidation stage; and
(iv) Curtail the height of surcharge fill required to achieve the desired
precompression.
The potential benefit of vertical drains is shown in Fig. 1.1, where a faster rate of
foundation settlement is obtained compared to those without them. Vertical drains can
also be used as pressure relief wells to reduce pore pressure due to seepage, for instance,
below natural slopes, and to improve the effectiveness of natural drainage layers below
loaded areas.
Time (month)
Figure 1.1 Potential benefit of vertical drains (adapted from Lau et al.2000)
1.3
M e t h o d s of Deformation Analysis
1.3.1 Analytical Method
A stress increase caused by construction of embarikments or other compresses soil
layers. This compression is caused by (i) deformation of soil particles, (ii) relocation o
soil particles and (iii) expulsion of water or air from the void spaces. In general,
embankments and subsoil deformation may be classified into three components;
immediate or distortion settlement, consolidation or primary settlement, and creep or
secondary compression settlement. Immediate or undrained deformation caused by the
elastic deformation of moist, dry, and saturated soils without any change in the moisture
content, might be calculated using various solutions, hence these settlement calculations
are generally based on equations derived from the theory of elasticity (Giroud and
Rebatel, 1971; Poulos and Davis, 1974). These elastic solutions have been popular due
to their simplicity, although the sub-soil is often non-elastic.
Consolidation settlements, the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive

soils due to the expulsion of wafer that occupies in the void spaces, are predicted by
evaluating one dimensional compression characteristics of an undisturbed sample in the
laboratory oedometer test. The rate of settlement can be predicted using Terzaghi's onedimensional consolidation theory (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967; Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
For embankments stabilized with vertical drains, the rate of settlement can be predicted
using Barron's (1948) or Hansbo's (1981) analytical solutions.
Secondary compression is a continuation of volume change beyond primary

consolidation, and usually occurs at a much slower rate. Secondary compression is
different from primary consolidation in that it takes place under constant effective
5
stress, i.e. after the entire excess pore pressure has dissipated. Secondary compression
might be predicted using the relationships given by Raymond and Wahls (1976), and
Mesri and Godlewski (1977).
1.3.2 Numerical Analysis
There are many practical engineering problems for which one cannot obtain exact
solutions. This may be attributed to either the complex nature of governing differential
equations or the difficulties that arise from dealing with boundary and initial condition
To deal with this problem one needs to resort to numerical approximations. In contrast
to analytical solutions, which show the exact behaviour of a system at any point within
the system, numerical solutions approximate exact solutions only at discrete points,
called nodes. The first step of any numerical procedure is discretisation, which divides
the medium of interest into a number of small sub-regions and nodes. There are two
common classes of numerical methods: (i) finite difference and (ii) finite element
methods. With finite difference methods, the differential equation is written for each
node, and the derivatives are replaced by finite difference equations. This approach
results in a set of simultaneous linear equations. Although finite difference methods are
easy to understand and employ in simple problems, they become difficult to apply to
problems with complex geometries or boundary conditions. In contrast, the finite
element method uses integral formulations rather that finite difference equations to
create a system of algebraic equations. Moreover, an approximate continuous function
is assumed to represent the solution for each element. The complete solution is then
generated by connecting or assembling the individual solutions, allowing for continuity
at the inter-elemental boundaries. The deformation response of each element is defined
by element shape, the displacement variation within each element, and the constitutive
model (stress-strain behaviour) employed to represent element behaviour.
Numerical techniques in geotechnical engineering have been used increasingly

because of advances in computer applications. The main advantages of numerical
analysis are that the settlement and stresses within the soil are coupled, and therefore
more realistic soil behaviour can be simulated. Finite difference methods for vertical
drains have been developed by several researchers (Brenner and Prebaharan, 1983 and
Onoue, 1988b). Of these, two techniques are generally known in the finite difference
approach as "explicit" and "implicit" solutions. A comparative study between them
concluded that the implicit method provides better numerical stability, although a set of
simultaneous equations needs to be solved at each time step (Desai and Christian,
1977).
1.3.3 Observational Methods
Due to a variety of uncertainties in theoretical procedures, final settlement may not be
correct, and therefore observational support is required to justify the predictions. Ther
are several observational methods available whereby using the initial settlement
observations, the final consolidation settlement could be predicted (Asaoka, 1978,
Magnan and Deroy, 1980).
1.4 Scope and Objective of Study
In order to increase embankments stability on soft, clayey foundations, it has become

common practise to construct vertical drains underneath an embankment to accelerate
consolidation, for which engineers estimate the time-settlement relations using Barron's
7
solution (which assumes a simple case of no peripheral smear, no well resistance, and
no well rigidity). However, remarkable differences in the consolidation process have
been often found, which m a y be caused by the aforementioned factors. M a n y
researchers and engineers in soil mechanics have been interested in both peripheral
smear and well resistance. Nowadays, most of the prefabricated drains used in practice
have negligible well resistance. Therefore, the accuracy of the predictions using the
consolidation theories depends on the correct assessment of the extent of smear zone
and its permeability. But, these are often difficult to quantify and determine from
laboratory tests. So far, there is no comprehensive or standard method for measuring
them.
In this study, an attempt is made to introduce an analytical method to determine

the extent of smear zone using cylindrical cavity expansion analysis incorporating the
Modified Cam-Clay model. This predicted extent of smear zone was compared with the
experimentally evaluated smear zone propagation using a large scale, radial drainage
consolidometer. Then, the existing axisymmetric (3-D) and plane strain (2-D) theories
were modified incorporating the vacuum pressure. The settlements observed in
laboratory tests were compared with the predicted value, using the finite element
computer programmes incorporating the critical state theory in soil mechanics. Various
case studies on vertical drains were also analysed to verify the analytical model. This
study includes the performance of vertical drains installed underneath embankments
built on soft clay foundations in Australia and Thailand.
Various laboratory tests have been conducted to model the smear effect around
vertical drains. Based on those findings, the smear zone can be quantified and verified
with the proposed analytical solution and then incorporated in the finite element
analysis. Compressibility and permeability tests were also conducted to determine the
8
variation of compressibility, and vertical and horizontal permeability of the soil close
and away from the central drain, in a large, radial drainage consolidometer. The
apparatus can accommodate 650 mm diameter samples, upto 950 mm in height. The
permeability was indirectly measured using a conventional (50 mm diameter)
oedometer apparatus on samples recovered from the large-scale consolidometer, and
subsequently analysed using Terzaghi's one-dimensional theory. By measuring the
samples recovered at a known radial distance surrounding the centrally inserted drain in
the large-scale consolidometer, the extent and the variation of the permeability inside
and outside the smear zone were determined. The soil sample (450 mm diameter x 950
mm height) placed in the large-scale consolidometer was loaded to measure the
settlement and pore water pressure response of the soft clay.
The model proposed in this study has been applied to several embankments built
on soft clay stabilized with vertical drains founded in Australia and Thailand. The
settlements and pore water pressure responses of these soft clay foundations were
determined and compared with the field measurements. Finally, the knowledge gained
from the analysis of consolidometer cell and real embankments was used to demonstrate
how the plane strain analysis can be employed to predict the stability of embankments
under different conditions such as, with and without vertical drains, preloading,
different embankment geometries, and different drain spacing.
1.5 Organization of the Dissertation
This introductory Chapter highlights the aim and scope of the present research, while
Chapter 2 is devoted to a detailed literature review associated with the present work. In
fact, the available publications on vertical drains, plane strain modelling, and the
9
..
relevant laboratory tests to measure the coefficient of consolidation and permeability

inside and outside smear zone, and the analysis of embankments stabilized with vertical
drains, are reviewed in detail.
Chapter 3 presents the mathematical formulation for the present research. First, an
analytical solution is described to evaluate the extent of the smear zone caused by
mandrel driven vertical drains using the cavity expansion theory incorporating Modified
Cam Clay model. Then, a modified consolidation theory incorporating vacuum pressure
for axisymmetric and plane strain conditions, with a linearly distributed (trapezoidal)
vacuum pressure was discussed. Finally, a new plane strain consolidation equation
(incorporating smear) for non-Darcian flow are presented in detail.
In Chapter 4, the experimental set up in the laboratory to estimate the extent of

smear zone, to monitor settlement and pore pressure was discussed. The settlement
response of the soil with vertical drains (tested in the large-scale equipment) is predic
using the proposed plane strain analysis as previously mentioned in Chapter 3.
Chapters 5 and 6 present the application of the proposed model to several

embankments stabilized with vertical drains in Australia and Thailand. Multi-drain
analysis was carried out and the predictions were compared with available field data.
Chapter 7 discusses the use of 2-D plane strain numerical analysis for soft clay
foundations to predict the failure height under different conditions such as, with and
without vertical drains, preloading, different embankment geometries, and different
drain spacing. Comparisons between those conditions are elucidated.
10
Concluding remarks and recommendations for further studies are summarized in

Chapter 8, followed by References and Appendices. The letter symbols (notation) in
this thesis are defined where they first appear, either in the text, or by diagrams.
11
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 History and Development of Vertical Drains

To improve the soft ground different types of vertical drainage system (e.g. sand
compaction piles, prefabricated vertical drains) have been used extensively over the pas
few decades. This concept was first proposed around 1920's and patented in 1926 by
Daniel.J.Moran, an American engineer. Moran suggested the first practical application
of sand drains to stabilize the mud soil beneath the roadway approach to the San
Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge (Johnson, 1970).
This solution led to comprehensive laboratory and field-testing by the California
Division of Highways in 1933 on the effectiveness of sand drains on the rate of
consolidation, and in 1936 Porter described these successful trials and contributed to t
further study and development. After World War Two the application of sand drains has
undergone enormous development, largely due to better methods of installation and
greater knowledge of the principle controlling their performances in different types of

soft clays (Jamiolkowski et al., 1983). In Japan, during 1940's, vertical sand drain
behaviour was not understood very well because the foundation bearing capacity was
considered sufficient for a full load immediately after installation which resulted in
frequent foundation failure (Aboshi, 1992).
Walter Kjellman installed the first prefabricated drain system in a field test in
1937 using tubes made from a wood/fibre material but after realizing this material was
inappropriate and too expensive, Kjellman invented and patented a band shaped
cardboard drain in 1939, and a method for driving it into the ground. This cardboard
drain consisted of two cardboard sheets glued together with an external cross-section
100 mm wide by 3 mm thick, with ten 3 mm wide by 1 mm thick longitudinal internal
12
channels. The efficiency of cardboard wicks wasfirstinvestigated in Sweden at Lilla

Mellosa in a full-scale test, after which several types of prefabricated band drains such
as Geodrain (Sweden), Alidrain (England), Mebradrain (Netherlands), etc, were
developed. Basically, prefabricated band drains have a rectangular cross-section
consisting offilterfabric sleeve or jacket surrounding a plastic core. The sleeve acts as a
physical barrier separating the core and the surrounding soil but permits pore water to
enter the drain. It is m a d e from non-woven polyester, polypropylene geotextile, or
synthetic paper. The plastic core has grooved channels which act as flow paths and
supports for the filter sleeve (Bergado et al. 1996).
2.2 Types of Vertical Drains
There are many types of vertical drains used for the ground improvement, the first were
cylindrical columns of sand constructed using conventional piling equipment and were
placed at fairly large centres to avoid disturbing the ground. It was soon realized that
their performance depended on the spacing and surface area of the drain. T o reduce the
spacing a sand drain called "sandwicks" were used where the sand was contained within
a 50 m m diameter geotextile sock and installed using a vibrated or jetted mandrel. At
this time Kjellman was experimenting with a narrow cardboard drain, all of which had
major drawbacks so in 1970 A k z o Research, in cooperation with the Royal Adrian
Volker Group, developed thefirstsynthetic drain using a non-woven polyester fabric.
2.2.1 Sand Drains
Sand drains collect water expelled from the soil and transport it out of the ground. The
discharge capacity of sand drain is governed by their permeability, which in turn is
controlled by the size of the grain. The discharge capacity however, can be reduced and
13
ultimately clogged, by the intrusion of fine soil particles. Generally, sand drains were
relatively large (30-70 cm) but later on smaller diameter drains (sand wick - 50 mm,
sand pack -120 mm) were used. In these drains, the sand is packed into a synthetic fibre
net tube which prevents the drains from necking. Sand compaction pile is also a sand
drain which is compacted during its installation and can carry more loads and operate as
a drain well. Some disadvantages of sand drains are:
(i) The sand must have adequate drainage properties and is seldom found near the
construction site;
(ii) The drains may become discontinuous due to careless installation or excessive
lateral soil displacements during consolidation;
(iii) Sand bulking during placement may lead to formation of cavities and subsequent
collapse on flooding;
(iv) The large diameter required for the sand drain may pose a construction problem
and/or budgetary burden;
(v) Disturbing the soil around each drain during installation may reduce its hydraulic
conductivity, flow, and efficiency of the system; and
(vi) The reinforcing effect may reduce the efficiency of the surcharge loading in
consolidating the subsoil.
2.2.2 Prefabricated Vertical Drains
The development of various types of prefabricated band shaped drains that can
overcome most of the shortcomings of sand drains are being marketed under different
trade names (Rixner et al. 1986). The number of commercially available band drains has
increased rapidly since the first cardboard wick type drain used by Kjellman in 1948.
With the development of the first band drain by Akzo in 1970, and the rapid
14
development of geotextile and geomembrance technology in recent years, the sleeves

(or filter jacket) of today's wick drains are usually made from synthetic geotextile
which provides higher tensile strength and ensures consistent performance and quality.
Several types of PVD are available, such as Geodrain, Mebra drain, Audrain, Colbond
and Flodrain. PVD is more efficient than a sand drain due to its rapid installation rate
which saves time and money. PVD also creates fewer disturbances to the soil during
installation and has a greater resistance (stiffness) to lateral ground movement. Typica
types of PVDs such as Mebra and Colbond drain are shown in Figure 2.1. The most
common band shaped drains are 100 mm x 4 mm.
Band drains are generally placed within a steel mandrel by displacement methods
using static pull down or vibratory techniques. Static pushing is preferable for driving
the mandrel into the ground; whereas the dynamic methods seem to create a higher
excess pore water pressure and a greater soil disturbance during installation. The
installation rig was shown in Figure 2.2, where the vertical drain is protected during t
installation by a mandrel.
Figure 2.1 Typical types of P V D (company brochure)
15
Figure 2.2 Typical installationrig(Source: Colbond bv, The Netherlands)
2.3 Installation and Monitoring of Vertical Drains
The site must be prepared before installing a vertical drain, this may involve removing
surface vegetation and debris and grading the site for a sand blanket to act as a medium
for expelling water from the drains, and as an appropriate working mat. Vertical drains
can be installed by the washing jet method, the static method, or the dynamic method.
The washing jet method is primarily used w h e n installing large diameter sand drains,
where sand is washed in through the jet pipe.
Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) are usually installed by the static or dynamic
method. In the latter, the mandrel is driven into the ground with a vibrating or drop
hammer, but in the former, the mandrel is pushed in by a static load. The static method
usually causes less ground disturbances and is m u c h preferred for more sensitive soils.
Although faster, the dynamic methods generate higher excess pore pressures and more
soil around the mandrel.
16

Surcharge fill
Settlement plate
Deep settlement points

Berm
Permanent fill
Piezometers
Inclinometer
n
Dummy
Piezometers
Figure 2.3 Basic instrumentation for a highway embankment (After Rixner, 1986)
O n major projects instrumentation is essential for verifying performance and

observing design amendments, as warranted, to prevent unacceptable displacement.
Figure 2.3 shows a typical scheme of instruments required to monitor the soft clay
foundation beneath an embankment containing PVD. The most commonly used
instruments are inclinometers, settlement indicators, and piezometers.
A diagram of the vacuum preloading method is shown in Figure 2.4 (Shang et al.,
1998). The working platform consists of a sand layer through which vertical drains are
placed into the soil. The treatment area is sealed by a flexible membrane which is keyed
into an anchor trench surrounding the area and a perforated pipe system is placed
beneath the liner to collect water. It is essential that the site be securely sealed and
isolated from any surrounding permeable soils to avoid leaks in the membrane and loss
of vacuum. To obtain and sustain a high vacuum, the membrane is covered with water.
17
Finally the vacuum p u m p s with sufficient capacity to generate a vacuum in the soil and
capable of pumping water and air are connected to the collection system.
Vacuum pump
Water
Election pipe
Impervious
membrane liner
Clay revetment
Sand layer
Figure 2.4 Schematic of vacuum preloading consolidation (Tang et al., 2000)
2.3.1
Inclinometers
These instruments are used to monitor the lateral (transverse) movements of natural
slopes or embankments. An inclinometer casing has a grooved metal or plastic pipe that
is placed into a borehole (Durmicliff, 1988). The space between the borehole and the
casing is backfilled with a sand or gravel grout. The bottom of the pipe must rest on a
firm base to achieve a stable point of fixity. To monitor the embankment inclinometers
are normally placed at or near the toe where excessive lateral movement is usually of
some concern.
18
2.3.2 Settlement Indicators
Settlement plates or points are commonly installed where significant settlement is
predicted (Dunnicliff, 1988) to record the magnitude and rate of settlement under a load
Settlement plates are steel plate which should be placed immediately after installing the
vertical drains and before constructing the embankment. Typically, a reference rod and
protecting pipe are attached to the settlement-monitoring platform and settlement is
often evaluated periodically until the surcharge embankment is completed, then at a
reduced frequency, measuring the elevation at the top of the reference rod. Benchmarks
used for reference datum must be stable and remote from all vertical movements
2.3.3 Piezometers
Piezometers should be installed at the bottom of the sand blanket and at various
intermediate depths within the compressible layer. A dummy piezometer is usually
installed a sufficient distance away from the embankment to record the natural ground
water level and excess pore water pressure at a given location is determined by
comparison with the 'dummy' level.
2.4 Drain Properties
2.4.1 Diameter of Influence Zone
Vertical drains are generally installed in either a square or equilateral triangular patt
as illustrated in Figure 2.5. The related consolidation problem is normally simplified to

an axisymmetric unit cell in most vertical drain consolidation theories where the drain
well and its influence are assumed to be cylindrical. The influence area of each drain i
usually approximated into a cylinder with an equivalent cross sectional area. As shown
19
in Figure 2.5, the equivalent diameter of the influence zone (De) can be found in terms
of the drain spacing (S) as follows (Hansbo, 1981):
De-1.128 S for drains installed in a square pattern, and
(2.1)
De-1.05 S for drains installed in an equilateral triangular pattern
(2.2)
Drains in a square pattern may be easier to lay out and control during installation
in the field but a triangular pattern usually provides a more uniform consolidation
between them.
Drains
De=1.128S
Square pattern
De=1.05S
Triangular pattern
Figure 2.5 Typical drain installation patterns and the equivalent diameters
2.4.2
Equivalent Drain Diameter of Band Shaped Vertical Drain
The radius of sand drains, or their modern derivatives such as sand wicks or plastic tube
drains, can easily be determine from the size of the mandrel, which is usually circular in
cross section. However, most prefabricated drains have rectangular cross section (band
20
shaped, Figure 2.6), but for design purposes, the rectangular (width-a and thickness-,))
section has to be converted into an equivalent circle (Figure 2.6) with a diameter of dM
because the conventional theory of radial consolidation assumes that drains are circular.
band-shaped
cross section
Polypropylene core
dw=f(a,b)
Geotextile filter
equivalent circular
cross-section
Figure 2.6 Conceptual drawing of a P V D and equivalent diameter well
Kjellman (1948) first suggested that, "the draining effect of a drain depends to a
great extent upon the circumference of its cross-section, but very little upon its crosssectional area". Based on finite element analysis Hansbo (1979) verified Kjellman
suggestion and thus band shaped and circular drains lead to practically the same degree
of consolidation, provided their circumferences are equal. Accordingly, the equivalent
diameter dw of a band shaped drain with width a and thickness b can be expressed as
(using "perimeter equivalence"):
21
, 2(a + b)
dw=
"
(2.3)
7t
Atkinson and Eldred (1981) proposed that a reduction factor of K/4 should be
applied to Eqn. (2.3) to take account of the corner effect where the flow lines co
rapidly. This was subsequently confirmed with finite element studies performed by
Rixner et al. (1986) and Hansbo (1987). This leads to:
'-%-*
(2-4)
Pradhan et al. (1993) suggested that the equivalent diameter of band-shaped drains
should be estimated by considering the flow net around the soil cylinder of diamet
(Figure 2.7). The mean square distance of their flow net is calculated as:
-2
2
s =~di+
a'
e
4
12
Then, dw=de-2A\s2
jde
(2.5)
71
]+b
(2.6)
dw=0.5(a+b) Rixner etal.( 1986)

dw=0.5a+0.7b
<ông&Covo(1994)
\ dw=2(a+b)/7t
', Hansbo (1979)
*b!
' Assumed water

yiiflow net
Pradhan etal. (1993)
e.. - ^"
Figure 2.7 Equivalent diameters of band-shaped vertical drains
22
More recently, using an electrical analogue field plotter, Long and Covo (1994)
found that the equivalent diameter dw should be computed using:
dw= 0.5a + 0.7b (2.7)
No definitive research exists that clearly shows that one of these formulations is
superior to the others. Various research efforts have supported each of the equations
presented above.
2.4.3 Filter and Pore Size
The pore or apparent opening size (AOS) of the filter should meet its design criteria
the one hand, the AOS has to be small enough to prevent fine particles of the soil
entering the filter and the drain but on the other hand it cannot be too small becaus
must provide sufficient permeability. The two key parameters that indicate filter qua
are AOS and permeability. Generally, filter permeability (&/;.._,-) must be at least
order of magnitude higher than the soil (ksou), i.e.:
kfllter > 10 ksoil
(2-8)
Several researchers have proposed some criteria for AOS; a commonly used
criterion is given by Carroll (1983):
and
2L*(2-3)
D85
(2-9)
5___(70-72)
D50
(2-10)
23
where, O95 is the AOS
(the size of largest particle that would effectively pass through),
O50 is the size which is larger than 50% of the fabric pores, and Dgs and D50 refer to the
sizes for 85% and 50% of passing soil particles by weight. The apparent opening size
(AOS) of a prefabricated vertical drain is usually taken to be less than 0.09 mm. Filter
material can also become clogged if the soil particles become trapped but this can be
prevented by ensuring that (Christopher and Holtz, 1985):
>3
(2.11)
= (2-S)
(2.12)
D15
o15
2.4.4
Discharge Capacity
The discharge capacity is the most important parameter that controls the performance of
prefabricated vertical drains. Only PVDs having sufficient discharge capacity can
function well. There are two major uncertainties related to the discharge capacity of a
vertical drain. The first one is the determination of the required discharge capacity to
used in design (Holtz et al., 1991) and the second one is the measurement of the
discharge capacity of the drain in the laboratory and the field. To measure discharge
capacity it is necessary to simulate field conditions as closely as possible. According t

Holtz et al. (1991), the discharge capacity depends primarily on the following factors:
(i) The area of the drain core available for flow (free volume);
(ii) The effect of lateral earth pressure;
(iii) Possible folding, bending, and crimping of the drain (Figure 2.8); and
(iv) Infiltration of fine soil particles through the filter.
24
Relatively
uniform soil
mass
a) uniform bending
b) sinusoidal bending
1
AH i
AH
Weak V"*
Weak
zones
>=
zones \ \
v\
i
<
p>
>
i
c) local bending
d) local kinking
e) multiple kinking
Figure 2.8 Possible deformation modes of P V D (adapted after Holtz, et al. 1991)
B y incorporating the above factors the actual discharge capacity qw, is then given by:
(2.12)
<lW=(FtXFcXFfc}lreq
where, F,, Fc and Ffc are the reduction factors due to time, folding, or drain condition,
and filtration and clogging, respectively. The term qreq is the theoretical discha
capacity calculated from Barron's theory of consolidation, which is given by:
fU10l7B2h
Hreq
(2.13)
4T,
where, sf is thefinalsettlement of the soft soil equivalent to 2 5 % of the length of the
drain installed into soft ground, U10 is the 10% degree of consolidation, / is the dep
25
the vertical drain, ch is horizontal coefficient of consolidation and Th is the time fact
for horizontal consolidation.
The reduction factor due to time Ft, has been estimated from laboratory tests to be
between 1.03 and 1.48, with an average of 1.25 (Bergado et al., 1996). The percentage
reduction of discharge capacity under the worst conditions of bending, folding, and
twisting has been tabulated in Table 2.1, from which the average reduction can be taken
as 48%), which gives the reduction factor of the deformed drain condition Fc about 2.
The filtration tests show that the trapped fine soil particles decrease the permeability
the PVD and its discharge capacity. This deterioration is complicated by the biological
and chemical growth in the geotextile filter. From filtration tests the value of Ffc is
suggested to vary between 2.8 and 4.2 with an average of about 3.5. After considering
all the worst conditions that may occur in the field the discharge capacity qw could 500
800 m /year but reduce to 100-300 m /year where the hydraulic gradient is unity under
elevated lateral pressure (Rixner et al., 1986). The discharge capacity of various types
drains is shown in Figure 2.9 where the discharge capacity is influenced by lateral
confining pressure.
In lieu of laboratory test data, it is also suggested that the discharge capacity can
conservatively be assumed as 100 m3/year. Based on laboratory test results Hansbo
(1981) suggested a much smaller discharge capacity of drains, as summarised in Table
2.2.
26

Table 2.1 Percentage of discharge capacity of deformed drain condition
Deformed Condition
% Reduction in qy
1 0 % Bent
26%
2 0 % Bent
32%
90 Twist
33%
180 Twist
43%
One-clamp 2 0 % Bent
48%
Two-clamp 30% Bent 78%

48%
Average
1200
Hydraulic Gradient = 1
1000
m
Mebradrain
MD7407 (4)
800
fr
600
Castel Drain
Board (4)
400
CX-l 000(4)
03
U
<_>
c_
_3
a
173
Colbond
CX-l 000(4)
200
500
200
300
400
Lateral confining pressure (kPa)
600
700
Figure 2.9 Typical values of discharge capacity (data from Rixner et al., 1986)
27
Table 2.2 Short term discharge capacity, in m3/year (Hansbo, 1981)
Lateral pressure inkPa

Drain type
40
80
250
500
Geodrain
26
20
20
16
Other drain types
21
20
18
10
24
22
14
12
15
14
14
12
10
05
01
Clogged
21
19
17
15
17
13
12
19
17
09
04
Kremer et al. (1982) stated that the m i n i m u m vertical discharge capacity must be
160 m3/year under a hydraulic gradient of 0.625 applied across a 40 cm drain length
subjected to a 100 kPa confining pressure. Based on laboratory data and their
experience Jamiolkowski et al. (1983) concluded that for an acceptable quality of dra
qw should be at least 10-15 m3/year at a lateral stress range of 300-500 kPa, and for
drains that may be 20 m long. Hansbo (1987) specified that qw becomes a critical
property for long drains if its capacity is less than 50-100 nrVyear. Holtz et al. (1
reported that the qw of PVD could vary from 100-800 nrVyear. For certain types of PVD
affected by significant vertical compression and high lateral pressure, qw values may
reduced to 25-100 nrVyear (Holtz et al., 1991). The current recommended values are
given in Table 2.3.
28
Table 2.3 Current recommended values for specification of discharge capacity
2.5
Source
Value
Lateral stress (kPa)
den Hoedt (1981)
95
50-300
Kremer et al. (1982)
256
100
Kremeretal. (1983)
790
15
Jamiolkowski et al. (1983)
10-15
300-500
Koda et al. (1989)
100
50
Rixner etal. (1986)
100
Not given
Van Zanten (1986)
790-1580
150-350
Hansbo (1987)
50-100
Not given
Lawrence and Koerner (1988)
150
Not given
Holtz etal. (1989)
100-150
300-500
de Jager and Oostveen (1990)
315-1580
150-300
Factors Influencing the Vertical Drain Efficiency
2.5.1 Smear Zone
Vertical drains are installed in the field using a steel mandrel which is pushed in
ground statically or dynamically and then withdrawn leaving the drain in the subsoil
This process causes significant remoulding of the subsoil, especially in the immedia
vicinity of the mandrel. The resulting smear zone will have reduced lateral permeabi
which adversely affects consolidation. Barron (1948) stated that if drain wells wer
installed by driving cased holes which are back filling as the casing is withdrawn,
driving and pulling the casing would distort and remould the adjacent soil. The fine
more impervious layers in varved soils will be dragged down and smeared over the
29
more pervious layers, resulting in a zone of reduced permeability in the soil adjacent
the well periphery.
The combined effect of permeability and compressibility within the smear zone
causes a different behaviour from the undisturbed soil. Predicting soil behaviour
surrounding the drain requires an accurate estimation of the smear zone properties. In
many classical solutions (Barron, 1948; Hansbo, 1981, Indraratna et al., 1997),
considered the influence of the smear zone with an idealized two-zone model where the
smear zone is the disturbed region in the immediate vicinity of the drain and the other
zone is the intact or undisturbed region outside the smear zone. Onoue et al., (1991);
Madhav et al., 1993; Bergado et al., 1996 introduced a three zone hypothesis defined
by:
(i) An inner smear zone in the immediate vicinity of the drain, where the soil is
highly remoulded during installation;
(ii) An outer smear zone where permeability is moderately reduced as a result of the
initial reduction of void ratio during installation; and
(iii) An undisturbed zone where the soil is not affected by installation.
The use of constant but different values of permeability for the smear zone and
undisturbed soil helps to obtain closed form solutions for consolidation with vertical
drains but due to the complex variation of permeability in the radial direction the
solution for the three-zone approach is difficult. For practical purposes the two-zone
approach is generally sufficient but two parameters are necessary to characterize smear
effect, namely, the smear zone diameter [ds) and the permeability ratio (Mk), i-e., the
value in the undisturbed zone (h) over the smear zone (ks). Both the smear zone
diameter and its permeability are difficult to quantify and determine from laboratory
30
tests and so far there is no comprehensive or standard method for measuring them. The
extent of the smear zone and its permeability vary with the installation procedure, siz
and shape of the mandrel, and the type and sensitivity of soil (macro fabric). Field and
laboratory observations (Onoue et al., 1991; Madhav et al., 1993; Bergado et al., 1996;
Indraratna and Redana., 1998) indicated a continuous variation of soil permeability wit
the radial distance away from the drain centreline. Also, the smear zone diameter (ds)
has been the subject of much discussion in literature dealing with PVD.
Investigations by Holtz and Holm (1973) and Akagi (1977) indicate that:
d,=2dm (2.14)
where, dm is the diameter of the circle with an area equal to the cross sectional area o
the mandrel. Jamiolkowski et al., 1981, proposed that:
da=&&dm (2-15)
2
Hansbo (1981, 1997) proposed another relationship as follows:
ds=(l.5-3.0)dw (2-16)
where, dw is the equivalent drain diameter. Based on a laboratory study and back
analyses, Bergado et al. (1991) proposed that the following relationship could be
assumed:
d =2d (2-17)
31
a)
L o a d
Settlement
erne
transducer
>ouc
U
1,1 1 1 __ .
permeable.
23 cm
T2 w
Til
specimen
TI
smear zone
vertical drain
24 cm
T4 "
-eg
k'
24 cm
T6"
T5-L. j~
Pore water T f
pressure
transducer.
impermeable
JU.
24 cm
D = 45 c m
smear zone
horizontal
specimen
vertical
specimen
Figure 2.10 a) Schematic section of the test equipment showing the central drain and
associated smear zone; and b) locations of small specimens obtained to determine the
consolidation and permeability characteristic (Indraratna and Redana, 1998)
Indraratna and Redana (1998) proposed that the estimated smear zone could be as
large as (4-5)_4, which was verified using a specially designed large-scale
consolidometer (Indraratna and Redana, 1995). The schematic section of the
consolidometer and the location of the recovered specimen are shown in Figures 2.10(a)
and 2.10(b). Figure 2.11 shows the variation of kyjkv ratio along the radial distance
the central drain. According to Hansbo (1987) and Bergado et al. (1991), the /QA ratio
32

was found to be close to unity in the smear zone, which agrees with the study by
Indraratna and Redana (1998). The studies of Bo et al. (2000) and Xiao (2001) indicate
that the smear zone can be 4 times of the size of the mandrel or 5-8 times the equivalent
drain diameter. The recommended smear zone parameters by different researchers have
been listed in Table 2.4.
-^ 2.00
%
c_
s-
1.50
expected trend
1.00
Mean Consolidation
Pressure:
e
6.5 kPa
16.5 kPa
32.5 kPa
64.5 kPa
129.5 kPa
260 kPa
_
u
drain
Smear zone
0.50
o
No
"S
X 0.00
5
10
Radial distance, R (cm)
i
15
20
Figure 2.11 Ratio of ki/kv along the radial distance from the central drain (modified after
Indraratna and Redana, 1998)
2.5.1.1 Soil Macro Fabric
For soil with a pronounced macro fabric, the ratio of horizontal permeability to vertica
permeability (Mfcv) can be very high, whereas the kh/kv ratio becomes unity within the
disturbed (smear) zone. Vertical drains are very efficient when the clay layers contain
lot of thin horizontal sand or silt lenses (micro layers) but if they are continuous in
horizontal direction, vertical drains may not be effective because the rapid drainage o
pore water may occur irrespective of whether they are installed or not.
33
Table 2.4 Proposed smear zone parameters (After Xiao, 2001)
Source
Extent
Permeability
Remarks
Barron (1948)
rs=1.6rm
kh/ks=3
Assumed
Hansbo (1979)
rs1.5~3rm Open
Based on available
literature at that time
Hansbo (1981)
rs=1.5rm kf/ks=3
Assumed in case study
Bergado etal. (1991)
rs=2r
kf/kv=l
Laboratory investigation
and back analysis for
Bangkok soft clay
Onoue(1991)
r*=L6rn
kf/ks=3
From test interpretation
Almeida etal. (1993)
rs=1.5~2rm
kh/ks=3~6
Based on experiences
Indraratna et al. (1998) rs=4~5rw kh/kv=1.15
(For Sydney clay)
Chai & Miura (1999)
rs=2~3rn
kh/ks=C/(kh/ks) Q t h e ratio between lab

andfieldvalues
Hird et al. (2000)
r.=1.6r
kt/ks=3
R e c o m m e n d for design
Xiao (2000)
r,-4r
k}/ks=1.3
(For Kaolin clay)
rs: radius of smear zone, ks: smear zone permeability, and kv: vertical permeability.
2.5.1.2 Size and Shape of the Mandrel
Disturbance generally increases with the total cross sectional area of the mandrel so
should be as close as possible to the drain to minimize displacement. Akagi (1977,
1981) observed while studying the effect of mandrel driven drains in soft clays that
when a closed-end mandrel is driven into saturated clay there was a great deal of exces
pore water pressure due to heave and lateral displacement which caused a decrease in
the strength and coefficient of consolidation of the surrounding soil. However, this
34
excess pore pressure dissipated rapidly followed by consolidation after the mandrel was
installation or before the fill was placed. Bergado et al. (1991) reported from a case
study of a Bangkok clay embankment stabilized with vertical drains that settlement was
faster where the drains were installed using a mandrel with a smaller cross sectional
area, rather than a larger one. This verifies that a smaller smear zone was developed in
the former.
2.5.1.3 Installation Procedure
Evaluating the effect of installation on the degree of disturbance is a very complex

matter in soil mechanics. Baligh (1985) developed a strain path method to estimate the
disturbance caused by the installation of various rigid objects into the ground. The
strain state during undrained axisymmetric penetration of closed end piles has three
deviatoric strain components, namely, __./, is. and E3. Ei is the shearing strain in a
conventional triaxial test, __._ is the strain from pressure-metre tests and E3 is the stra
from simple shear tests. The second deviatoric strain invariant, the octahedral strain,
Yoct, is then given by:
Figure 2.12 shows the theoretical distribution of octahedral shear strain (;&_,) with rad
distance from a circular mandrel.
35
r - * -/5ro6,
A/2
rfflZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZL.;"/
6 ___ Q / 2
'<_/:..
Undisturbed soil
w
w/s/f//w/r.
PV drain
Mandrel
71wl
Figure 2.12 Approximation of the disturbed zone around the mandrel (Rixnet et al)
2.5.2
Effect of Sand Mat
Part or all water ingress into drains will flow to the ground first and then exit thr
the sand mat. Since the hydraulic conductivity of sand is considerably higher than cl
it can usually be assumed there is no hydraulic resistance in the sand mat but in some
cases, depending on local materials, lower quality clayey sand may be used. In these
instances the hydraulic resistance in the sand mat may influence the rate of
consolidation of the clay sub-soil, the amount of which is a function of its hydraulic
conductivity and embankment geometry.
36
2.5.3
Well Resistance
Well resistance refers to the finite permeability of the vertical drain with respect to
Head loss occurs when water flows along the drain and delays radial consolidation to a
certain extent. It should be pointed out that well resistance is controlled by the drai
discharge capacity qw, and also by the soil's permeability fa, the maximum discharge
length /-, and any geometric deficiencies (bending, kinks, etc) in the drains.
Mesri and Lo (1991) proposed the governing equation for vertical flow within the
vertical drain in terms of excess pore water pressure at the soil-drain interface. Bas
Mesri's equation, a well resistance factor is defined as
k
K-
V2
and is an index for
the magnitude of pore water pressure. Eventually, the well resistance factor (R) can be
expressed as follows:
=-^V (2-19)
k I2
K l
hm
Analysis of the field performance of vertical drains in soft clay deposits indicated
that well resistance is negligible when R is greater than 5, i.e., the minimum dischar
capacity qw(mi), of vertical drains required for negligible well resistance may be
determined from:
_... = 5k J2 (2-20)
The above relationship is illustrated in Figure 2.13 for most typical values of fa
and lm. The most typical value of qw(mi) can range from 2 to 80 m3/year (Lin et
al.,2000). Table 2.5 summarizes the well resistance indices proposed by various
37
investigators to evaluate the influence of finite discharge capacity of vertical drains

Note that the proposed indices are also converted to the well resistance factor (R)
proposed by Mesri and Lo (1991). It can be seen that all these indices depend only on R,
except for the expression proposed by Aboshi and Yoshikuni (1967) and Stamatopoulos
and Kotzias (1985) which also includes the drain spacing.
10
15
20
Drain length ( m )
25
30
Figure 2.13 Minimum discharge capacity required (based on Eqn. 2.20)
Laboratory and field data generally indicate that the discharge capacities of most
commercial PVDs have almost no influence on the consolidation rate of clay, especially
drains that are not too long (Indraratna et al., 1994). For values of qw greater than 1
150 m3/year (in the field) and where drains are shorter than 30 m, there should be no
significant increase in the consolidation time. Given these circumstances it may be
claimed that for commercial PVDs, well resistance is usually negligible in most
38
practical situations unless the drains are excessively long and geometric deficiencies
occur during installation (bending, kinks, etc). In most soft clays, well resistance c
ignored for PVD less than 15m long.
Table 2.5 Summary of proposed well resistance indexes
Source
Index of well resistance
Aboshi and Yoshikuni (1967)
/_,. =
'
Yoshikuni and Nakanodo (1974) and
jn2-l) kh(lm)2 _7t{n2-l)l

4F(n)n2 R
4F(n)n2 k.
w\rwj
fl \
8k
I-
"
nK
Onoue (1988)
________
nR
VI' V w J
fl \
Hansbo (1981) W= 2^-
wVwJ
Stamatopoulos and Kotzias (1985)
/?, =
2n
R
ku fi >
F{n)kw V^y
________
F(n)R
fl \
ZengandXie, 1989
G = ^ 4 kwVwj
Mesri andLo, 1991
R=7r^- r
_______
4 R
k^m
n: spacing ratio = De/d^
2.6
2.6.1
Development of Consolidation Theories
One-Dimensional Consolidation
Deformation problems have occupied civil engineers for over a century but a rational,
quantitative approach has only been available since the introduction of Terzaghi's
39

(1923) one-dimensional theory, considered by m a n y to be the birth of modern soil
mechanics. Since then a great number of contributions have been made to improve the
capability of predictions. The one-dimensional governing equation for the dissipation o

excess pore pressure was proposed by Terzaghi as follows:
du
d 2u
- =c v T T
dt
dz
.--..
(2-21)
where, u = excess pore pressure, t = time, z = coordinate and cv - vertical coefficient of

consolidation, can be expressed as :
cv=K/Ywmv (2-22)
where, kv = coefficient of vertical permeability, YW ~
urut
weight of water and mv =
coefficient of volume change.
In deriving the above equation (2.21), the following assumptions were adopted:
The soil is fully saturated and homogeneous;
Water and soil particles are incompressible;
Darcy's linear flow law is valid;
Compression and flow are one-dimensional and in vertical;
Soil skeleton follows time independent constitutive law;
External loading is applied suddenly and remains constant;
Soil deformations are small;
The permeability is constant throughout the layer and the process; and
The soil skeleton follows isotropic linear elastic law.
40
2.6.2 Coupled Consolidation Theory
The application of one-dimensional consolidation theory to practical situations is very

limited but they can be analysed through a consolidation theory which accounts for
three-dimensional drainage and strain conditions. There are two basic approaches for
two or three-dimensional consolidation problems, the first being the direct extension of
Terzaghi's one-dimensional diffusion type theory proposed by Rendulic (1936) which
assumes that total stress remains constant during consolidation, i.e. the internal
volumetric components of total stress are assumed to have the same time history of
behaviour as the applied volumetric stress. This pseudo-theory does not provide for a
coupling between the magnitude and the progress of settlement, it only assumes that the
dissipation of excess pore pressure assists settlement.
The second theory was derived directly from the theory of elasticity by Biot
(1941), and is commonly known as the Biot's theory. This theory is mathematically
much more complex and provides for a coupling between magnitude and progress of
displacement i.e., at any point in the consolidating soil continuum, there is continuous
interaction between dissipating excess pore water pressure and changing total stress.
The final form of Biot's equations in terms of excess pore water pressure is as follows:
__________ V^ (2-24)
41
in which x, = Cartesian coordinates, k = permeability constant, w, = displacement along

_2 A
f
the xi direction, G = shear modulus, V
= Laplacian operator
= V
dx
and s =
/
volumetric strain.
It should be pointed out that in two and three-dimensional problems the degree of
consolidation settlement Us, is no longer equal to the average degree of pore pressure
dissipation Up, since there will always be some stress redistribution.
2.6.3 Development of Vertical Drain Theory
f
Vertical Drain
9 i
'ed
Q
o
_
tgi
.
-Smear Zone
"Undisturbed Clay
(a) Ideal Drain
(a) Real Drain
Figure 2.14 Unit cell model of a drain surrounding by soil cylinder
Analytical solutions already developed for consolidation of ground improved with

vertical drains invariably employs the "unit cell" model as illustrated in Figure 2.14.
This is appropriate and reasonable considering that the flow of water into a single drain
is axisymmetric in nature. Theory for radial drainage consolidation has been addressed
42
by m a n y researchers (Rendulic, 1936; Carrillo, 1942; Barron, 1948; Yoshikuni and

Nakanode, 1974; Hansbo, 1981,1997; Onoue, 1988a, 1988b; andZeng and Xie, 1989)
2.6.3.1 Rendulic and Carillo Diffusion theory
Rendulic (1936) formulated and solved the differential equation for one-dimensional
vertical compression by radial flows:
d2u
du
1 du)
(2.25)
~d~t
= h
Kdr
r dr j
where r=coordinate, c/,=horizontal coefficient of consolidation
(kh//wmv).
Carillo (1942) showed that for radial drainage and associated one-dimensional
consolidation the excess pore water pressure u,-,z is given by:
du
8t
= Ch
d u
'*>-
1'--^
du
ydr2
r dr j
+ cv^
dz
(2.26)
(2.27)
-._ = _______
u0
where, ur and uz are the excess pore water pressure due to radial flow and vertical flow
only, and wo=initial pore water pressure. By substituting the average excess pore wat
pressure into Eqn. (2.27), the average degree of consolidation of the stratum can be
obtained by combining Uz and Ur which are evaluated separately from Terzaghi's and
Rendulic's solutions, respectively.
{l-u)={l-Uz){l-Ur) (2-28)
43
where, U = the average degree of consolidation of the clay at time / for combined
vertical and radial flow, Uz and Ur are respectively the average degree of
consolidation at time t for vertical flow and radial flow only. It should be noted that
both Rendulic's and Carill's solutions are for ideal drains (infinite discharge capacity
with no smear zone).
2.6.3.2 Barron's (1948) Suggestion - Equal Strain Hypothesis

Since perfect drains are impossible Barron (1948) addressed the smear and well
resistance effects that can decrease the performance of vertical drains. Barron (1948)
included the smear effect in his solutions for consolidation by vertical drains. He
presented closed form solutions for two extreme cases for radial drainage induced
consolidation which might occur in the clay layer, namely, 'free strain' and 'equal
strain' and showed that the average consolidation in both cases is almost the same. The
'free strain hypothesis' assumes that the load is uniform over a circular zone of
influence for each vertical drain, and that the differential settlements occurring over th
zone have no effect on the redistribution of stresses by arching of the fill load. The
'equal vertical strain hypothesis' on the other hand, assumes that arching occurs in the
upper layer during the consolidation process without any differential settlement in the
clay layer, which means the vertical strain is uniform in a horizontal section of the soil
The difference in the predicted pore water pressures calculated using the free strain and
equal strain assumptions are shown to be very small. Therefore, the approximate
solution based on the 'equal strain hypothesis' gives satisfactory results compared to the
rigorous free strain hypothesis.
The Figure 2.15 shows the schematic illustration of a soil cylinder with a central
vertical drain where rw = the radius of the drain, rs = the radius of smear zone, R = the
44
radius of soil cylinder and / = the length of the drain installed into the soft ground. The
coefficient of permeability in the vertical and horizontal directions are kv and fa,
respectively and k'h is the coefficient permeability in the smear zone. Based on the sa
assumptions as Terzaghi's theory, Barron (1948) showed the consolidation of a soil
cylinder with an ideal centre vertical drain and impervious boundary except at the dra
is characterized by the Eqn. (2.25) and gave a solution of the excess pore pressure for
radial flow only, ur of Eqn. (2.25) incorporating the effect of smear is given by:
7
Ur Ur -
(' J2 J
_ _ _ _ _ _ ) 4. *i n s \ln(s)
(r \
In
2R
\sJ
where, u = u0 exp
v.
(2.29)
\'h \ n
5.0
(2.30)
yJ
in which, u0: initial excess pore pressure, and the smear factor vis given by:
fn\
In
2
2
VsJ
n -s
v = F\ n,s,kh,kh
4n2
ku\ n
Kf,
-s
ln(s)
(2.31)
where, n=R/rw is drain spacing ratio and s is the extent factor of the smear zone with
respect to the size of the drain and is given by: s = rs/rw.
The average degree of consolidation Ur, in the soil body is given by:
'_*_T
Ur = 1 - =u- = 1-exp
Uo
(2.32)
y)
The time factor Th in the above equation is defined as:
(2.33)
h
~D2
45
Chapter 2 Literature Re\ iev.
Drain
S m e a r zone
Figure 2.15 Schematic of soil cylinder with vertical drain (after Hansbo, 1979)
The coefficient of radial drainage consolidation ch, is represented by:
(2.34)
ch =
"v/w
where, av is the coefficient of compressibility of the soil, and e is the void ratio.
Curves of average degree of radial consolidation versus time factor Th for various value
of n are shown in Figure 2.16. The average degree of vertical consolidation versus time
factor Tv is also indicated.
46
0
-3
-. 20
K
sÔO
~s 40
t 6\ .-,
? 60
\\ \
A<
s_
2
*-_
._
._>
^_
fl . Vr.
\d) V LItical Flow
80
ru\ r>.
yuj iva.lial
Flow
o
to
S,
s\
\ \
X ^
100
0.005
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
Time Factor, Tv and Th
0.5
Figure 2.16 Average consolidation rates a) for vertical flow, b) for radial flow
2.6.3.3 Rigorous Solution (Yoshikuni and Nakanode, 1974)
Yoshikuni and Nakanodo (1974) developed a rigorous solution of the consolidation

with vertical drains based on the 'free strain hypothesis'. The development of the
solution is very long and therefore not included here. However, a summary of the
governing equations is given below. In this solution, only the effect of well resistance
included but the effect of smear is not taken into consideration. The consolidation of
soil cylinder with vertical drain at radius r = rw and at depth z is given by:
'O U
dz'
2 kh fdu^
= 0
+
(2.35)
Kdtj
Also,firsttime he introduced the effect of well resistance on the analytical solution

by the following factor:
_.= . *
2
it fa
8khlj
71
(2.36)
w
47
2.6.3.4 Hansbo (1981)-Analysis with Smear and Well Resistance
Hansbo (1981) presented an approximate solution for vertical drain by considering
smear and well resistance based on the 'equal strain' hypothesis. The general con
this solution is the same as illustrated previously in Figure 2.15. The average d
consolidation at depth z by radial flowt/,., presented by Hansbo (1981) can be
expressed as:
Un
=l-exp
8T^
(2.37)
VJ
in which
f
M = n
^l
f \
In n
ln(s)-0.75 + 2
-i
\khj
V^
4n'
(2.38)
S-l
-
khn2~l
2 , + nz(2l-z)^-\l~
S+l
4n2
Or in a simplified form (neglecting the minor significance terms):
f
p-ln
\
ln(s)-0.75 + 7a(2l-z)-*<lw
(2.39)
The average degree of consolidation l/-,_v of the whole layer can be obtained by
exchanging the value of /_ (Eqn 2.39) for:
2khid2
fn\
ln(s)-0.75
+
p.=ln
+
3
<lw
\s) ykhj
48
(2.40)
2.6.3.5 X Method (Hansbo, 1979 and 1997)
Although the classical theory of consolidation of vertical drains (Barron, 1948) and its
later developments are all based on the validity of Darcy's law, in the consolidation
process permeability is subjected to a gradual reduction. According to laboratory
investigations carried out by Hansbo (1960) on Ska-Edeby clay, a deviation from
Darcy's law was observed at small hydraulic gradients. It was concluded that Darcy's
linear law v=ki should be replaced by exponential flow correlation as follows (n is
exponential correlation factor):
v = Ki" when i<i1 (2.41a)
v = mi"'1 (i - i0) when i > i} (2.41b)
where, i0 = i,{n -l)/n, is a threshold gradient, below which no flow will take place.
Hansbo (1979, 1997) proposed an alternative consolidation equation Based on the

exponential flow correlation which is supported by the full-scale field test at SkdEdeby, Sweden. The average degree of consolidation is related with time as follows:
Ur=l-
\n-l
,
At
u
1+ aD2 D 0
\ rwj
l/n-l
(2.42)
where, the coefficient of consolidation X is given by KhMJYw
, M=l/mv=oedometer
modulus, D is diameter of the influence zone of the drain, a is n2nJ3" J4{n -1)"+ and
omitting the terms of minor significance
49
(n-1)2
n-1
P = 3n-l
2n2(5n-l)(7n-l)
n(3n-l)(5n-l)
V D
n \n-i
(2.42a)
f ) Y-i
2n
KdsJ
s \uwJ
DJ
njyDj
Kh7JZ\2l - z)
+-
2qM
The average degree of consolidation Ur,av of the whole layer can be obtained by
exchanging the last term in the above expression for:
Jf
(i-i)
v.
n)
j2\
Dz
Kh7d
(2.42b)
3qv
W h e n the exponent n-l, E q n (2.42) yields the same result as Eqn. (2.37) assuming
A, = ch and Kh/Ks=kh/ks.
2.6 A
2-D Modelling of Vertical Drains
Even though each vertical drain is axisymmetric, finite element analyses dealing with
multi drain embankments have commonly been conducted under 'plane strain'
conditions for optimising computational efficiency. Therefore, to employ a realistic 2-D
plane strain analysis for vertical drains, the appropriate equivalence between the plane
strain and axisymmetric analysis must be established. Figure 2.17 depicts the
conversion of an axisymmetric vertical drain into an equivalent drain wall. This can be
achieved in several ways (Hird et al. 1992, Indraratna and Redana, 1997), for example:
50
(i)
Geometric matching - the drain spacing is matched while the same
permeability coefficient is maintained;
(ii) Permeability matching -coefficient of permeability is matched while the

same drain spacing is kept; and
(iii) Combination of (i) and (ii), with the plane strain permeability calculated for
a convenient drain spacing.
Drain
Smear zone
kh
__ 0
_"
>
*
*
*
*
b) Plane Strain
a) Axisymmetric
Figure 2.17 Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into plane strain condition
51
2.6.4.1 Shinsha et al. (1982)-Permeabil_ty Transformation
Shinsha et al. (1982) first proposed an acceptable matching criterion for converting the
permeability coefficients. The equivalent coefficient of permeability was calculated
based on the assumption that the required time for a 50% degree of consolidation in
both schemes was the same, giving:
(2.43)
kptftax^B/DjTw/Trso
where, 7^0=0.197 is a dimensionless time factor at 5 0 % consolidation of laminar flow

and Trso is corresponding radial flow.
2.6.4.2 Hird et al. (1992)-Geometry and Permeability Matching
By adapting Hansbo's (1981) theory for the plane strain case Hird et al. showed that the
average degrees of consolidation U, at any depth and time in the two unit cells were
theoretically identical in the absence of well resistance if
2B'
V __
(R\
3R' In
\rsJ
(k
v ks
(2.44)
f
\ 3
In K
3
VrW
where, subscripts ax and pi denote axisymmetric and plane strain conditions

respectively. Note that the geometric matching can be obtained by substituting
kp!^kax=fa in Eqn. (2.44), where as permeability matching can be achieved by
substituting B=R. In the event of significant well resistance, its effect can be matche
independently by ensuring that
Qjqw
(2.45)
= 2B/itR:
52
2.6.4.3 Bergado and Long (1994) -Equal Discharge Concept
The converted permeability, including smear effect, is introduced, based on an equal
discharge rate in both schemes, assuming the coefficient of permeability is independen

of the state of seepage flow.
V__
^
2S in
\ds
7dO{l-as)
fu \ f J \
+
)
Kks J
(2.46)
in
\dwJ
where, as=t/D; t: thickness of the walls in 2-D model; D and S: the row spacing and
pile spacing of actual case respectively; a = De/D; S=D and a = 1.05 for square
pattern; S=0.866D and a = 1.13 for triangular pattern.
2.6.4.4 Chai et al. (1995) - Well Resistance Matching
Chai et al. (1995) successfully extended the analysis by Hird et al. (1992) to include
effect of well resistance and clogging. In this approach, the discharge capacity of th
drain in plane strain (qwp) for matching the average degree of horizontal consolidatio
given by (geometry and permeability are same in both schemes):
4khV
qwp
3B In
W
+ ^-ln(s)
(2-47)
17
12
2l ih
3qy
The model developed in this study was refined using a single drain model of 5 m
long, and both elastic and elasto-plastic analyses were applied to predict its
performance. Excellent agreement was obtained between the axisymmetric and plane
strain models, especially with the varied discharge capacity qwp, as shown in Figures
53
2.18 and 2.19. There the varied discharge capacity yielded a more uniform and closer
match between the axisymmetric and plane strain methods compared to the constant
discharge capacity assumption.
2.6.4.5 Lee et al. (1997) - Time Factor Analysis
They assume that the time for two systems to achieve a 50% and 90% degree of
consolidation are the same, then the following simple expression is obtained, as sh
below:
"pi
B 1 Tr50 Tr90 S
(2.48)
Th50 '1,90 ftdw
0
Elasto-plastic analysis
___N
_? 20h
0
O
| 40
o
_o 60
a
o
F E M axisymmetnc
FEM plane strain (varied qwp)
i 80
i
0.01
100
i i
0.1
Time factor, T^
i i
Figure 2.18 Comparison of average degree of consolidation (data from Chai et al,
1995)
54
^r^_rrr^r_~J~^^_Axisymmetric
s
-1
Plane strain \
(constant q wp ) \
a -2
xf
^
\ 'Plane strain
\ \ (varied q^)
\ \
\ \
\
+-
OH
Q -3
i
i
I
Excess pore pressure \

-at periphery, Th=0.27 i!
. (elastic analysis)
i
!\
-5
L... i
i.
2
4
6
Excess pore pressure, kPa
Figure 2.19 Comparison of excess pore pressure variation (datafromChai et al., 1995)
2.6.4.6 Indraratna and Redana (1997) - Rigorous Solution for Parallel Drain Wall
Indraratna and Redana (1997) converted the vertical drain system shown in Figure 2.17
into an equivalent parallel drain wall by adjusting the coefficient of soil p
They assumed that the half width of unit cell _5; the half width of drains bw
width of smear zone bs are the same as their axisymmetric radii R, r>. and rs
then the average degree of consolidation in plane strain condition given as:
r
-8Thp^
U hp = 1
= 1 exp
(2-49)
VP
where, T. = time factor in plane strain condition , and
Pi
a+(p)k-^{ei2lz-z2)
(2.50)
k"hP
where, k. and k'
are the equivalent horizontal permeability of undisturbed and smear
"hp
zone of the model, respectively. These parameters can be related by:
55
k,
"hp
(2.51)
kfjp-r-
fn\
In
+
ln{s)-0.75 +
7t\2h-z2)^-
The associated geometric parameters a, /3 and the flow term 6 are given by:
2 2b,
a =3 B
2 \
,-^+A_
B
3B2
^s-bJ+^-{3b2w-b2s)
P=
B
0 =
(2.52a)
(2.52b)
3B-
c
2kL
b
hp ( 1 _____
(2.52c)
V B
hpii B
where, qz = 2qw/7tB : the equivalent plane strain discharge capacity.
To verify the above model a finite element analysis was undertaken for both
axisymmetric and equivalent plane strain models. As an example, a unit drain was
considered installed to a depth of 5 m below the surface at 1.2 m spacing. The mode
parameters and soil properties were: rw=0.03 m, rm=0.05 m, fa=l x 10" m/s, kh=5 x 1
9
-10
m/s, and the corresponding equivalent plane strain permeability were khp-5.02 x 10
m/s, and /cv=2.97 x IO"9 m/s based on Eqn. (2.65). The water table was assumed to b
the surface, and rs=5rm (based on experimental result). For the elasto-plastic fini
element analysis, Modified Cam-Clay model (Roscoe and Burland, 1968) was used as
follows: X = 0.2, K = 0.04, M=1.0, ecs = 2 and Poisson's ratio v = 0.25, with a
saturated unit weight of ys =18 kN/m3
56
The results of both axisymmetric and plane strain analysis are plotted in Figure
2.20, where the average degree of radial consolidation Uy, (%) is plotted against the tim
factor Th for perfect drain conditions. As illustrated, the proposed plane strain analysis
agreed with the axisymmetric analysis, with the maximum deviation between the two
methods being less than 5%.
0
_N
20
rf
o
_H
40
-*_
-3
"o
V}
60
Perfect drain
(no smear)
o
u
80
O
0>
a.
Q
100
Plane strain
Axisymmetric
0.01 0.02
0.05
Time Factor, Tj,
0.1
0.2
0.5
10
Figure 2.20 Average degree of consolidation (modified after, Indraratna et al., 2000)
Figures 2.21 and 2.22 illustrate the settlements and excess pore pressure variations
over time for single drains, including smear plus well resistance, where again the
axisymmetric model agreed with the equivalent plane strain model. It is important to
note that the inclusion of well resistance reduces errors.
Based on the above single drain analysis, Figures 2.20 - 2.22 provide sufficient
evidence to prove that the equivalent (converted) plane strain model is an excellent
substitute for the axisymmetric model. In finite element modelling, 2-D plane strain
analysis is. expected to cut down computational time considerably compared to that
taken by a 3-D, axisymmetric model, especially for multi-drain analysis.
57
Plane strain with smear

and well resistance
Axisymmetry with smear
and well resistance
100
150
Time (days)
200
250
Figure 2.21 Comparison of the average surface settlement (Indraratna et al., 2000)
100
150
250
Time (days)
Figure 2.22 Comparison of the excess pore pressure (Indraratna et al, 2000)
2.6.5
Simple Method of Modelling (1-D)
A simple approximate method for modelling the effect of PVD is proposed by Chai et
al. (2001). Because PVD increases the mass permeability of subsoil in the vertical
direction it is therefore logical to establish a value of vertical permeability which
approximately represents both the effect of vertical drainage of natural subsoil and
radial permeability towards the PVD. This equivalent vertical permeability {kve) was
58
derived based on equal average degree of consolidation under the ID condition. To
obtain a simple expression for kve< an approximation equation for vertical consoli
is proposed as follows:
Uv=l-exp(-CdTv) (2.53)
where, Tv =time factor for vertical consolidation; and C_/=constant (3.54), determin
from curve fitting (Figure 2.23). The equivalent vertical permeability kve can be
expressed as:
j
kve ~
2u \
2.51%
fa (2.54)
MDeK j
where, /: drain length, De: equivalent diameter of unit cell, and
M = lnl
k, , / x 3 ____-__
it2Vk
K
* 3<1
+ ^ / ( , ) _ +
\sj
(2.55)
The effects of smear and well resistance have been incorporated in the derivation of the
equivalent vertical permeability.
2.7 Evaluation of Design Parameters

The primary parameters governing the rate of consolidation are the coefficient of
permeability and coefficient of consolidation. In practice, the vertical coefficie
consolidation (cv), thereby fa, is estimated from the results of standard oedomete
testing. Hence, the value of the horizontal coefficient of consolidation (ch) is e
by assuming an appropriate ratio of cyjcv. The parameters of the smear zone are mo
complicated to estimate and all the available theoretical and empirical solutions
provide satisfactory and consistent estimates.
59
0 i,..,.
TT
20-
\ \
^ 0^3.2,
__
+->
CO
~3
40Q=3.54
o
c/_
c
60-
o
o 801000.0001
-L/v=l-exp(-Qfv)
-Terzaghi's IDsoIution
0,001
0.01
0.1
Time factor, Tv
10
Figure 2.23 Effect of C d o n degree of consolidation (Chai et al. 2001)
2.7.1
Vertical Coefficient of Consolidation and Permeability
The vertical coefficient of consolidation (cv) can be obtained from the standard
oedometer tests. By using Terzaghi's one-dimensional theory cv can be estimated as:
= TvH2/t
(2.56)
where, Tv is the time factor for a certain degree of vertical consolidation (e.g. c o m m o n
useful values are T50=0A91 and r.=0.848) , t is the corresponding time for Tv, and is
usually obtained by using curve fitting methods such as: Taylor's 4t method (1948) or
Cassagrande's log . method (1936). Hd is the length of the longest drainage path.
60
The coefficient of vertical permeability (fa) of the soil can be indirectly estimated
from the results of oedometer test. The relevant relationship is given by:
K=cvYwav/{l + e0) (2.57)
where, av is the coefficient of compressibility, which is the slope of the e~ <JV curve,
i.e. av = Aej Aav , and eo is the initial void ratio of the sample.
During consolidation the void ratio and permeability may decrease significantly.
To permit changes in soil permeability during consolidation a number of formulas
relating the coefficient of permeability and void ratio have been proposed. For clays, t
most popular empirical formula is suggested by Taylor (1948) as follows:
logk=logk0-{e0-e)/Ck (2.58)
where, fa and e0 are the initial values of permeability and void ratio, respectively, and
Ck is the permeability change index. Tavenas et al. (1983a) found that the Ck could be
related to the initial void ratio e0 of natural clays byQ *0.5e0. Babu et al. (1993)
proposed, based on experiments on remoulded soils, thatQ. * 0.24eL, in which eL is the
void ratio at liquid limit.
Based on experimental result Samarasinghe et al. (1982) suggested a formula that

would be generally applicable to normally consolidated clays:
k = Ce"/(l + e) (2-59)
in which the power n typically in the order of 4-5, and C is a reference permeability
indicating the soil characteristics.
61
2.7.2 Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation and Permeability
The horizontal coefficient of consolidation (ch) is usually estimated from:
Ch=(kh/kv)cv = rkcv (2.60)
where, r: permeability anisotropy, is a significant characteristic for most natural sof
clays, approximately given based on the type of soil in which the drains are installed.
Tavenas et al. (1983b) reported that for soil tested in a conventional oedometer the rk
was varies between 0.91 and 1.42 for intact natural clays and from 1.2 to 1.3 for
Matagami varved clay. Leroueil et al. (1990) found that n is generally small (^ 1.15)
for natural clays and r=3.5-5.5 for varved clay. Through a laboratory study Bergado et
al. (1991) reported that the kp/ks varied between 1.5 and 2 with an average of 1.75, an
more significantly, rk was found to be almost unity within the smear zone. Shogaki et al
(1995) reported that the average values of rk were in the range of 1.36-1.57 for
undisturbed isotropic soil samples taken from Hokkaido to Chugoku region in Japan.
According to the experimental results plotted in Figure 2.11 (Indraratna and

Redana, 1995), the value of n in the smear zone varies between 0.9 and 1.3 with an
average of 1.15. Hansbo (1987) argued that for extensive smearing, the horizontal
permeability coefficient in the smear zone (kh) should approach that of the vertical
permeability coefficient (fa), suggesting that the ratio rk could approach 1. The
experimental results shown in Figure 2.11 (Indraratna and Redana, 1995) seem agree
with Hansbo (1987). For applied consolidation pressures it is observed that the value o
rk varies between 1.4 and 1.9 with an average of 1.63 in the undisturbed zone.
62
2.7.3
Coefficient of Consolidation with Radial Drainage
2.7.3.1 Log U vs t Approach
Aboshi and Monden (1963) presented a curve fitting method using log U and linear t
developed by taking 'log' on both sides of Barron's solution (Eqn. 2.38 or 2.44), and
rearranging with the use of Eqn. (2.39):
' I F JD2
where, F is given by Eqn. (2.37) for the perfect drains case (i.e. F=F(n)) and by Eqn.
(2.42) when the smear effect is taken into consideration (i.e.F = v).
From the Eqn. (2.75), the coefficient of radial consolidation chcan be written as:
_ D2Fdln(l-U)
Ch
~ ~T~ dt
where
(262)
dln 1 U
\ ~ ) [s the slope of the graph of logarithm of the average degree of

dt
consolidation against linear consolidation time using settlement data (Figure 2.24).
Instead of settlement data, pore water pressure data can also be plotted in this method.
Note that the coefficient of consolidation calculated in the case of F=F(n) is the
coefficient of average consolidation with radial drainage, whereas F = v will yield the
coefficient of radial consolidation of undisturbed soil.
63
______ (o.
U=-Z-ro
50
250
100
(sec/cm2)
dc
Figure 2.24 Aboshi and M o n d e n (1963) method for determining Ch
2.7.3.2
Plotting Settlement Data (Asaoka, 1978; Magnan et al., 1980)
Asaoka (1978); Magnan and Deroy (1980) developed a method to find the coefficient of
consolidation (applicable to ID consolidation; consolidation around vertical drains; an

a combination of both) and the maximum settlement using the available settlement data.
The following steps should be carried out to find those parameters:
(i) The observed time-settlement curve plotted to an arithmetic scale is divided

into equal time intervals J/. The settlements, pl,p2, corresponding to times
.;, t2, ..are read of and tabulated.
(ii) The settlement values pltp2, are plotted as points (A_/>A)
in a
coordinate system with axis /?,_, and/?,. A straight line, /?,_, =/>,- is also
drawn (Figure 2.25).
64
(iii) The plotted points arefittedby a straight line whose corresponding slope is
read as/? and its intercept with the ordinate axis isy_?0. The point of
intersection with the 45 line gives the final consolidation settlement; and the
coefficient of consolidation can be found from the following equations
depending on drainage conditions.
Pi
Pi-r
Figure 2.25 Asaoka (1978) method to determine ch
In the case of I D problem, the vertical coefficient of consolidation is given by:
(2.63)
.,=-___/'___
12
At
In the case Of radial drainage, the horizontal coefficient of consolidation is given by:
D2vlnp
(2.64)
h=-
8 At
65
where, v is expressed in Eqn. 2.42. T o obtain the average coefficient of consolidation v

should be replaced by the drain spacing factor F(n), as expressed in Eqn. 2.37, which
gives:
D2F(n)lnj3
(2-65)
h =
At
For combined radial and vertical drainage, Asaoka's equation was modified by
Magnan and Deroy such that the coefficients of consolidation are related by only one
unique equation as:
8ch
D2v
, X2
4 H'
InB
At
(2.66)
It is difficult to decide on values of Cf, and cv respectively but very useful to

estimate the coefficient of consolidation for an isotropic soil. For isotropic soil the
(2.80) will become:
In fi
ch =
At
f
(2.67)
2
n^
+
D v 4H2
2
It is noted that, in the above equations In J3 can be replaced w i t h - , i.e.
In/3
66
2.8 Constitutive Models for Soils
By definition the constitutive model is a mathematical model that describes the physical
behaviour of material perceived mentally. A properly established constitutive model
should therefore be able to simulate at least the prominent physical phenomenon that
has been understood for a given material in a qualitative and quantitative fashion.
2.8.1 Linear Elastic Model
The majority of traditional deformation analysis in geotechnical engineering often

assumes a linear elastic material at small stresses which is probably true for overconsolidated clay although most soils exhibit plastic behaviour as stresses increase.
2.8.2 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Model
The behaviour of material can also be modelled as elastic-perfectly plastic where the
first part of the stress-strain curve remains linear-elastic until the material yields. The
models are widely used and various yield criteria can be implemented to define when
the material changes from elastic to plastic.
2.8.3 Critical State Models
Currently, constitutive models based on plasticity theories are popular and widely used
soil engineering problems. A more sophisticated model has been introduced utilising the
critical state concept based on the theory of plasticity in soil mechanics to represent th
behaviour of clay (Schofield and Wroth, 1968). The Cam-Clay model (Roscoe et al,
1963) and Modified Cam-Clay model (Roscoe and Burland, 1968) for yielding soils
67
based on plasticity theory has received wide acceptance due to its simple and elegant
predictions, especially for normally and lightly over consolidated clays. In these mod
the shear strength of the soil is related to the void ratio. The main variables in cri
state soil mechanics theory are the effective mean stress p , the deviator stress q, a
specific volume v (or the void ratio e). These are defined as follows:
p = l+2+3
y
3 3
rV
Cr]+(J2+CT3
_u
i\2
i\2
(2.69)
o-}-a2\ +\o-2-o-3\ +\o-3-or2
where, cr7, cr2,cr5 are major, intermediate and minor principle stress (effective),
respectively; and u is the pore water pressure.
In critical state theory, the virgin compression, swelling, and recompression lines
are assumed to be straight in (lnp'-V) plots with slope of - X and - K , respectively,

shown in Figure 2.26. The isotropic virgin compression line or isotropic normal
consolidation line (INCL) is expressed as:
(2-7)
V = N-Aln(pj
where, N is the value of specific volume K w h e n p = 1 k N / m .
The isotropic swelling and recompression lines are expressed as:
(2-7l)
V = VK-Kln\p\
68
The X and K can be related with compression (Cc) and recompression (Cr) indexes as
follows:
X = CJ 2.303 and K = Cj 2.303
(2.72)
Normal Consolidation
Line ( N C L )
Recompression
Line
In(p')
Figure 2.26 Isotropic normal consolidation line plot in critical state theory
The straight line in the q-p'plot is called Critical State Line (CSL) as shown in Figure
2.27. The slope of the critical state line M is expressed as:
(2.73)
q=M p
In the V-lnp 'plot the critical state line can be expressed as:
(2.74)
V = r-Xln(p
69
Critical State Line ( C S L )
Figure 2.27 Position of the critical state line
Combining the C S L E q n . (2.87) into the M o h r circle plot, the relationship between
drained angle of friction (^ ) and M may be given by:
M =
6 sin 0
(2-75)
3 - sin <f>
T h e initial specific v o l u m e can be estimated at any given depth below the ground level
once/?', q and p'c are known, and the V-lnp'plot is shown in Figure 2.28.
The intersection between the swelling line and the CSL is assumed to be at point
A given by coordinates VA and pA. Point P represents the intersection between the initial
specific volume F and the effective mean normal stressp'. Then the following relation
may be established:
(2.76)
VA=r-Xln\pA
where, pA=pcl2
for Modified Cam-Clay and pA=pcl2.718

70
for Cam-Clay.
PA
PC
In(p')
Figure 2.28 Position of the initial specific volume
Along the swelling line (K -line) passing through the initial stress state at point P, the
following relation can be applied:
V = VA-kln\p
(2.77)
jpA
Substituting VAfromEqn (2.90) gives:
V = f - (X - k)ln\ pA
Note that r = N-(X-tc)ln2
(2.78)
- Kin I p
for Modified Cam-Clay and r = N-(X-K)
Clay.
71
for Cam-
2.8.3.1 Cam-Clay Model
The introduction of isotropic hardening plasticity into soil mechanics led to the fam
of soil models of strain hardening cap type developed at Cambridge University. The tw
of those models are widely used known as Cam Clay and Modified Cam Clay Model.
One of the key assumptions of Cambridge theory is that the flow rule follows the
normality condition, which leads to:
_______. _____ (2 79.

de$
dp
A second key assumption (flow rule), arises from a consideration of the work dissipate
during shear. Thurairajah described the energy dissipation term during plastic
deformation as:
This led Roscoe, Schofield, and Thurairajah to complete the energy balance equation
from a thermodynamic point of view as:
pde$ + qds^ = Mpdps (2-81)
This will then lead to the plastic dilatancy ratio as:
dep.
where, 77 = qj p :stress ratio.
72
Using the Eqns. (2.93) and (2.96), Cam-Clay yield locus (Figure 2.29a) can be obtained
as:
q = Mp In^pjpj
(2.83)
Substituting Eqn. (2.87) into the above equation p'A can be found asp'A =p'c/2.718
So Eqn. (2.92) will lead to:
V =r +
X-k-(X-k)ln(p'c]-Kln(p
(2-84)
By eliminating pc between Eqns. (2.97) and (2.98), the Stable State Boundary Surface
(SSBS) equation becomes:
Mp
{X-K)
r + X-k-V-Xln\p
(2.85a)
Or alternatively (the preferred form):
vA=r+(x-kli-Tj/M)
p(
2.72
(a)
(2.85b)
P'c P'
/>;
P(
P'
(b)
Figure 2.29 Yield locus of C a m Clay and Modified C a m Clay model

73
2.8.3.2 Modified C a m Clay Model
It was found that the Cam-clay model was deficient in some aspects of modelling the
stress-strain behaviour of soil, namely the shape of the yield locus at increased p
the predicted value of Ko (the coefficient of earth pressure at rest). Therefore Mod
Cam-Clay was introduced to address those set backs (Burland, 1965; Roscoe and
Burland, 1968). The obvious difference between Modified Cam-Clay and Cam-Clay
model is the shape of the yield locus, where the yield locus of Modified Cam-Clay i
elliptical as shown in Fig. 2. 29b. The flow rule for Modified Cam Clay is given by
dsP
p
de .
M2-TJ1
(2.86)
2rj
This came from the energy balance equation:
p de? + qdej! = p
{deP)+(Mds?)
(2.87)
The Modified C a m Clay yield locus is given by:
q2+M2p2=M2ppc
(2.88)
The equation of the S S B S is given by:
Vk =r + (X-K){ln(2)-ln(l + (T]/M)2)}
(2.89)
The incremental stress-strain law during yielding is defined as (for M C C ) :
'dev
de.
'dev
\de.
\dsv
\de.
C,} C]2
dp
C21 C22. ,dq
74
(2.90)
(X-K)
k
where, Cu =7 +
M2 + TJ2
op
up
_{X-KY
12 ~ C21 ~
(2.90a)
2TJ
(2.90b)
, 2
A T2 +7?
up
(
A 2
C 22 _ 1 , (*-*)4TJ
3G
up M4-q4
(2.90c)
In an undrained condition the plastic shear strain can be expressed as:
4KA
de? =
where, A = 1
X
2.9
4
v M
,2
-TJ4
>
drj
(2.91)
:plastic volumetric strain ratio.
Salient Aspects of Numerical Modelling
Currently, pore pressures, settlements, lateral displacements, and stresses of the
site with vertical drains can be accurately analysed using sophisticated finite ele
software. Commercial packages such as PLAXIS, ABAQUS, and SAGE-CRISP are
capable of performing fully coupled consolidation analysis. From past experience, f
element analysis of lateral deformation has been relatively poor compared to settle
(Indraratna et al., 1994). The recent finite element models applied to vertical drai
described below.
75
2.9.1 Drain Efficiency by Pore Pressure Dissipation
Indraratna et al. (1994) studied the performance of an embankment stabilised with

vertical drains at Muar clay, Malaysia, using the finite element code CRISP (Britto and
Gunn, 1987). The effectiveness of the prefabricated drains was evaluated according to
the rate of excess-pore pressure dissipation at the soil drain interface.
A plane strain analysis was applied to a single drain and to the whole PVD
scheme. As explained in detail by Ratnayake (1991), the prediction of settlement using
single drain analysis over-predicts the measured settlement, even though the smear
effect was included. In the case of multi-drain analysis underneath the embankment, the
over-prediction of settlement is more significant than single drain analysis and therefo
it was necessary to consider the dissipation of the excess pore pressure at the drain
boundaries at a given time more accurately.
To elaborate on technique the average un-dissipated excess pore pressures could
be estimated by finite element back-analysis of the settlement data at the centreline of

the embankment, as shown in Figure 2.30 where 100% represents zero dissipation when
the drains are fully loaded. Accordingly, at the end of the first stage of consolidation
(ie., 2.5 m of fill after 105 days), the un-dissipated pore pressures decrease from 100%
to 16%. For the second stage of loading the corresponding magnitude decreases from
100% to 18% after 284 days during which the embankment has already attained its
maximum height of 4.74 m. It can be deduced from Figure 2.30 that perfect drain
conditions are approached only after 400 days. Although the general trends between the
finite element results and field data agree during the initial stages, the marked
discrepancy beyond 100 days is too large to be attributed solely to the plane strain
76

assumption. These excess pore-pressures reflect retarded efficiency in the vertical drains
(partial clogging). A better prediction was obtained for settlement, pore pressure, and
lateral deformation when 'non-zero' excess pore pressures at the drain interface were
put into the finite element model simulating 'partially clogged' conditions.
100;
1 st stage ^nd, stage

Loading loadingf
100
200
300
400
500
T i m e (days)
Figure 2.30 Percentage of undissipated excess pore pressure at drain-soil interfaces
(Indraratna et al., 1994)
2.9.2
Deformation as a Stability Indicator
Indraratna et al. (1997) investigated the effect of ground improvement by preloading

together with geogrid and vertical band drains, and sand compaction piles constructed
on Muar clay in Malaysia. The settlement and lateral displacement of the soft clay
foundation were analysed using plane strain finite element formulation and the findings
were compared to the field measurements.
The analysis employed critical state soil mechanics, and the deformations were
predicted on the basis of the fully coupled (Biot) consolidation model incorporated in
77
the finite element code CRISP (Britto and Gunn, 1987). In the analysis, the soil
underneath the embankment was discretised using linear strain quadrilateral (LSQ)
elements. The vertical drains were modelled as ideal and non-ideal, where the well
resistance factor was ignored in the former. This study shows that an accurate
prediction of lateral displacement depends on correctly assessing the value of the Camclay parameters, the shear resistance at the embankment-foundation interface, and the
nature of assumptions made in the modelling of drains and sand piles. The actual soil
properties are influenced by the working stress range and the assumed stress path of th
sub-soil at a given depth. The normally consolidated parameters associated with the
Cam-clay theories over-estimate lateral displacement and settlements if the applied
stresses are smaller than the pre-consolidation pressure.
The normalized deformation factors for a few trial embankments are compared in
Table 2.6. The ratio of maximum lateral displacement to fill height{fi,), the ratio of
maximum settlement to fill height {j32), and the ratio of maximum lateral displacement
at the toe to the maximum settlement at centre line (a), are used as normalised
parameters. Compared to the unstabilized embankment constructed to failure, the
stabilized foundations are characterized by considerably smaller values for a and Pi,
which elucidates their obvious implications on stability. The normalized settlement (P2)
on its own is not a proper indicator of instability but is still a useful stability indi
when taken in conjunction with a and Pi. For example the foundation having SCP gives
the lowest values of Pi and P2, clearly suggests the benefits of sand compaction piles
over band drains.
78
Table 2.6 Normalized deformation factors (modified after Indrarataa et al. 1997)
Ground Improvement Scheme

Sand compaction piles for pile/soil stiffness ratio of 5
Pi
P2
0.185
0.018
0.097
(/z=9.8 m , including l m sand layer)

Geogrids + vertical band drains in square pattern at 0.141 0.021 0.149
2.0 m spacing (/V=8.7 m )
Vertical band drains in triangular pattern at 1.3 m 0.127 0.035 0.275
spacing (/.=4.75 m )
Embankment rapidly constructed to failure on 0.695 0.089 0.128
untreated foundation (h=5.5 m )
2.10
Summary
In this Chapter, literature on consolidation analysis, constitutive models for soft soil
and related merits and demerits have been described. A brief summary of this critical
review section is given below:
1. Vertical drains have been widely used to accelerate primary consolidation of soft
soils. However, it is difficult to predict the settlements and pore pressures
accurately due to the complexity of estimating the correct values of soil
parameters inside and outside the smear zone and therefore appropriate laboratory
techniques must be used to measure them.
2. The soil adjacent to the drain mandrel is disturbed and the fabric of the soil is
distorted during the installation of a vertical drains. D u e to this disturbance (smear
effect), the compressibility increases and the permeability decreases in the soil
79
within the smear zone. The combined effect of changes in both the
compressibility and the permeability within the smear zone results in a decrease in
the consolidation rate of the entire soil mass.
3. The soil in the smear zone behaves so differently from the undisturbed soil,
therefore effectiveness of vertical drain systems depend on correct assessment of
the extent of smear zone and its permeability. However, these are often difficult to
quantify and determine from laboratory tests. So far, there is no comprehensive or
standard method for measuring them. In the past, for example, Indraratna and
Redana (1998), Sharma and Xiao (2000) have conducted laboratory tests to
evaluate the smear zone parameters. Indraratna and Redana (1998) proposed that
the estimated smear zone could be as large as 4-5 times the equivalent drain radius
and that the horizontal to vertical permeability ratio is close to unity in the smear
zone. Sharma and Xiao (2000) proposed that the radius of the smear zone is about
four times the equivalent mandrel radius, and the horizontal permeability of the
clay layer in the smear zone is approximately 1.3 times smaller than that in the
undisturbed zone. This laboratory results indicate that the extent of smear zone
and its permeability depends on many factors, such as, type of soil, method of
installation. Therefore it is important to find an analytical solution to evaluate the

smear zone parameters.
4. Existing analytical solutions provide a satisfactory framework for analysing

axisymmetric consolidation (e.g. unit cell). For large construction sites where
many PVDs are installed, 2D plane strain analysis is most convenient given its
computational efficiency. Recently developed axisymmetric to plane strain
conversions provide good agreement with measured data and these simplified
80
plane strain methods are now widely and successfully used in finite element
analysis.
5. Vacuum preloading through PVD and surface membrane systems effectively

promotes radial consolidation while controlling the soil's lateral yield compared
to conventional surcharge embankment loading that can generate large lateral
displacements in very soft clays.
6. Laboratory and field evidence tends to indicate that the capacity of most
commercial PVDs is large enough so it has less influence on the rate of
consolidation of clay.
81
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
3.1 Prediction of Smear Zone Caused by Mandrel Driven Vertical Drains u

Cavity Expansion Analysis
3.1.1 General
Cavity expansion analysis has attracted the attention of many researchers because it has
numerous applications in geomechanics. Geotechnical engineers have benefited from
earlier works, albeit they were primarily concerned with metals (Bishop, Hill and Mott,
1944) because they provide a theoretical groundwork and guidelines for deriving
solutions. In the field of geotechnics some of the areas related to cavity expansion are
pile driving (Carter et al., 1978), tunneling (Atkinson and Potts, 1977), and soil testing
(Ladayi, 1963). In this study, an attempt is made to estimate the extent of the
disturbance zone (smear zone) using the Cylindrical Cavity Expansion theory
incorporating the Modify Cam Clay model (this model has been widely adopted for
describing the elastic-plastic behaviour of soil incorporating the effect of stress
histories).
When a mandrel is driven into the ground it displaces soil equal to its volume.
With small penetrations up to about ten times the radius of the mandrel, some ground
surface heave occurs but at greater depths, soil is predominantly displaced outwards in a
radial direction. This has led to the installation process being modelled as the expansio
of a cylindrical cavity with a final radius equal to the mandrel. In reality, the mandrel
band shaped hence the equivalent mandrel radius is evaluated by comparing the
perimeter between the assumed circular cross-section and the true rectangular shape.
82
3.1.2
Basic Assumptions and Definition of the Problem
Figure 3.1 shows a cavity with an initial radius ao and an initial internal pressure<J0.
Compressive stresses and strains are taken as positive. The cavity expands to a radius of
a as the infernal pressure increases from a0 to aa while an element initially at a radial
distance ro from the centre of the cavity moves to a new radial position r from the
centre, resulting in a displacement % = r-r0. The soil on the cavity wall will yield
when the pressure is sufficiently large while further increases in pressure will lead to
plastic zone forming around the cavity. The radial distance of the plastic zone around
the cavity is denoted by rp while the soil beyond this would remain in a state of elastic
equilibrium.
Elastic zone
Figure 3.1 Expansion of a cavity
Development of analytical framework for analysing cavity expansion is based on

an assumption that the soil obeys Hooke's elasticity law until yielding commences. The
yielding of soil is described by the Modified Cam Clay model.
83

3.1.3
Elastic Analysis
Considering an element at a radial distance r, the equation of equilibrium (applicab

both elastic and plastic region) for the case of a cylindrical cavity is:
+ &-el
dr
r
=0
(3.1)
where, o~r and cr0 are radial stress and circumferential stress respectively. These
stresses can be written in terms of mean stress (p) and deviator stress (q) as follo
ar=p
+ -r=q
(3.2a)
o~e = p j = q
(3.2b)
B y Hooke's law the radial strain (_?,.) and circumferential strain (se) can be related to
corresponding stresses as follows (in plane strain condition):
dr
= [v/-v,)V-i/cr0_
2G
(3.3a)
K 1
r 2G
and
r-e=r^-
(3.3b)
dr
where, G: shear modulus; and v: Poisson's ratio
Substituting Eqn. (3.3a) into (3.3b), the following equation can be obtained:
84
crr-are =r
(7_v)_^_._v_^_
dr
(3.4)
dr
The Eqns. (3.1) and (3.4) can be solved for stresses and displacement by using the
boundary conditions, i.e. <jr = arp at r=rp and ar = a0 when r -> oo as:
ar
=CT0+{crrp-cr0){rp/rf
(3.5a)
cre =o-0-(arp-o-0)(rp/rf
and > * - < " )_p_M

2G
(3.5b)
The Eqn (3.5a) leads to a mean total stress of:

(crr+cre)
P=
(3.5c)
= ~0=A)
The volume change for an undrained case is zero, i.e.,
(3.6)
du = -/c\dp j p \ = 0
This implies that the mean effective stress ( p ) is constant in the elastic zone since the
value of /.-(slope of unloading-reloading line in v-lnp
space) is non-zero and Eqn.
(3.5c) indicates that the mean total stress p is constant. Consequently, excess pore
pressure would be zero in the elastic zone.
85
3.1.4 Plastic Analysis
3.1.4.1 Stress at Elastic-Plastic Boundary
After initial yielding at the cavity wall a zone of soil extending a radial distance rp will
become plastic as cavity pressure continues to increase. For soil obeying the MCC
model, the yielding criterion is:
rj = M\{P'CIP)--
(3.7)
where, pc : the stress representing the reference size of yield locus.
From the elastic analysis, the m e a n effective stress at the elastic-plastic boundary is
equal to (p0), so the stress ratio {TJ) at this boundary can be found as:
f=M4R~ : : I
7z
yp )r=.
(3.8)
Po
where, R is the isotropic overconsolidation ratio defined as the ratio of m a x i m u m stress

on yield locus (pc0 ) and the in situ mean effective stress (p0). There is a small
deviation between the R and the conventional overconsolidation ratio (OCR). The R can
be related with OCR and the slope of critical state line-Af as follows (detailed
derivations in Appendix 1):
3 (45 - 12M + M2)
R =
(6-M)
OCR
6 + M + 2{6-M)OCR
3M ".>
6+M
86
(3.8a)
The Eqns. (3.2a) and (3.2b) can be rewritten in terms of elastic-plastic boundary stresses
as:
1
a
rp-Po+-j=ap
(3.9a)
1
C7
0p=Po-^ lp
(3.9b)
3.1.4.2 Strain in Plastic Zone
Following conventional terminology in critical state theory, two strain parameters

known as volumetric strain sv and shear strain^, for an undrained cylindrical cavity
expansion, are defined as:
sv = sr + se = 0 (3.10a)
s=
Jj(r~0)
(3 10b)
Since an undrained deformation is necessarily isochoric, the conservation of

volume gives the following relationship between r, the current radius of a material
element which was initially at r# and current and initial radii of the cavity a and ao,
respectively.
r2-r02=a2-a20
(3.11)
This leads to the radial speed of the soil element (a>) in terms of the rate of cavity
(da\
expansion
as:
{dt)
87

_ dr _(a\da
dt \r)dt
(3.12)
So the radial, circumferential, and shear strain rate can be expressed as follows:
der
dco
dt
dr
a da
2
r
dt
(3.13a)
and
dsQ
CD
dt
a da
2
r
dt
de,
1 i
\ 2a da
s
=
r=[e
-e
)r e
43r2 dt
dt
J3
(3.13b)
The later equation can be written in terms of the initial position of the particle r0 as:
de
dt
2a
da
(3.14)
43~[a +rg -a 0)dt
Since r0 isfixedfor a given particle the Eqn. (3.14) can be integrated to give the finite
logarithmic shear strain as:
e, = i = l n
4s
' 7 ____^1
(3.15a)
In undrained condition the shear strain of a M C C model is (Eqn. 2.91):
des =dq
3G
4KA
__1__Jdrj
(3.15b)
M4-rj4
where, v. specific volume; A : plastic volumetric strain ratio=l-K://l; and X: the
slope of normal compression line in v-lnp
space.
88
Substituting, Eqns. (3.15a) into (3.15b) and integrating them with the boundary
condition (Eqn. 3.8), a relationship between the stress ratio and radial distance from
centre of the cavity (r) can be obtained as:
[a2-alj]
In 1-i
^
rl
2(l + v)
rr KA
= - T7T77TI -ri-Ulf(M,
vM
j
3V3(l-2v) v
(3.16)
rj,R)
-tan" \^)+tm~]{4R-[)
where f(M,rj,R) = ln
\M-Tj)\
+ ylR-\
KM)
(3.16a)
3.1.4.3 Effective Stress in the Plastic Zone
In the plastic zone the total volumetric strain consists of two components: the elast
and plastic volumetric strains. Under the undrained condition, the sum of the elastic
plastic volumetric strains should be zero, that is:
dp
dpc
up
upc
(3.17)
Integrating the above equation by considering the condition at the elastic-plastic

boundary, the following equation can be obtained:
1 ,
r
'V7+;
Pc = PcO
PoJ
f 'v
(3.18)
Rp
KPo)
Substituting Eqn. (3.18) into Eqn. (3.7) leads to:
R
P
=Po
\+
(3.19)
{TJIM)2
89
Eqns. (3.16) and (3.19) are closed form solutions for effective stresses in the plastic
zone. The effective stress can be evaluated from Eqn. (3.19) for a given stress ratio,
therefore the deviator stress and location can be found from Eqn. (3.16).
3.1.4.4 Total Stress in the Plastic Zone
Total stress in the plastic zone can be determined from Eqn. (3.1) but, it is impossible
integrate to give a closed form solution because Eqns. (3.16) and (3.19) cannot be
integrated directly. Therefore a simple numerical integration is needed to solve this
problem (author used an Excel spreadsheet formulations). The solutions for total
stresses are:
2
*,.-*,. \ ,
rq
\^dr
(3-20a)
43 r<r
_- __?__ + ___ \ldr
(3-20b)
**-*" 4!43- }r
r
- >-*>-h TsFr
(320c)
A series representation of (q/rfr) is determined from Eqns. (3.16) and (3.19). Then the
variation of total stresses with radial distance can be obtained from the above equatio
(using a numerical integration technique).
3.1.4.5 Pore Water Pressure in the Plastic Zone
Pore water pressure can be calculated from the following equation:
u = p-p <
90
3.1.4.6 Prediction of Smear Zone
The author suggest that the extent of the smear zone as the region in which the pore
water pressure is greater than the initial overburden stress (total) based on a qualitativ
assumption that the soil is severely disturbed and thus the anisotropy with respect to its
permeability coefficient is almost entirely destroyed at which u = a^.
3.1.4.7 Solution Procedure

(i) Evaluate the isotropic overconsolidation ratio R;
(ii) Determine the stress ratio TJ at the elastic-plastic boundary using Eqn. (3.8);
(iii) Determine the radius of plastic zone rp, by substituting q = rjpm Eqn. (3.16);
(iv) Tabulate the TJ value between rjp and M (take sufficient number of points);
(v) Corresponding to the tabulated TJ effective mean stress, deviator stress and radius
can be found using Eqns. (3.19) and (3.16) respectively;
(vi) Using the above tabulated values and numerical integration techniques (eg. Excel
spread sheet), pore water pressure variation with radial distance can be estimated;
and
(vii) The extent of smear zone can be determined using the graphical techniques.
3.1.4.8 Illustrated Application
Calculation of smear zone for a typical soil is given in Table 3.1 (the input parameter
are bolded). The normalized pore pressure variation with radial distance is plotted in
Figure 3.2, which shows that the extent of the smear zone is about 2.77205 times the
mandrel radius.
91
Table 3.1 Input M C C parameters and calculation sheet

Prediction of smear zone using cavity expansion analysis
M=
1.19
OCR=
X= 0.50
vo=
1.6
PP=
90.00
9P= 36.56
37.86
K=
0.05
"vO*
R=
V0= 2.80
V=
A=
50.00
~rp=
1.66
0.25
K0= 0.64
0.90
Po=
Po=
37.86
77.86
r
1
0.966
0.968
0.970
0.972
0.974
0.977
0.979
0.981
0.983
0.986
0.988
0.990
0.992
0.995
0.997
0.999
1.001
1.004
1.006
1.008
1.010
1.013
1.015
1.017
1.019
1.022
1.024
1.026
1.028
1.031
1.033
1.035
1.037
1.040
1.042
r/rm
98.97
"eP=
56.76
~lp=
0.966
rp/rm=
7.796
r s /rm=
2.77205
p/ m
q/(r/rm)
u/c-vo
77.860
78.153
78.445
78.735
79.025
79.314
79.601
79.888
80.174
80.459
80.744
81.027
81.310
81.593
81.875
82.156
82.437
82.718
82.998
83.278
83.558
83.837
84.117
84.396
84.675
84.954
85.233
85.513
85.792
86.071
86.351
86.631
86.912
87.193
87.474
40.000
40.356
40.710
41.063
41.416
41.767
42.117
42.466
42.814
43.162
43.508
43.854
44.199
44.544
44.888
45.231
45.574
45.916
46.258
46.599
46.940
47.281
47.621
47.962
48.302
48.642
48.982
49.322
49.662
50.002
50.343
50.683
51.024
51.365
51.707
0.44
0.45
0.45
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.47
0.47
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.50
0.50
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.52
0.52
0.53
0.53
0.53
0.54
0.54
0.54
0.55
0.55
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.57
0.57
0.57
r/rm Vlr)
37.86
37.80
37.73
37.67
37.61
37.55
37.48
37.42
37.36
37.30
37.24
37.17
37.11
37.05
36.99
36.93
36.86
36.80
36.74
36.68
36.62
36.56
36.50
36.43
36.37
36.31
36.25
36.19
36.13
36.07
36.01
35.95
35.89
35.83
35.77
36.56
36.58
36.60
36.63
36.65
36.67
36.70
36.72
36.74
36.76
36.79
36.81
36.83
36.85
36.87
36.90
36.92
36.94
36.96
36.98
37.00
37.02
37.04
37.06
37.08
37.10
37.12
37.14
37.15
37.17
37.19
37.21
37.23
37.25
37.26
7.79593
7.73951
7.68376
7.62866
7.57419
7.52035
7.46710
7.41444
7.36235
7.31081
7.25980
7.20932
7.15935
7.10987
7.06086
7.01233
6.96425
6.91661
6.86940
6.82260
6.77620
6.73020
6.68458
6.63933
6.59443
6.54988
6.50567
6.46178
6.41821
6.37495
6.33197
6.28929
6.24687
6.20472
6.16283
4.689
4.726
4.764
4.801
4.839
4.877
4.914
4.952
4.991
5.029
5.067
5.106
5.144
5.183
5.222 '
5.262
5.301
5.340
5.380
5.420
5.460
5.500
5.541
5.582
5.623
5.664
5.705
5.747
5.789
5.831
5.874
5.916
5.959
6.003
6.047
0.000
0.266
0.530
0.794
1.056
1.318
1.578
1.838
2.097
2.355
2.613
2.870
3.126
3.381
3.636
3.891
4.145
4.398
4.651
4.904
5.156
5.408
5.660
5.912
6.163
6.415
6.666
6.917
7.169
7.420
7.672
7.923
8.175
8.427
8.680
92

1.044
1.046
1.049
1.051
1.053
1.055
1.058
1.060
1.062
1.064
1.067
1.069
1.071
1.073
1.076
1.078
1.080
1.082
1.084
1.087
35.71
35.65
35.59
35.53
35.47
35.41
35.35
35.29
35.23
35.17
35.11
35.05
34.99
34.93
34.87
1.089
1.091
1.093
1.096
1.098
1.100
1.102
1.105
1.107
1.109
1.111
1.114
1.116
1.118
1.120
1.123
1.125
1.127
1.129
1.132
1.134
1.136
1.138
1.141
1.143
1.145
1.147
1.150
1.152
1.154
34.81
34.76
34.70
34.64
34.58
34.52
34.46
34.41
34.35
34.29
34.23
34.17
34.12
34.06
34.00
33.94
33.89
33.83
33.77
33.71
33.66
33.60
33.54
33.49
33.43
33.37
33.32
33.26
33.20
33.15
33.09
33.03
32.98
32.92
32.87
1.156
1.159
32.81
32.76
6.12118
6.07976
6.03857
5.99760
5.95683
5.91626
5.87587
5.83566
5.79562
5.75574
5.71600
5.67640
5.63693
5.59757
5.55832
5.51916
5.48009
5.44109
5.40215
5.36326
5.32441
5.28558
5.24677
5.20795
5.16912
5.13025
5.09134
5.05237
5.01331
4.97416
4.93489
4.89549
4.85593
4.81618
4.77623
4.73605
4.69560
4.65486
4.61380
4.57237
4.53054
37.85 4.48827
37.86 4.44549
37.87 4.40216
37.88 4.35822
37.89 4.31359
37.90 4.26820
37.91 4.22196
37.92 4.17476
37.93 4.12649
37.94 4.07699
37.95 4.02611
37.28
37.30
37.32
37.33
37.35
37.37
37.38
37.40
37.41
37.43
37.45
37.46
37.48
37.49
37.51
37.52
37.54
37.55
37.57
37.58
37.59
37.61
37.62
37.63
37.65
37.66
37.67
37.69
37.70
37.71
37.72
37.74
37.75
37.76
37.77
37.78
37.80
37.81
37,82
37.83
37.84
6.091
6.135
6.180
6.225
6.270
6.316
6.362
6.409
6.456
6.503
6.551
6.600
6.648
6.698
6.748
6.799
6.850
6.901
6.954
7.007
7.061
7.115
7.170
7.226
7.283
7.341
7.400
7.459
7.520
7.582
7.644
7.709
7.774
7.840
7.908
7.978
8.049
8.122
8.197
8.273
8.352
8.433
8.517
8.603 |_
8.692
8.784
8.880
8.980
9.083
9.192
9.306
9.426
93
8.932
9.186
9.439
9.693
9.948
10.203
10.459
10.716
10.974
11.232
11.491
11.752
12.013
12.276
12.540
12.805
13.072
13.340
13.610
13.881
14.154
14.429
14.707
14.986
15.268
15.552
15.839
16.128
16.421
16.717
17.015
17.318
17.624
17.935
18.249
18.568
18.892
19.222
19.557
19.898
20.246
20.601
20.963
21.334
21.714
22.104
22.505
22.918
23.344
23.785
24.243
24.719
87.756
88.038
88.321
88.604
88.889
89.174
89.460
89.747
90.035
90.325
90.615
90.907
91.200
91.494
91.790
92.088
92.387
92.689
92.992
93.297
93.605
93.914
94.227
94.542
94.859
95.180
95.503
95.830
96.161
96.495
96.833
97.175
97.522
97.873
98.230
98.592
98.959
99.333
99.713
100.101
100.496
100.900
101.312
101.735
102.168
102.612
103.069
103.540
104.027
104.531
105.054
105.599
52.049
52.391
52.734
53.078
53.422
53.767
54.112
54.459
54.807
55.155
55.505
55.856
56.208
56.562
56.917
57.273
57.631
57.991
58.353
58.717
59.083
59.451
59.821
60.194
60.570
60.949
61.330
61.715
62.103
62.495
62.890
63.290
63.694
64.103
64.516
64.935
65.360
65.791
66.228
66.672
67.124
67.584
68.053
68.532
69.021
69.522
70.035
70.562
71.105
71.665
72.243
72.844
0.58
0.58
0.59
0.59
0.59
0.60
0.60
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.62
0.62
0.62
0.63
0.63
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.65
0.65
0.66
0.66
0.66
0.67
0.67
0.68
0.68
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.70
0.70
0.71
0.71
0.72
0.72
0.73
0.73
0.74
0.74
0.75
0.75
0.76
0.76
0.77
0.77
0.78
0.78
0.79
0.80
0.80
0.81
1.161
1.163
1.165
1.168
1.170
1.172
1.174
1.177
1.179
1.181
1.183
1.186
1.188
1.188
1.189
1.189
1.190
1.190
1.190
1.190
1.190
32.70
32.64
32.59
32.53
32.48
32.42
32.37
32.31
32.26
32.20
32.15
32.09
32.04
32.03
32.02
32.00
31.99
31.99
31.99
31.99
31.99
37.96
37.97
37.98
37.98
37.99
38.00
38.01
38.02
38.03
38.03
38.04
38.05
38.06
38.06
38.06
38.06
38.06
38.06
38.06
38.06
38.06
3.97364
3.91935
3.86292
3.80399
3.74206
3.67650
3.60643
3.53062
3.44721
3.35323
3.24340
3.10659
2.91051
2.84861
2.77205
2.66759
2.47984
2.44649
2.40538
2.35056
2.26325
9.552
9.687
9.831
9.985
10.153
10.336
10.539
10.768
11.031
11.342
11.729
12.248
13.075
13.360
13.730
14.268
15.349
15.558
15.824
16.193
16.818
25.217
25.740
26.290
26.874
27.498
28.169
28.901
29.708
30.618
31.669
32.936
34.576
37.059
37.877
38.914
40.376
43.156
43.672
44.317
45.194
46.635
106.169
106.767
107.398
108.067
108.782
109.553
110.392
111.320
112.366
113.575
115.034
116.923
119.785
120.729
121.926
123.613
126.823
127.418
128.163
129.176
130.840
73.469
74.123
74.809
75.533
76.304
77.129
78.024
79.007
80.107
81.371
82.884
84.828
87.745
88.701
89.910
91.610
94.831
95.427
96.173
97.188
98.853
rlrm
Figure 3.2 Normalized pore water pressure variation with radius
94
0.82
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.97
0.99
1.00
1.02
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.08
1.10
3.2 Analytical Solution for Vertical Drain with Vacuum Preloading
3.2.1 General
The first conventional procedure for radial consolidation by vertical drains with
surcharge loading was proposed by Baron (1948). This was modified later by various
researchers including Yoshikuni and Nakanodo (1974), and Hansbo (1981), to include
the effect of smear and well resistance (reviewed in previous Chapter). Although
consolidation around vertical drains is axisymmetric, most finite element analyses are
based on the plane strain assumption. Therefore the equivalence between plane strain
and axisymmetric analysis needs to be established to use a realistic 2-D finite element
analysis for vertical drains. Hird et al. (1992) introduced an equivalent plane strain
solution which can be conveniently simulated in numerical modelling. Because plane
strain finite element analysis has become popular, Indraratna and Redana (1997) further
modified Hird et al. (1992) solutions to include the effect of both smear and well
resistance.
In the absence of vertical drains Mohamedelhassan and Shang (2002) modelled

the application of vacuum pressure with surcharge load along the surface based on 1-D
consolidation. The mechanism of vacuum-assisted consolidation is comparable but not
the same as conventional surcharge. In earlier studies vacuum preloading was often
simulated with an equivalent surface load or by modifying the surface boundary
condition. Figure 3.3 shows consolidation by the conventional method and vacuumassisted preloading. The consolidation rate attributed to vacuum-assisted preloading is
greater than the conventional method because the lateral hydraulic gradient increases.
The application of vacuum with PVDs requires modification of existing theories. In this
95
study, a comprehensive analytical solution for vacuum preloading in conjunction with

vertical drains using Hansbo's (1981) and Indraratna and Redana's (1997) approach is
introduced under axisymmetric and equivalent plane strain conditions. The effect of
various factors such as drain spacing, well resistance and smear effect are also
examined.
100
>I.
UL
TO
Ap (preloading pressure)
_;
a.
__:
Cl)
"D
to
01
>t
Ap (preloading pressure)
CO
CO
0
Time
__
n<
</
n>
a)
L_
100
p0 (Vacuum pressure) ~^me
co
CO
CD
L_
00 -100
55 -100
Maximum excess pore pressure

ro
CD
a.
100
-L
100
Maximum excess pore pressure
_:
3
CO
CO
05
CO
IO
CD
L_
CL
CO
CO
0
u
Time
Time
a
o
O
Q.
CO
CO
0
O
X
LU
-100
X
LU
00
Q_
TO
0.
100
__:
CO
CO
0
100
CO
co
c_
CD
>
o
_
_
TO
o -100
_
>
-100
>
_
Time
0
TO
o
__
Time
-100
>
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.3 Consolidation process (a) conventional loading (b) vacuum preloading
96
In the laboratory (using a large-scale consolidometer) the author measured the

vacuum pressure at several points along the drain which indicated that the vacuum
pressure is immediately developed within the drain (trapezoidal distribution) in addition

to the uniformly applied surface suction. In reality, the rate of vacuum development
within the drain may depend on the length and type of PVD (core and filter properties)
even though some field studies suggest it develops rapidly even if the PVD are long (Bo
et al., 2003). Given these factors the assumption of an immediate vacuum development
(rather than gradual) is used as boundary condition. Since the drain spacing is relativel
small, it is realistic to assume constant vacuum distribution across the soil and that
decreases linearly along the drain, i.e., the vacuum varies along the drain length (/) fr
uvac to cuvac, where c is the vacuum propagation factor.
3.2.2 Modelling of Axisymmetric Solution with Applied Vacuum Pressure
Figure 3.4 shows the schematic illustration of a soil cylinder with a central vertical dr
where _v=the radius of the drain, rs= the radius of smear zone, R =the radius of soil
cylinder and /= the length of the drain installed into soft ground. The coefficient of
permeability in the vertical and horizontal directions is fa and fa, respectively, and kh
the coefficient permeability in the smear zone. The axisymmetric analysis described by
Hansbo (1981) is extended to include the vacuum pressure as follows. Considering
Darcy's linear law, the radial velocities of water in the undisturbed zone (v_) and smear
zone (vr) are given by Eqns. (3.22) and (3.23), respectively, as follows:
kh (du\
vr
(3.22)
\drj
97
rw V
where, YW
du
dr
is m e
(3.23)
J
unit weight of water and u and u are excess pore water pressure in
undisturbed zone and smear zone at radius r.
Drain
Smear zone
Figure 3.4 Schematic of soil cylinder with vertical drain (adapted from Hansbo, 1979)
It is postulated that the flow of pore water through the boundary of the cylinder
with radius r is equal to the change in volume of the hollow cylinder with outer ra
and inner radius r, such that:
2xvr=4R2-r2)
r
(3.24)
'dt
98
where, e is vertical strain in the (z) direction. Substituting Eqn. (3.22) into Eqn. (3.24),
and subsequent rearranging gives the following equation for pore pressure gradient in
the undisturbed soil (rs <r<R):
du
dr
2
Yy (R
2fa
de_
r dt
(3.25)
Similarly, in the smeared zone(r w < r < rs), the corresponding pore pressure gradient is
given by:
du _ Yv fR2
dr 2fa
^ de_
J
(3.26)
dt
Considering the horizontal cross-sectional slice of thickness dz of a circular cylindrical

drain with radius rw, the total change in flow from the entrance face to the exit face
the slice is given by:
7tr2u
k (*2\
ay
dQi =
rw
dzdt for r < r
(3.27)
Kdz
where, fa is coefficient of permeability of drain (representing well resistance).
The horizontal inflow of water into the slice from the surrounding area is given by:
wk
dQ2 J
rV.
'\
du
- dzdt for r = r
dr
V
J
(3.28)
For ensuring continuity of flow, the following equation must be satisfied:
dQ}+dQ2=0
(3.29)
99
It is assumed that at the boundary of the drain (r=rw) there is no sudden drop in pore
pressure so u = u . Substituting Eqns. (3.27) and (3.28) in Eqn. (3.29) and rearr
with the above boundary condition yields:
>\
du
7
2
i\
du
(3.30)
=0
+ __________
rw KW dr
Combining the Eqns. (3.26) and (3.30), leads to:
>
d 2u
dz2
_z^(^_7)
(3.31)
kw dt
r=ru,
where, n=R/rw: spacing ratio.
Integration of Eqn. (3.31) in the z direction is carried out subject to the foll
boundary conditions:
,/
./.,. ai _: ... a n d ^ - - ^ ( l - c ) a t _ - /
'vac
dz
(3.31a)
This leads to excess pore pressure at r=rw as:
r r
~w
Y^dji 2
A_, dt
""W
{n -l)[t- 2
+ uvac
/-C-c)f
(3.32)
Integrating Eqn. (3.26) in the r direction using the above boundary condition (Eqn.
(3.32)), the following expression for u can be derived:
100
U =-
7w Se
2
g> Inr -?''r- + k> [n> -l\2lz-z
)
r
2khdt
kw
(3.33)
^~Uvac
1-(i-c)z*
Integrating Eqn. (3.25) in the r direction with the boundary condition as ur=r
= ur=r
J
's
the following expression can be derived forw :
R ln
r2-r2
2
Yw de
u =
2kh dt
+
+k/
2 _
2\
r
R2lns. jL-JjL
+ u vac /-(7-c)i
(3.34)
^(n2-l\2lz-z2)
where, s=rs/rw: smear ratio.
Let u be average excess pore water pressure for the whole unit cell at a given time .,
then:
un:\R2 -r2)l= l]2ffru

0 r...
drdz+lfarudrdz
0
(3.35)
TV
Substituting Eqns. (3.33) and (3.34) for u and u into Eqn. (3.35) and rearranging, the
following expression for u can be obtained:
= Z - ^ i + a'vac n+c^
2ku
dt
(3.36)
V * J
where,
101
n
m ^_k m ( s )_l + 2
L
n -\
p = -j
n -\ s fa 4
An2
(3.36a)
fa
+-
f SJ
2fanl1(
-4-s +\ '2
v*m
An2
\_
?V
nJ
Or in a simplified form:
. n kh , / \ 3 IfaTlV
ln + -~ln\s) +
2<lw
s
fa 4
(3.36b)
Eqn. (3.36) m a y be combined with the time-dependent compressibility governed by the

following well-known consolidation expression:
de _
dt
du
kh
du
(3.37)
dt chYw dt
where, mv is the coefficient of volume compressibility and ch is the horizontal

coefficient of consolidation.
Substituting Eqn. (3.37) into Eqn. (3.36) and integrating subject to the boundary
condition that u = usur at f=0 gives the following expression:
U
u
sur
Uvac
u
sur
, Uvac
+
\
exp
u
K
sur J
8T^
(3.38)
PJ
where, usur is the applied surcharge pressure and uvac = uvac (l + c)j2 is the average
applied vacuum pressure.
This yields an average degree of consolidation Uh of the whole layer as:
102
ut-u
Usur-u
U h = = = - = = 1-exp
Ui U f
Usur ~^vac
8T^
(3.39)
P )
where, ut and u / are the initial and final excess pore water pressure respectively, and,
(a)
(b)
// =
p = ln+-7- /(_.)
s
2khKV
(with both smear and well resistance)
2<]w
(smear effect only)

4
fa
(c)
2/Cft.rr
// = Inn -0.75 +
3^w
(d)
fi = Inn-0.75
(well resistance only)
(perfectdrain)
In the above expressions, qw is the drain discharge capacity at the unit hydraulic
gradient.
In the absence of vacuum pressure (i.e. surcharge pressure only), the Eqn. (3.39) is t
same as the Eqn. (2.49), which was developed by Hansbo (1981) and is rewritten below:
8T,^
(3.40)
In the absence of surcharge pressure (i.e. vacuum pressure only, usur-Q), the Eqn. (3.39)
leads to:
Uj-U
(3.41)
Uh = - = = = = 1-exp
Ui -Uf Uvac
P J
103

Effect of v a c u u m pressure distribution on average excess pore water pressure
The following parameters are used in this analysis: w-10, s=2, fa/fa=3, uvac= -50 kPa,
usur=25 kPa and three different values of c (1, 0.5, 0). The excess pore water pressure
distribution (Figure 3.5) shows that with the increase of vacuum propagation factor (c),
the rate of pore water pressure dissipation is accelerated. Note that the average excess
pore pressure equals to the applied surcharge pressure at time t=0 and to the applied
average vacuum pressure at the end of consolidation.
20 ^*s_*
"
"^\
-3
__
Surcharge only
\\ s
_ 0
^ N
/Sss_.
Vacuum pressure only
Both vacuum+surcharge
t/2
.-
& -20
3
\ \
\ \ \
\ \
\ \^v
\ \v ^
CD
fc -40
i 1
>
<
c=0.5
c=0
-60
0.001
~ _^_^
1 1
0.01
1 1 1
'
0.1
Time factor, Th
>. v
i i i 1
10
Figure 3.5 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different v a c u u m
pressure distribution
104
Influence of drain spacing on average excess pore water pressure
The following parameters are used in this analysis: 5=2, fa/fa=3, uvac= -50 kPa, c=
usur=25 kPa and three different values of n (5, 10, 20). The excess pore water pres
distribution for different drain spacing ratio is shown in Figure 3.6. This clearly
that with the increase of drain spacing, the rate of pore water pressure dissipatio
retarded, because when the drain spacing is large the influence of drain is less.
40
spacing ration n=5
spacing ration n=l0
e_
spacing ration w=20
5a 2 0 <CM
CM
o-
CS
s-
o
a
3 "20
_
u
X
a
o
%
-40
<
-60
0.001
i i i
0.01
1 1 1 |
1II
Mil)
0.1
Time factor, Th
iii
i i i in
- i i i
i i 111
10
Figure 3.6 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different drain spacing
105
Effect of smear zone parameters on average excess pore water pressure
Figure 3.7 presents the variation of excess pore pressure distribution with different
smear zone parameters. For this comparison the following parameters are used: =20,
uVac= -50 kPa, c=1.0, usur=25 kPa and three combinations of smear zone parameters
(5=2, fa/fa=3); (5=2, falfa=5) and (5=4, falfa=5). The distribution for a perfect drain is
also plotted in the same figure for comparison and as expected, the rate of pore pressure
dissipation decreases as the smear zone parameters increase.
0.001
0.01
1[MM
0.1
Time factor, T^
Figure 3.7 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different smear zone
parameters
106
3.2.2.1 Excess Pore Water Pressure

By combining Eqns. (3.33), (3.36) and (3.38), the excess pore water pressure (at any
point within the smear zone) with time can be found as:
_\usur-uVgc)kh
u =
R2p
+u
vac
( 8Ti ^
yexp
2
2
R ln^-
K P J
-*L+*L(n2-lhz-z2)
faX
'
(3.42)
i-d-)f
By combining Eqns. (3.34), (3.36) and (3.38), the excess pore water pressure (at any
point outside the smear zone) with time can be found as:
.2
,.2
R2lnL-Cz!L+hL\B
ins-->
2
2^
r, -r,
2
u
Wsur -~ vac)
R2p
exp
8TU
V P
*L(n2-ll21z-z2)
+ u.
(3.43)
i-if-c^
3.2.2.2 Hydraulic Gradient
Differentiating Eqn. (3.42) in the r direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (i )
with time at any point within the smear zone can be found as:
.'
rwRp
8Th
_\usur~uvac)kh
exp
{
fa
P )L r
(3.44)
R]
Differentiating Eqn. (3.43) in the r direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (/)
with time at any point outside the smear zone can be found as:
_,("--*) eJ_ EL R r_
rwRp
R
107
(3.45)
3.2.3
Modelling of Plane Strain Solution with Applied V a c u u m Pressure
m
'
dqx
'
dqx
\dz
.
ui utn
K
B
Unit cell: width = 2B
Figure 3.8 Plane strain unit cell
Plane strain analysis described by Indraratna and Redana (1998) m a y be extended to

include the application of vacuum pressure as follows. Considering Darcy's linear law
the horizontal velocity of water in the undisturbed zone (vx) and smear zone (vx) is
given by Eqns. (3.46) and (3.47), respectively, as follows:
hP
(du)
(3.46)
x =
dx \vxj
rw
du
hp
vv
rw
(3.47)
dx
V
108
where, khp and khp are the coefficient of horizontal permeability in a plane strain
condition in the undisturbed and smear zone respectively; YW *S
me un
^ weight of
water; u and u are excess pore water pressure in the undisturbed and smear zone at
distance x ; and x is the prescribed direction of flow coordinate.
Consider a horizontal slice of thickness dz of the unit cell (Figure 3.8). For the
plane strain model it is postulated that the flow in the slice at a distance x from
centreline of the drain is equal to the change in volume within a block of soil of w
(B-x), such that:
vx=^(B-x)
dt
(3.48)
where, e is the strain in the vertical (z) direction. Substituting Eqn. (3.46) into Eqn.
(3.48) and rearranging gives the following equation for the pore pressure gradient i
undisturbed zone (fry < x < B):
?l=hL^(B-x) (3-49)
dx khp dt
Similarly, in the smeared zone (bw < x < bs) the corresponding pore pressure gradient
is given by:
^=.L *(__) (3.50)

fix h-' dt
hp
For vertical flow in the z direction of the drain, the change of flow from the entra
face to the exit face of the slice is given by:
109
d u
dqz
r>
dzdt for x < b
ydz2 ,
(3.51)
The horizontal inflow of water into the slice from the surrounding area is given by:
f <\
^hp du
dqs
rw
dzdt for x = bMl
dr
V
(3.52)
To ensure flow continuity the following equation needs to be satisfied:
dqz + 2dqx = 0
(3.53)
It is assumed that at the drain boundary (x=bw) there is no sudden drop in pore pressure
so u =u . Substituting Eqns. (3.51) and (3.52) into Eqn. (3.53) and rearranging wit
above boundary condition yields:
'>
_______
2
i dz j
'
2khp
( <\
Qz
dx ,
du
=0
(3.54)
Combining Eqns. (3.50) and (3.54) leads to:
d 2u
2
Kdz
_____ (__..)
(3.55)
qz dt
Integrating Eqn. (3.31) in the z direction, subject to the following boundary conditions
(assume the same vacuum pressure gradient):
u =uvac
at z = 0 ; a n d ^ - = - ^ ( l - c ) a t z = /
dzI
This leads to excess pore pressure dXx=bw as:

110
(3.55a)
2(B-bw)Ywde
qz
+ ,.
dt V
M^)f
(3.56)
Integrating Eqn. (3.50) in the x direction using the above boundary condition (Eqn.
(3.56)), the following expression can be derived for u
u =
rw d* x(2B-x)-b (2B-b )
w
w
dt
2khp
+ uvac
+ 2{B
K)hp
[2lz-z2)
(3.57)
M/-)f
integrating Eqn. (3.49) in the x direction with the boundary condition as ux=bs =ux=bs
the following expression can be derived for u :
c(2B-x) +
2{B-bw)khp
a
rw
u = 2k dt
hp
(21Z-Z2)
+ uvac l-{l-c)-\
(3.58)
^{bs-bw\2B-bs-bw)-bs(2B-bs)
k
hP
Let u be the average excess pore water pressure for the whole unit cell at a given time .,
then:
lb,
u(B-bw)l=
IB
J Jw dxdz+
(3.59)
^judxdz
OK
Substituting Eqns. (3.57) and (3.58) for u and u into Eqn. (3.59) and rearranging, the
following expression can be obtained for u :
'1 + c}
- 7WB Pp de
u=- 2khp dt-+u vac
(3.60)
{ 2j
111
where,
a+p-^+e
(3.60a)
hP
In the above equation the geometric parameters a ,p and 0 are given by:
2 (n- sf
a =
3 n2(n-l)
pjAlÛn-s-^+s
+ l)and
(3.60b)
3 n (n-1)
0=
4khp
3Bq.
M
I
n)
B R
where, n =
h
= , s =
r
h
2 ( 1^
= , and note that a + p = - 1

r
3\ nJ
Eqn. (3.60) may now be combined with the time-dependent compressibility governed
by the following well-known consolidation expression:
du __
de _
dt
khp du
(3.61)
dt chpYw dt
where, chp is the horizontal coefficient of consolidation under plane strain condition.
Substituting Eqn. (3.61) into Eqn. (3.60), and then integrating subject
condition that u = usur, at .=0 gives the following expression:
+
u
sur
sur
1-
8T,
hp
exp
U sur J
112
(3.62)
This yields the average degree of consolidation Uhp of the whole layer as:
U j
UhP = =
Uj
Uf
U r.j.y. U
sur
= 1 - exp
Usur Uvac
(3.63)
pp,
In the absence of vacuum pressure (i.e. surcharge pressure only), the Eqn. (3.63) yields
the same equation developed by Indraratna and Redana (1997):
U hp = 1 u = 1-exp
u
(3.64)
pp,
In the absence of surcharge pressure (i.e. vacuum pressure only, usur=0), the Eqn. (3.63)
leads to:
UhP =
Ui u
Ui -Uf
(3.65)
= = = 1 - exp
Uvac
By combining Eqns. (3.57), (3.60) and (3.62), the excess pore water pressure with time
at any point within the smear zone can be found as:
x(2B-x)-bw{2B-bw)
u
\usur~Uvac)
B2M,
+ uvac
____
f
hp
' _8T^
exp
PP.
**-**)** fas)
(3.66)
i-(i-cy
B y combining Eqns. (3.58), (3.60) and (3.62), the excess pore water pressure with time
at any point outside the smear zone can be found as:
113
x(2B-x) +
u=
\Usur~Uvac)
B
2{B K)h
'{2lz-z2)
exp
Pl
PP
+ ^(bs-bw\2B-bs-bw)-bs{2B-bs)
(3.67)
hp
+uvac i-d-cY-,
Differentiating Eqn. (3.66) in the x direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (i )
2\usur-uvac)khp
YwBPP
exp
khp
8ThP
(3.68)
Pp .
Differentiating Eqn. (3.67) in the x direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (/')
with time at any point outside the smear zone can be found by:
8Thp^
2\Usur Uvac )
B
exp
Yww"r-p
P
3.2.4
Pp .
1-
(3.69)
Comparison of Axisymmetric vs Plane Strain Conditions
For a perfect drain (neglecting both smear and well resistance) the average exc
pressure variation in axisymmetric (Eqn. 3.38) and plane strain (Eqn. 3.62) unit cell can
be rewritten as follows:
114

For axisymmetric,
U = U vac + \Usur - U vac jexp
8T^
(3.70)
PJ
For plane strain,
U=Uvac
'
+ \Usur - U vac )exp
SThp^
(3.71)
pP J
2
where, p = Inn-0.7 5 and Pp =
nj
Assuming the same value for the axisymmetric and plane strain case, say =10, fa~fap,
usur = 25, and uvac = -50kPa, the average excess pore pressure distribution is plotted in
Figure 3.9. It can be seen that the pore pressure dissipation rate is higher in the plane
strain cell. This is attributed to using the same parameters and therefore it is important
to use the proper matching procedure when conducting plane strain analysis instead of a
true axisymmetric situation.
40
03
_
_
-Equal to applied surcharge
20
\
CO
CO
cu
_
cu
c_
O
DH
CO
02
u
o
X
u
Equal to applied average

vacuum pressure
-20
Axisymmetry
Plane strain
40
CD
00
c_
__ -60
u 0.0001
>
<
11
,i
0.001
'
1 1 1 1 1
i i ' i i
0.01
0.1
Time factor, Th ot Tfo
Figure 3.9 Comparison of average excess pore water pressure distribution
115
10
3.2.5 Matching Approach and Theoretical Considerations
In practice, the clay foundation will usually have a large number of vertical drains
beneath an embankment. In such cases, finite element modelling using the plane strain
model is the common approach where it is pertinent to convert the vertical drains
system into an equivalent drain wall. The equivalent plane strain theory can convert a
row of individual drains to a continuous drain wall based on geometry and permeability
transformations. Figure 3.10 shows the conversion of an axisymmetric vertical drain
into an equivalent drain wall. This can be achieved in several ways (Hird et al. 1992,
Indraratna and Redana, 1997), for example:
(i) Geometric matching - the drain spacing is matched while the same
permeability coefficient is maintained;
(ii) Permeability matching -coefficient of permeability is matched while keeping
the same drain spacing; and
(iii) Combination of (i) and (ii), with the plane strain permeability calculated for a
convenient drain spacing.
This equivalence makes the computational efficiency much greater by reducing

convergence time and the required computer memory, while still giving the correct
time-settlement response. Various researchers have described these advantages for field
studies where a large number of drains are used and for which a true 3D analysis may
be cumbersome and impractical (e.g. Hird et al., 1992, Chai et al., 1995, Indraratna et
al., 1997).
In the method proposed here, the vertical drain system is converted into
equivalent parallel drain walls by adjusting the coefficient of soil permeability while
keeping the half width of unit cell B, the half width of drains bw, and the half width o
116
smear zone bs of plane strain cell are the same as their axisymmetric radii R, rw and
respectively.
Drain
Smear zone
\
du
3z
b) Plane Strain
a) Axisymmetric
Figure 3.10 Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into plane strain condition (adapted
from, Hird et al., 1992; Indraratna and Redana, 1997)
At each time step and at a given stress level the average degree of consolidation for both
axisymmetric (Uh) and equivalent plane strain (Uhp) conditions are m a d e equal, hence:
(3.72)
Uh=Uhp
B y substituting Eqns. (3.41) and (3.63) into the above equation, the following equation
can be obtained:
117
*hp _ ^hp
Pp
(3.73)
B y substituting Eqns. (3.36b) and (3.60a) into the above equation, the following
expression for the equivalent plane strain permeability is obtained:
a+p-^+e
khp
(3.74)
^hp ~
, n kh , / \ 3 2kh7rV
ln- + -fln[s) + s
5
4
fa
3qw
By ignoring the both smear and well resistance in Eqn. (3.74), the equivalent plane
strain permeability in the undisturbed zone can readily be determined as:
2
3V
hp
-^h
nj
(3.74a)
n)-0.75
By ignoring the well resistance in Eqn. (3.74), the influence of the smear effect can be
isolated and the equivalent plane strain permeability in the smear zone written as:
Pk.hp
khp -'
hp
In
(3.74b)
\
ln(s)-0.75 -a
\kh)
Well resistance is derived independently and yields an equivalent plane strain discharge
capacity of drains, as proposed earlier by Hird et al. (1992):
(3.74c)
*<=*
118
In this study Eqns. (3.74a)-(3.74c) are incorporated into the numerical analysis
(employing PLAXIS and ABAQUS) to compare laboratory data and study selected case
histories, as discussed in the following Chapters.
For convenience of practical use the equivalent permeability in terms of spacing

ratio (n), smear ratio (s) and the permeability ratio of axisymmetric cell \khjkh are
graphically illustrated in Figures 3.11 and 3.12.
40
60
Spacing ratio, n
100
Figure 3.11 Ratio between coefficients of permeability of undisturbed zone of

equivalent plane strain cell to those of axisymmetric cell as a function of n
The ratio of the coefficient of permeability of the undisturbed zone of equivalent

plane strain cell to that of the axisymmetric cell (khp/kh) is shown in Figure 3.11 as a
function of n. When the spacing ratio (n) increases the value of (khp/kh) sharply
decreases up to a value of 0.3, and then decreases at a diminishing rate.
119

0.5S m e a r ratio, s = 3
0.4-
V'*=3
_g-0.3H
J*
0.2-
0.1-
n
0
|
20
| r
40
60
Spacing ratio, n
80
100
20
40
60
Spacing ratio, n
80
100
S m e a r ratio, .v=5
v;,3
Wh=4
20
40
60
Spacing ratio, n
80
ii
100
20
' i
'
40
60
Spacing ratio, n
80
100
Figure 3.12 Ratio between smear zone permeability to undisturbed zone permeability of
equivalent plane strain cell as a function of n, s and \kh/kh
The ratio of coefficients of permeability of the smear zone to the undisturbed zone
of the equivalent plane strain cell is shown in Figure 3.12 as a function of n, s, and
kh/kh . When the spacing ratio (n) increases the value of khp/khp increases and attains
a m a x i m u m (w 0.45) at about =10, and then decrease at a diminishing rate. Since, the
effect of smear will play a major role at small n, the khp/khp value increases up to a
certain extent and then decreases due to the insignificant effect of smear (at large n).
120
3.3 Plane Strain Consolidation Equation for a Single Drain under Non-Darcian
Flow
3.3.1
General
M a n y researchers (e.g. Hansbo, 1960; Miller & L o w , 1963; Olsen, 1985; Dubin &
Moulin, 1986) pointed out there was a deviation from Darcy's law at small hydraulic
gradients. Based on the laboratory investigations on Ska-Edeby clay, Hansbo (1960)
proposed that the Darcy's flow law v = ki (v = seepage velocity, k = coefficient of
permeability and i = hydraulic gradient) should be replaced with a non-Darcian flow a

defined by the exponential flow correlation v =Ki" (Figure 3.13).
h H i (n-l)/n)
.1
Hydraulic gradient, /'
Figure 3.13 Exponential correlation (modified after Hansbo, 2001)
Permeability tests on clay samples by Hansbo (1960) indicated that for an

exponent (ri) of 1.5 the threshold hydraulic gradient (/0) values of 1 to 4 correspond
the limiting hydraulic gradient (/,) values of 3 to 12. Permeability tests carried out
121
Dubin and Moulin (1986) on high-plasticity, moderately organic clay showed similar
correlations to those by Hansbo (1960). According to their tests, the i{ value was in
range of 8 to 35. In the following section a plane strain consolidation solution is
described under non-Darcian flow for a single drain incorporating smear effect only
(well resistance is neglected).
3.3.2 Proposed Plane Strain Solution
The flow velocity (vx) under non-Darcian low (exponential flow correlation) can be
written as:
vx = hP mv Yw i"
(3J5)
where, subscript p stands for plane strain, and coefficient of plane strain consolida
hP = KhPlmvYw . KhP
is the
coefficient of horizontal permeability in the undisturbed
zone.
On the assumption that the flow in the slice at a distance x from the centreline of t
drain is equal to the change in volume within a block of soil of width (B-x), such th
v,=-(-Kf (376)
Inserting Eqn. (3.76) into Eqn. (3.75) gives:
]_
. _ 1 du
Yw
dx
hPYw
X ]n
du^ n f\-\"
d* J V.
122
(3-77)
By rearranging Eqn. (3.77) the pore pressure gradient in the undisturbed soil can be
found by (bs <x<B):
n-1
-\
Y\
B du n f
du = v n
1
dx i w ^ hp dt j y B
(3.78)
Similarly, in the smear zone(bw <x<bs),
the corresponding pore pressure gradient is
given by:
du
= y "
/ w
OX
f
v
-xz
B du f
hP
dt;
(3.79)
1-Bj
The last term in the above expression can be expanded in the following binomial series:
V,
{n-\)
cX
2\nd
n B
B)
(w-l)(2w-l)
3\n
\B)
(3.80)
(-l)(2w-l)(3w-l)
KBj
4!
Substituting Eqn. (3.80) into Eqn. (3.79) and integrating term by term, and inserting the
boundary conditions u =0at x=bw, the excess pore water pressure within the smea
zone u at a given time t becomes:
n-$
_______
=B7w"
\
1
dt
S
P
_j
< x^
__L
n, -8, n,B
V Bj
where,
123
for (bw<x<bs)
(3.81)
1-
1(V
{n-l)(y]2
2! \n)
3! I
(n-l)(2n-l)(y
4!
,3 1
n
(3.81a)
8. {n,y) = y
(n-$(2n-\){?>n-\)( y^.
5!
\nj
In the above equation the variabley represents or
and the function gp{n,y) for
..=1.2, 1.3 and 1.5 is graphically illustrated in Figure 3.14. This indicates that the
function gp(n,y) increases from zero to a maximum value of 0.6 for increasing values of
n andy.
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Ratio, v
Figure 3.14 The variation of function gp (n, y) with y for selected n
Substituting Eqn. (3.80) into Eqn. (3.78) and integrating term by term, and
incorporating the boundary conditions u'x=bs =ux=bs, the following expression can be
124
derived for excess pore water pressure u in the undisturbed zone (bs < x < B) at a given
time t:
g,
n-1
u = B7wn
x^
Bj
g>
( V
K
B j
_______
hP
(3.82)
dt
K
hp
+
yKsp j
gi
s)
(
Si
b \
n,u
B
J
Let u be the average excess pore water pressure at a given time /, then:
bs .
u(B-bw)=
ji. dx+ \udx

bw
(3.83)
bs
Substituting Eqns. (3.81) and (3.82) into Eqn. (3.79) and integrating, the average excess
pore water pressure u at a given time t becomes (assuming that bw and bs are negligible
compared with B, i.e.(B-bw)& B and(_5 -_>s) B):
n-\ C
1 c O "B
u = Yy '
^ hP dt j
n+\
(3.84)
" P.
where,
P =
(~
K
\ f U \
(
fv n,^w -f
J
P
\
{KsP J L ' V B j
hp
b>
B)
+ fp\n>
(3.84a)
The following convergent series can be used in the above equation.
125
fP(ny)=
I.
(w-l)
(w-l)(2w-l)
2!
3!
4!T7 2
5!T2~
(w-l)(2-l)(3w-l)
&.n
(4) 2 (2/i-l) 3 J/i-lX3-l)

y-
2!TZ
3!T2^
(7.-IX272-IX477-I)
4 y .-. * -^
(7.-1X272-1X377-1X577-1)
5!T7
The variable y represents
(3.84b)
4\n:
6!T7"
or
and the function fp(n,y) for n=\.2, 1.3 is
_5 B
graphically illustrated in Figure 3.15. The function fp(n,y) increases with the exponen
while it decreases wheny increases and converges to zero at about y ~ 0.36.
.7=1.2 1
/i=1.3 I
__ =1.5
5 0.2
a
o
'4
a
3
0.04
0.1
0.2
0.3
Ratio, y
Figure 3.15 The variation of function/^ (n, y) with y for selected n
Since n > 1, the Eqn. (3.84) can be integrated using the boundary conditions u = uo at
t=0, to give:
126
4a
(
Yw
u n
i)~ W .
hp
(3.85)
where,
tt
a
(3.85a)
4(77-1)
Introducing the average degree of consolidation,
Uhp=l-^- u
(3.86)
WO
The time t required for a given degree of consolidation U hp found by:
Aa
t=
n-\ Dn+\
Yw'
w_ B
- \n-l
XhP (wo)"
(3.87)
k-vY
Rearranging the above equation, the degree of consolidation U hP at a given time . is:
Uhp=\-
l
h
P
1+-
f ~ \"~]
up
l-n
(3.88)
ap(2Bf
Substituting Eqn. (3.84) into Eqn. (3.81) and rearranging, the normalized excess pore
water pressure =u with time, at any point within the smear zone can be found as:
wo
127
;
K
hp
wo
(3.89)
"(l-Uhp)
\^ sp J
Similarly, substituting Eqn. (3.84) into Eqn. (3.82) and rearranging, the normalized
excess pore water pressure =w- with time, at any point outside the smear zone is given
wo
by:
( x^
Si
-Si
\ Bj
b^
n,B)
V
w _\t-Uhp)
uo
Pi
(3.90)
K
hp
b\
+
g,V B j
I \KSP J
Sx n,-

>
Differentiating Eqn. (3.89) in the x direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (/ )
(l-Uhp)uQ
hn
. =
Yw y sP
K
BPP
(3.91)
1-*
B
Differentiating Eqn. (3.90) in the x direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (/)
with time at any point outside the smear zone is given by:
(l-Uhp)ui
i =
Yw
B0.
(3.92)
1-*
B
128

Influence of exponent n on consolidation process
In order to study the influence of exponent on the consolidation process, a plane strain
analysis has been executed with the following parameters using different values of n
(1.00-1.50 in 0.05 interval). _5=0.7m, _>==0.105m, & w =0.035m, khp =Khp =0.008 m/yr,
KP =KsP =0.002 m/yr, chp=Xhp =0.4 m2/yr and two points (x=0.07 m, within smear
zone and x=0.35 m, outside the smear zone) are considered for comparing excess pore
pressure and the hydraulic gradient. The estimated average degree of consolidation,
excess pore pressure and hydraulic gradient after a consolidation period of 0.5 years are
plotted in Figures 3.16-3.18.
1.0
l.i
1.2
1.3
Exponent, n
1.4
Figure 3.16 Variation of average degree of consolidation with exponent n
Figure 3.16 shows that the average degree of consolidation increases from about
5 2 % to 6 8 % w h e n 77 varies from 1.00 to 1.50, i.e., w h e n 77 increases from 1 to 1.5, the
129
degree of consolidation is increased by approximately 3 0 % . From a practical

perspective this is a significant deviation from conventional consolidation theory,
emphasising the influence of the exponent 77.
0.6
at a point 0.35m from the centre (outside the smear zone)
o
3
at a point 0.07m from the centre (inside the smear zone)
_
t/a
CD
<D
_-
-s
0.4
(U
0.3 -
P.
__
_n
-a
_
N___; 0.2
o
c_
O<D
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.5
Exponent,
Figure 3.17 Variation of normalized excess pore pressure with exponent n
Figures 3.17 and 3.18 show that variation of normalized excess pore pressure and
hydraulic gradient at selected points (within and outside the smear zone) with exponent
n. When 77 increases from 1 to 1.5, excess pore pressure within the smear zone and
outside the smear zone is decreased by 24% and 35%, respectively and the
corresponding hydraulic gradients decrease by 52% and 75%. This means that not only
is the consolidation process in the undisturbed zone influenced more than in the smear
zone by the value of 77, but also the hydraulic gradient is more sensitive than the ex
pore pressure to variations of n. This is because the permeability of the undisturbed
zone is considerably higher compared to the reduced permeability in the smear zone.
130
at a point 0.35m from the centre (outside the smear zone)

at a point 0.07m from the centre (inside the smear zone)
4.0
J3
_
T3 3.0
cd
(-i
bO
_
1
_3
-_ed
(D
ON
1.0
z
o.o
1.1
1.0
_L
_l_
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.4
Exponent, n
Figure 3.18 Variation of normalized hydraulic gradient with exponent n
3.3.3 Matching with Axisymmetric Consolidation
At each time step and at a given stress level, the average degree of consolidation for
both axisymmetric (Oh) and equivalent plane strain (Uhp) conditions are made equal,
hence:
(3.93)
Ur = Uhp
B y substituting Eqns. (2.56) and (3.88) into the above equation, the following equation
can be obtained (assume the dimensions of both unit cells are equal):
hp
a^
(3.94)
2 n+lKa J
Substituting a _ and a , which are given in Eqns. (3.85a) and (2.56) respectively, in the
above equation, the converted permeability can be related by:
131
khp=2k}
'n-lBvy
(3.94a)
2n2 P
where, /?_ and /? are given in Eqns. (3.84a) and (2.56a), respectively.
Ignoring the smear effect in Eqn. (3.94), the equivalent plane strain permeability in the
undisturbed zone can readily be obtained as:
f
K hp _ ^hp
Kh
where, fp
= 2
ft n,D
V
(
(3.94b)
\
r B
2f n,V AR J J
f
is given in Eqn.(3.84b) and /
K
npL
>
r
K
is given below (Hansbo,
1960):
(n-lf
n-\
3n - 1
n-1
fv \
+
' r "\ n
fP
n-1
2n\R)
77-1
V.n1 (5n - lpn
n(3n - l\5n -1)
-1)
3n-l
77-1
+
2n 3n-l
fr V
(3.94c)
2n {3n-l)_
\RJ
(îf
n-\
+
n{3n-l\5n-l) 4n3(5n-l) 2n2(3n-l)
5n-l
fr V
+ ..
KRJ
For convenience of practical use the equivalent parameters in terms of spacing ratio
(Blbw), smear ratio (bs/bw) and permeability ratio of axisymmetric cell for different 77 are
graphically illustrated in Figures 3.19-3.22. Once the field permeability values and
geometric parameters are known (or assumed) then the equivalent plane strain
parameters can be readily obtained from such plots.
132
i 111111
1 i iimiji
i i 11 i n , i
i 11'.in
11nuii
10 100 1000 10000

Blbw {=Dldw)
10
i 111IIIIi
i iim.|i
100
1000
Blbw {=D!dJ
0.5-
J3
10000
Perfect drain
bs=2bw
bs=lbw
bs=Abw
"\
_"
s
'3
i i inn
"I /,. \
,Kh/Ks=4
0.3
in
_
a
J3
n.
/Ks=3
0.2-
I 0.1T
10
100
1000
Blbw {=Dldw)
"3
>
'B
10000
o-
nTTTTj
I I I I llll|
1 I I I 111 (|
1 I I Mill
10 100 1000 10000

Blbw (=Dldw)
Figure 3.19 Equivalent plane strain ap value as a function of Blbw, bjbw and KH/KS
of
axisymmetric cell for different 77 values
As shown in Figure 3.19, when the B/bw ratio increases, the value of ap
(equivalent plane strain) increases and attains a maximum. For KhJKs >2, a distinct
peak of a is followed by a post-peak reduction. Because the effect of smear plays a
major role at small B/bw, the a _ increases up to a certain extent and then decreases due
to the insignificant effect of smear (at large B/bw) and converges to a value
corresponding to that of a perfect drain (i.e. negligible smear). The equivalent plane
strain parameter p is plotted in Figure 3.20, which also shows a similar trend to a _.
133
n=1.2
^.=4
K h /K s =3
i imil
10
1i 11 IIIII
1i i i u n i
1 i ii mi
2 10 100 1000 10000

B/bw(=D/dw)
10000
100
1000
B/bw (=D/dw)
n=1.3
K h /K s =4
a.0.
__
a
'3 0.6b
K h /K s =3
0.4Perfect drain
o-
20
i,11HIi
riuuiji
_,=46_,
111iui|i
'! Illlll|
i ci
2 10 100 1000 10000

Blbw (=_ /_/w)
[ l.lllli|
1 I I (1111|
I I I Mill
10 100 1000 10000

Blbw (=>/_/J
Figure 3.20 Equivalent plane strain pp value as a function of Blbw, bJK and KH/KS
of
axisymmetric for different n values
The ratio of the coefficient of consolidation (or permeability of undisturbed zone)
of the equivalent plane strain cell to axisymmetric cell (Xhp/X = Khp/fch) is shown in
Figure 3.21, as a function of B/bw. When the Blbw ratio increases the value of
Xh IX oxKhpJKh increases and attains a maximum, and then decreases at a diminishing
rate.
134
~ i i
i i u
1ii
100
B/bw (=D/dw)
i i M
1000
1ii
i i ii
10000
Figure 3.21 Ratio between coefficients of consolidation of undisturbed zone of

equivalent plane strain cell to those of axisymmetric cell as a function of Blbw
The ratio of undisturbed zone permeability to smear zone permeability of the

equivalent plane strain cell (KhpJKsp ) is shown in Figure 3.22. This shows that the
value of Kh IK gradually increases with an increase in both Blbw and KH/KS . It is
noted that the ratio KhpJKsp increases at a faster rate at large Blbw ratios when the smear
effect becomes less. These converted parameters can then be incorporated into the finite
element analysis.
135
25n=l._
i i i i 11
100
200
BIbw{=Dldw)
i i i i 11
i i i 11
100
200
B/bw (=D/dw)
i i i i 11
10
1 i i
10
100
i i i i 11
200
Blbw (=D/dw)
1 i i
i i i 11
10
100
200
B/bw(=D/dJ
Figure 3.22 Ratio between undisturbed zone permeability to smear zone permeability of
equivalent plane strain cell as a function of B/bw, bjbw and Kh/Ks of
axisymmetric cell for different 77 values
3.4
Summary
Analytical formulations related to consolidation analysis have been explained in this

Chapter. A brief summary of this formulation is given below:
1. An analytical solution to estimate the extent of smear zone has been formulated
based on Cylindrical Cavity Expansion analysis incorporating the Modified Cam
Clay theory.
136
2. The existing axisymmetric (Hansbo, 1981) and plane strain (Indraratna and Redana,
1997) theories of a unit cell were modified to include the vacuum pressure
application. It was assumed that the applied vacuum pressure is constant along the
top surface and propagates immediately along the length of drain in a trapezoidal
pattern.
3. New plane strain lateral consolidation equations neglecting the well resistance of
vertical drains are formulated and can be applied for both Darcian and non-Darcian
flow. The new parameters are graphically illustrated for practical use. Finally, plane
strain matching procedure for the proposed solution has been explained.
137
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
4 LABORATORY TESTING AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

4.1 General
Bergado et al. (1991); Indraratna and Redana, (1995); Xiao (2000) conducted laboratory
tests to study the behaviour of vertical drains installed in soft clay using a specially
designed large-scale consolidation apparatus. Bergado et al. (1991) used a transparent
PVC cylinder (455 mm x 920 mm x 10 mm wall thickness) with a steel base plate but
the excess pore water pressure measurements were considered unrealistic with this
setup. The cylinder was filled with soft remoulded Bangkok clay and a PVD (Ali drain 4 mm x 60 mm) was installed using the 6 mm x 80 mm mandrel, and then the
settlement behaviour was monitored under a surcharge pressure of 47.8 kPa. The
permeability coefficients were calculated from conventional oedometer tests, carried out
for horizontal and vertical specimens taken at several locations.
Indraratna and Redana (1995) used a large-scale consolidometer (450 mm x 950
mm) to investigate the effect of smear due to the installation of prefabricated vertical
drains. They examined the reduction of soil permeability to assess the extent of the
smear zone around vertical drain installed by a mandrel. Xiao (2000) also conducted a
series of large-scale tests to study the behaviour around vertical drains installed in s
clay using remoulded kaolin clay.
In this research, a fully instrumented large-scale consolidometer was used to

measure the pore pressure development during mandrel installation to assess the extent
of the smear zone around a vertical drain. In addition, the extent of the smear zone was
estimated using the permeability and water content measurements by taking samples
138
(horizontally and vertically) at different locations. A number of approaches were used to

predict the smear zone using the permeability and water content measurements, such as:
(i) From the variation of horizontal permeability;
(ii) Using the permeability anisotropy (horizontal to vertical permeability ratio, M:.)
- Indraratna and Redana (1998) approach;
(iii) Using the normalized lateral permeability (kh/khu), i.e., the coefficient of lateral
permeability (kh) over the maximum undisturbed zone permeability (/./,);
(iv) From the variation of water content; and
(v) Using the normalized water content reduction, i.e., (wmax-w)/wmax, where wmax=
maximum water content and w= water content at any point.
In the Indraratna and Redana (1998) approach, the vertical permeability was shown to
be relatively unaffected by mandrel installation. Therefore, in the current analysis the
normalized lateral permeability (kh/khu) and normalized water content reduction were
taken to be more realistic than the ky/kv ratio in deteraiining the effect of smear. Also,
correlation between the permeability reduction (i.e. difference between the undisturbed
and smear zone values) and water content reduction was proposed. The proposed
empirical equation is very useful in practice, because by measuring the water content,
the horizontal permeability may be estimated. Details of the apparatus and test
procedures are explained in the following section.
139
..
4.2 Experimental Set-up and Testing Procedure
4.2.1 Apparatus
The large-scale radial drainage consolidometer (Figure 4.1) consists of two cylindrical
(stainless steel) half sections, each of which has a flange running the length of the
cylinder so they can be bolted together. The cell is 650 mm internal diameter x 1040
mm height x 8 mm thick, and it has a 1.5 mm thick Teflon sleeve fitted around the
internal cell boundary to reduce friction and is then placed onto a steel base. A LVDT
(Linear Variable Differential Transformer) transducer is placed on top of the piston to
monitor surface settlement, and strain gauge type pore pressure transducers (PPT's) are
also installed to measure the pore water pressures at various depths. In addition, an ar
of strain gauge type pore pressure transducers are installed radially at a depth of 0.5
from the top surface (the plan view is shown in Figure 4.2) to monitor pore pressure
development during mandrel installation.
The transducers used in this laboratory studies are based on the use of strain gauge
technology and manufactured by Durham Geo Enterprises. Design of these transducers
incorporated a ceramic pressure element in a stainless steel enclosure and bleed valve t
eliminate air traps (see Fig. 4.3). Model E-120 pore pressures are used in this study ha
a measurement range of 0-30 psi (0-207 kPa) and readability to 0.1 psi (0.69 kPa). The
transducers were calibrated using a Budenburg dead weight testing machine. A simple
computer programme was written using the calibration data to convert the transducer
output in voltage to an appropriate pore pressure and settlement units (kPa and mm).
140
4.2.2
Testing Procedure
Because this cell is very large (the volume is about 0.34m3), it is almost impossible to
obtain undisturbed samples of this size. Therefore, reconstituted alluvial clay from
Moruya, NSW was used to make large samples. The geotechnical properties (Table 4.1)
of the selected soils were determined from Atterberg limits and specific gravity tests
and were classified using the Casagranade Plasticity Chart or Unified Soil Classification
System as high plasticity (CH) clay.
Figure 4.1 Large-scale radial drainage consolidometer

141
Table 4.1 Engineering properties of selected sample

LL
PL
Clay particles
Silt particles
Specific Unit weight
(%)
(%)
(<2pm)
(<10pm)
Gravity
(kN/m 3 )
70
30
45-55
45-60
2.66
17.5
Moisture
content (%)
48
LL: Liquid Limit; PL: Plastic Limit
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.2 Location of pore pressure transducers and cored samples
4.2.2.1 Preparation of Reconstituted Clay
The plastic limit, liquid limit, and natural water content of the clay sample were
determined for soil classification.
The clay was thoroughly mixed with water so the water content was equal to or
greater than the liquid limit.
142
The clay slurry was kept in a closed container for several days to ensure full
saturation.
To ensure that the clay was fully saturated, a couple of small cylindrical specimens
(38mm x 76mm) were cored and tested in the triaxial equipment. Skempton's B
parameter of 0.99 or more was determined.
4.2.2.2 Preparation of the Apparatus
Calibrated the pore pressure transducers using a Bundenburg dead weight testing
machine. Load cell and LVDT were also calibrated, and a simple computer
program was written using the calibrated data to convert the data logger output (in
voltage) to an appropriate unit (pore pressure-kPa, load-kN and settlement-mm).
Each part of the apparatus was cleaned and the pressure chamber lubricated to
prevent internal friction.
The O-ring and elastic seal were placed into the groove in the bottom plate to
prevent air leakages. An elastic seal should be applied along the flanges of the two
half cylinders and left for couple of days to dry.
Placed a round plastic sheet with a hole at the centre and a round geotextile sheet
onto the bottom plate to prevent clay sticking to it and the clay particles from
eroding. Subsequently, a 1.5 mm thickness Teflon sheet was placed around the
inner periphery of the cell to minimize the friction between the side wall of the
cylinder and the clay.
143
4.2.2.3 Preparation of the Vertical Drain
A 1.5 m long prefabricated vertical band drain (100 mm x 3 mm, equivalent radius
is 33mm using Eqn. 2.3) was taken and kept in water to make it saturate.
Inserted the PVD into the slot in the specially designed rectangular mandrel (Figure
4.3), which was slightly larger than (125 mm x 25 mm, equivalent radius is 48mm
using Eqn. 2.3) the PVD. The end of the drain was attached to a shoe to ensure the
drain remained in the proper position when the mandrel is withdrawn after
insertion.
Figure 4.3 Mandrel, Guider, P P T and prepared sample
4.2.2.4 Testing Procedure

The following testing procedure is recommended.
Fill the cell, with the prepared reconstituted clay in 150 mm layers by compacting
or vibrating to expel the air trap in the clay slurry before adding the next layer, to
total height of 950 mm.
Install the pore pressure transducers at selected locations.

144
Place a round plastic sheet followed by the top plate, and subsequently place the
load cell onto the top of plate to measure the applied load from the pressure
chamber.
In this study, four tests were conducted with different initial consolidation pressur
(i.e. 20, 30, 40, and 50 kPa). The initial consolidation pressure was applied and left
for two weeks (or until about 90% of the consolidation was obtained). It is noted
that all four samples have same characteristics.
The pressure chamber, load cell, top plate and plastic sheet were removed at the end
of the preconsolidation phase and then the PVD was installed, at an average
penetrating rate of 0.5 m/min using a specially designed guider, during which the
pore pressure was recorded. The mandrel was withdrawn after it touches the bottom
of the cell.
The top plate, load cell, pressure chamber and settlement transducer (LVDT) were
re-installed and the surcharge load was applied in stages in increments of 50, 100,
and 200 kPa to promote radial consolidation. It is noted that the time duration
between two stages is 30 days.
The horizontal and vertical undisturbed specimens (total of 32 specimens per test)
were taken (size of 38mm x 76mm) at the end of the test from several locations to
find the permeability coefficients and the water content using the standard (onedimensional) oedometer test
145
4.3
Presentation of Results
4.3.1 Evaluation of Compressibility Indices
The available finite element programs are generally based on the elastic-plastic MohrCoulomb model or soft soil model (Cam-Clay model), so it is essential that the soil
parameters be determined. Figure 4.4 shows the relationship between the void ratio and
applied consolidation pressure, while Table 4.2 shows the evaluated soil parameters. It
is noted that the C a m clay parameters and the angle of shear resistance were estimated
from triaxial tests (conducted by Redana, 2000).
1.9
Cc=0.34 =>>.=0.15
Cr=0.14 = > K = 0 . 0 6
1.2
1.1
'
' I
l_L
10
20
50
100
200
Consolidation Pressure (kPa)
Figure 4.4 Variation of void ratio with consolidation pressure
146
500
1000
Table 4.2 Modified C a m Clay Parameters
4.3.2
26
0.15
0.06
u0
1.02
2.57
2.51
2.8
0.25
Pore Pressure Variation during Mandrel Installation
Pore pressure transducers, T1-T5 having a radial distance from the centre of 95, 105,
120, 140 and 190 mm, respectively, were installed 0.5 m below the surface (Figure
4.2a) to measure variation of pore water pressure during installation. Figure 4.5 shows
these variations over time elapsed for each initial surcharge pressure, during mandrel
installation and withdrawal. The pore pressure response shows an increase in magnitude
until the maximum value, which occurs when the mandrel tip just passes the depth at
which the PPT is located. The pore pressure continuous to drop as the mandrel is driven
deeper. Subsequently the pore pressure drops rapidly and then converges to a small
residual value when the mandrel is withdrawn. This also shows that the developed pore
pressure decreases in the radial direction (pore water pressure is higher at transducer
which is close to the mandrel and less at T5 which further away from the centre of
drain).
147
40-
30cd
Mandrel pass the PPT's
u
c/a
00
Mandrel
withdrawal
20-
Before
mandrel
installation
_
s_
OH
TI
T2
T3
T4
T5
After mandrel
withdrawal
o 10OH
0-
-|
100
r-
200
300
Time Elapsed (sec)

(a) Initial Pressure = 20 kPa
100
200
Time Elapsed (sec)
(b) Initial Pressure = 30 kPa
148
300
100
200
300
Time Elapsed (sec)

(c) Initial Pressure = 40 kPa
100
200
Time Elapsed (sec)
(d) Initial Pressure = 50 kPa

Figure 4.5 Pore pressure variation during mandrel installation for different initial
surcharge pressure (preconsolidation pressure)
149
In order to determine the smear zone, the normalized pore pressure (i.e., pore
pressure / surcharge pressure) was plotted against the normalized radial distance (i.e.,
radial distance / equivalent mandrel radius). In Figure 4.6, the m a x i m u m normalized
pore water pressure at the location of each P P T is compared with the predicted,
normalized pore water pressure based on the proposed (described in the previous
Chapter) cavity expansion theory (CET) using the modified C a m clay parameters given
in Table 4.2. The predicted pore pressure ratios are very close to those measured, and
the predicted extent of smear zone is 2.401, 2.449, 2.588 and 2.623 times the equivalent
mandrel radius, corresponding to the initial surcharge pressure of 20, 30, 40 and 50 kPa,
respectively. This suggests that the extent of smear zone might be dependent on the
depth of overburden.
rlrm
(a) Initial surcharge = 20 kPa
150
Normalized pore water

pressure - Measured
Normalized pore water pressure
(calculated using C E T )
Calculated extent of
smear zone, r s /r m = 2.4491
rlr
m
(b) Initial surcharge = 3 0 k P a
1.2
Normalized pore water

pressure - Measured
Nonnalized pore water pressure
(calculated using C E T )
Calculated extent of
smear zone, rslrm = 2.5876
rlr.
m
(c) Initial surcharge = 4 0 k P a
151
rlrm
(d) Initial surcharge = 5 0 k P a
Figure 4.6 Normalized pore water pressure variation with distance
4.3.3 Permeability Tests
At the end of the large-scale consolidation test, horizontal and vertical specimens wer
cored at 0.5 m below the surface to measure the coefficient of permeability and the
extent of smear zone. Variations of the horizontal and vertical coefficient of
permeability (fa and /cv), as well as the permeability ratios (/c/frv) and the normalize
permeability (fa/khu) for different mean applied consolidation pressures are plotted in
Figure 4.7.
152
Applied pressure Smear zone
1
o
o
4=
4-
a
_
- Q
DH
c
o
N
c
00
rlrm
(a) Variation of horizontal permeability
o
b
c_
u
u
OH
1.
o
>
(b) Variation of vertical permeability
153
2.000
1.800-
4_
1.600c_
_
0.
1.400-
OJ
CL,
1.200-
1.000
(c) Variation of permeability ratio

1.000-
0.900H
_^
0.800H
c_
0.700H
4)
__
"c_
0.600H
Highly disturbed zone
Marginal
disturbance
Insignificant
disturbance
*-
0.5000
r/r,m
(d) Variation of normalized permeability
Figure 4.7 Variation of (a) horizontal permeability, (b) vertical permeability, (c)
permeability ratio, and (d) the normalized permeability, with radial distance
154
Figure 4.7a shows that the horizontal permeability gradually increases up to a

certain extent and then remains relatively constant whereas the Figure 4.7b shows that
the variation in vertical permeability with radial distance is less. This indicates that th
mandrel installation have more affects on the horizontal soil parameters than those of
vertical. The permeability ratio between horizontal and vertical is illustrated in Figure
4.7c, which shows a similar trend to the variation of horizontal permeability in Figure
4.7a. The variation of normalized permeability is plotted in Figure 4.7d. This clearly
demonstrates that close to the drain boundary (highly disturbed zone), the value of
normalized permeability ratio increases rapidly with radial distance, whereas further
away the change in normalized permeability becomes insignificance. It is of interest to
note that the irrespective of the applied pressure, all curves are confined within a narro
band, clearly defining the extent of the smear zone. From this data, one may conclude
that the smear zone is at least 2.5 times the equivalent mandrel radius (rm), and the
normalized lateral permeability ratio within the smear zone varies from 1.0943 and
1.6437 (an average of 1.3429). Moreover, very close to the drain, the k\/kv ratio is
expected to approach unity.
4.3.4 Variations of Water Content
Various researchers (e.g. Taylor, 1948; Samarasinghe et al. 1982; Tavenas et al. 1983;
Babu et al. 1993) have discussed the effect of the void ratio on the coefficient of
permeability and concluded that it is dependent upon the void ratio and the water
content of soils. Therefore, it is logical to argue that installation of mandrel not only
affects the horizontal coefficient of permeability but also the water content. In this
research, an attempt is made to examine the extent of the smear zone from the variation
155
of water content and the normalized water content reduction, i.e., (wmax-w)/wmax. For
this purpose, samples were collected at five different vertical levels and eight differen
radial locations.
The variation of water content and the normalized water content reduction with
radial distance at a depth of 0.5 m, for different applied pressure is illustrated in Fi
4.8. The variation of water content (Figure 4.8a) shows a similar trend to the variation
of fa as shown previously in Figure 4.7a. The normalized water content reduction is
shown in Figure 4.8b, which shows that all plots are confined within a narrow band,
again demonstrating the effect of smear.
The variation of the water content with depth and radial distance is shown in
Figure 4.9 for an applied pressure of 200 kPa. As expected, the water content decreases
towards the drain, and also the water content being greater towards the bottom of cell a
all radial points. Based on these curves the extent of smear zone can be estimated to be
at least 2.5 times the equivalent mandrel radius. This agrees well with the estimated
extent of smear zone based on fa/fa ratio (Figure 4.7c), fa/fan ratio (Figure 4.7d). These
results are also in good agreement with the CET predicted smear zone extent as
previously indicated in Figure 4.6. It confirmed that the extent of smear zone could be
quantified using the proposed cavity expansion theory.
156
_
s_
o
o
OJ
0.04-
0.02-
Figure 4.8 Variation of (a) water content and (b) normalized water content reduction,
with radial distance at a depth of 0.5 m
157
70Smear zone
w
max = w s = 6 9 %
68-
66-
cd
Location of the smaple

from bottom (mm)
0 (bottom)
64-
200
400
600
800
62-
T
4
rlr,
Figure 4.9 Variation of water content with depth and radial distance for an applied
pressure of 200 kPa
Correlation between permeability and water content within smear zone
A correlation between the permeability reduction (i.e. difference between the

undisturbed and smear zone values) and water content reduction is shown in Figure
4.10. This relationship is almost perfectly linear (R2 > 0.99), and the following
expression can be proposed:
Ak
'Aw]
(4.1)
=C
wo,
158
where, fa: permeability of undisturbed zone; A/c: permeability reduction; w 0 : water

content of undisturbed zone; Aw. reduction in water content (Aw = wo-w). The
empirical coefficients C and n are 8.32 and 1.1, respectively, for the current test res
The above equation can be very useful in practice, because by measuring the water
content, the horizontal permeability may be estimated if the initial water content and
initial horizontal permeability are known.
-0.4Linear fitted line (R2=0.993)

25kPa
50kPa
-0.6-
100 kPa
200 kPa
-0.8^
o
-1.0-
1.2-
-1.4-2.2
-2.0
1.8
Log
-1.6
-1.4
-1.2
(AW/WQ)
Figure 4.10 Correlation between the reduction of permeability and the water content
within the smear zone
159
4.3.5
Comparison of Surface Settlement
The surface settlement was monitored using the LVDT transducer placed on top of the
plate. The measured and predicted surface settlements are compared in Fig. 4.11a, an
found to agree (only the result of Test 1 is considered because the surface settleme
was almost the same in all the tests). The numerical predictions were carried out usi
the finite element code PLAXIS incorporating the modified Cam- clay parameters given
in Table 4.2. Hence, the length of the drain is small (about lm), the well resistanc
neglected in the analysis and the extent of smear is taken as 5 times the equivalent
radius (150 mm). The finite element mesh of the large-scale cell consisting of 15node triangular elements with 12-point Gauss integration is shown in Fig. 4.1 lb.
Time (days)
20 30 40
50
60
Surcharge pressure
increase
S -40
_
t_
cz_
-60
Measured
Predicted
-80
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.11 (a) Comparison of surface settlement, and (b) F E mesh used in Plaxis
160

4.3.6
Comparison of Excess Pore Water Pressures during Consolidation
The measured and predicted excess pore water pressures (neglecting well resistance) of
Test 1 are compared in Fig. 4.12. The excess pore water pressure measured at
transducer T4 (185 mm from the centre and 0.5 m below the surface) was in good
agreement with the numerical predictions. While there was a very small deviation
between the predicted and measured excess pore pressure at transducer TI (95 mm from
the centre and 0.5 m below the surface) during Stage 1 loading, a good agreement was
found during Stage 2 loading. Transducer TI shows an accelerated dissipation of excess
pore water pressure compared to transducer T4, because, TI is closer to the boundary of
the drain.
m
i
-
Measured EPP at TI
Measured EPP at T4
O -i I i - . , 1 T7T>T_ ..1 T1
rerdicted hrr at 1J
c_
>%
___
_. . jêrdicteci i__rr at 1 4
. __
_ 80- I
BO
u
__
\-
^.
x?_
N
\
\
\v
**_.
'l-l
P-i
*_.
3 40-
^5%_
^ * _ *
\?*_
n i
20
40
Time (days)
Figure 4.12 Comparison of excess pore water pressure
161
'
"T
60
4.4 Summary
The effect of smear zone due to the installation of prefabricated vertical drains was
investigated in the laboratory, and compared with the analytical and numerical results.
From the laboratory measurements, the extent of smear zone was found to be 2.5 times
the equivalent mandrel radius. The calculated extent of smear zone was about 2.515
(average) times the mandrel radius using the cavity expansion theory proposed in
Chapter 3, which is very close to the value evaluated in the laboratory. The
experimental results also show the horizontal permeability in the smear zone varying
from 1.0943 to 1.6437, with an average of 1.3429 times smaller than the undisturbed
zone. The above findings are comparable with previous research reported in the
literature (Table 2.4). For example, Hansbo (1979), Indraratna and Redana (1998) Chai
and Miura (1999) proposed that the extent of smear zone is about 1.5 ~ 3, 2 ~ 3, and 2
~ 3 times the mandrel radius, respectively, which is close to the extent of smear zone
found in this studies ( about 2.5 times the mandrel radius).
The measured excess pore water pressure and surface settlement were also
compared with predicted values using the PLAXIS software and found to be in good
agreement. The experimental results shown in this Chapter confirm that predicting the
extent of the smear zone is feasible using the proposed solution.
An expression between the change in water content and change in horizontal
permeability within the smear zone is found and this empirical expression is very usefu
in practical sense for estimating lateral smear zone permeability by measuring the wate
content. It is also noted that initial water content and initial horizontal permeabilit
should be known.
162
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
5 CASE STUDY 1: SUNSHINE MOTORWAY (QLD, AUSTRALIA)

5.1 General
The Sunshine Coast is one of Australia's fastest growing regions but this continued
economic and population growth has increased the pressure on the region's main traffic
corridor, the Sunshine Motorway. Site investigation at the proposed development route
revealed that the subsoil consists of very soft, highly compressible, saturated marine
clays of high sensitivity, which presented difficulties developing the new alignment. In
order to study the foundation response upon loading, and evaluate the effectiveness of
various ground improvement techniques on these marine clays, a fully instrumented
trial embankment was constructed in 1992 at Area 2A of the proposed Sunshine
Motorway (Figure 5.1), located in the Maroochy Shire, Queensland, Australia. This trial
embankment was monitored by the Queensland Department of Main Roads (QDMR),
Brisbane, Australia.
The subsoil conditions are relatively uniform throughout the site, consisting of
sensitive silty clay about 10-1 lm thick, overlying a layer of sand approximately 6m
thick. A thin soft clay layer underlies the sand and extends to a depth of 18m. Anothe
sand layer is encountered below 18m. The water content, Atterberg limits, bulk unit
weight, undrained shear strength and the compression index ratio of the top sensitive
silty clay with depth are given in Figure 5.2. The compression index ratio varies from
0.15 to 0.50, and the recompression ratio was found to be about 10 times smaller than
the compression index ratio (QDMR Report, No.R1765, June 1991). The over
consolidation ratio (OCR) of the soils varies from 1.0 to 1.6 (lightly overconsolidated
soil).
163
Chapter 5 Case Studv: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
Maroochydore
Study
Area
Figure 5.1 M a p of Australia showing the location of the study area
u_ ~
Q
WATER
CONTENT
%
o o oogo
GRADING % .t BULK
P I UNDRAINED SHEAR
PARTKLSMALLER
STRENGTH IkPo)
t/m' DENSITY LI %
THAN 2Jp
(BP01
_, o in o m o
r, O O O
tn___________oo I^_J___5__
W . I t - _ _
<l
17'^
1.66
L5Z
-.A,.
_3_*
1,40
1.34
ORGANIC
CONTENT
(mVyr)
_
*%
UT
' i
1.7 S
2,5 27
2.3 28_.60~ 2.6
35
0-9
5.3
2.4 40
0-4
10.7
2.63
4
I.3S 2.55
55
1.9 46
17
/
6
7
1.60
1.54
2.60
2.55
31
33
ii
0 3
8 _
9
IO
^-LIQUID LIMIT
4-6
25
.64 2.62
3l
OLD ALIGNMENT
o - VANE SHEAR
- UL) TRIAXIAL - 50mm Thin wolled sarnct.
NEW ALIGNMENT
A
OU TRIAXIAL - DH.I9 100mm P:s<_r< samples
0
DHI9 \VANE SHEAR
+ DH20J
Figure 5.2 Profile of the Geotechnical characteristics (Sunshine Motorway Stage 2

Interim Report, 1992)
164
The base area of the trial embankment was approximately 9 0 m x 4 0 m and

incorporated 3 separate sections (Figure 5.3), identified as Sections A, B, and C,
respectively. Sections A and B (each 35m in long) were the primary sections of the tria
embankment and they represented the zones of vertical drains (at lm intervals) and 'no
drains', respectively. Section C (approximately 20m in long) was an intermediate case
with vertical drains at 2m apart. The vertical drains (Nylex Flodrain) in Sections A an
C were installed in a triangular pattern.
Tensar SS2 geogrids were laid longitudinally on the natural ground surface,
followed by a lightweight needle-punched geotextile (Bidim U12). The SS2 was
considered to be a light reinforcement whilst the U12 acting as a separator. A working
platform 0.65m thick (500mm of 7mm screenings drainage layer plus 150mm of
selected fill) was placed on top for construction traffic access.
Prefabricated vertical drains were installed from the working platform to a depth
of 1 lm under the Sections A and C, followed by a geogrid reinforcement placed in the
lateral direction (Tensar ER200). Then the embankment was constructed in stages using
a loosely compacted granular material (yt,20 kN/m3) up to a height of 2.85m.
*-
: ^ H A
.'-Sr'+
--."<: -i-.-
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1.
Figure 5.3 Plan view of Trial Embankment
165

Working Platform (0.65m)
w
*\X
I
\ w ^-f
|_tent of ER200 15m from centre
*.
7m
w-
Readout Box
5m
w
isUii/
SCC5 I SCA1/SCB3
Inclinometer
(IA2/IB4/IC5)
PPA13/PPB3;
/PPC43
PVA4.'
PVC39 t
PVB22
Reinforcement (ER 200)

Sensitive Silty Clay
Inclinometer (IA1/IB3)
,
10.5m
Sand 5.5m
Soft Clay I2m
Sand
Figure 5.4 Typical cross-section of embankment with selected instrumentation points
Two berms, 5m in width on the instrumented side and 8m wide on the other side
as shown in Figure 5.4 were constructed to increase the stability of the embankment.
Half of the cross-section was intensively instrumented to capture the foundation
response upon loading. The instrumentation consisted of settlement gauges (SC),
piezometers (pneumatic-PP, vibrating wire-PV and standpipe), inclinometers (I),
horizontal profile gauges, sondex settlement systems, strain gauges and earth pressure
cells. Typical cross-section of embankment with selected instrumentation points is
shown in Figure 5.4.
The deformation and pore water pressure responses below each section of the
embankment were predicted using a plane strain finite element analysis and then
compared with the available field data.
5.2 Finite Element Analysis

The multi-drain plane strain analysis was carried out using the finite element code
PLAXIS (Version 8). In the analysis, the soil layers were divided into many elements.
The element types were selected to deal with the relevant geometrical and material nonlinearities. The soft soil model based on Modified Cam-clay theory was used to
166
replicate the clay layers, whereas the Mohr-Coulomb model was employed to analyse
the sand layers. The soil parameters used in the finite element analysis are given in
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 on the basis of information given by QDMR.
Table 5.1 Modified Cam-clay parameters used in the finite element analysis
Depth (m)
0.0-2.5
Soil type
Silty clay
1.20
0.270 0.027
0.30
eQ
J-
Avera
3
S e Pc
(kN/W)
(kPa)
16.4
20
1.85
2.5-5.0 Soft silty clay 1.20 0.480 0.048 0.30 3.10 13.7 31
5.0-10.5 Silty clay 1.18 0.260 0.026 0.3 1.75 15.9 66
10.5-16.0 Sand [ See Table 5.2]
16.0-18.0 Soft clay 1.08 0.240 0.024 0.3 1.70 16.1 120
Table 5.2 Mohr-Coulomb parameters of the sand layer
5.2.1
y s (kN/m 3 )
c'(kPa)
/(degrees)
E(MPa)
15.0
0.3
13.5
35
7.5
Element Types used in P L A X I S
The element types used in the finite element code PLAXIS are shown in Figure 5.5. A
choice can be made between 15-node triangular elements and 6-node triangular
elements. The 15-node element has 15 nodes and 12 Gaussian integration stress point,
167
whereas the 6-node element has 6 nodes and 3 Gaussian integration points. While the
powerful 15-node element provides an accurate calculation of stresses and failure loads,
the 6-node elements permit more rapid computation. In addition to the triangular
elements, which are generally used to model the soil, geogrid elements and interface
elements may be used to model the soil-structure interaction.
(b) 6-node element
(a) 15-node element
Figure 5.5 Types of element used in P L A X I S (Version 8)
nodes
x stress point
soil element
^s s
interface element
f*
- 1 >
(a) 10-node interface element
(b) 6-node interface element
Figure 5.6 Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their
connection to soil elements
Figure 5.6 illustrates how interface elements are connected to soil elements.
When using 15-node soil elements the corresponding interface elements are defined by
five pairs of nodes whereas for 6-node soil elements the corresponding interface
168
Chapter 5 Case Study. Sunshine Motorway. Australia
elements have three. In the figure the interface elements are shown to have a finite
thickness but in reality they have zero thickness. Each interface is assigned a 'virtual
thickness' which is an imaginary dimension used to define its material properties which
are related to the adjacent soil properties. Also, interfaces may be used in a
consolidation analysis to block the flow perpendicular to the interface to simulate an
impermeable screen.
5.2.2 Types of Material Models used in PLAXIS
The mechanical behaviour of soils may be modelled with various degrees of accuracy.
For example, Hook's law of linear, isotropic elasticity may be conceived as the simplest
available stress-strain relationship. As it involves only two input parameters (Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio), it is generally too 'crude' to capture essential soil
behaviour. To replicate the non-linear stress-strain behaviour a variety of constitutive
laws are available, and even though most advanced models require a relatively large
number of parameters the Mohr-Coulomb and the Soft-Soil models are often considered
to be sufficient to model the soil behaviour in practice.
5.2.2.1 Mohr-Coulomb Model
The elastic-plastic Mohr-Coulomb model involves five input parameters, i.e. Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio for soil elasticity; friction angle and cohesion for soil
plasticity; and the dilation angle. This model is often recommended for
overconsolidated soils (e.g. surface crust).
169
5.2.2.2 Soft Soil Model
This is a Modified Cam-Clay type model especially suitable for primary compression of
normally consolidated soils. The Soft-Soil model requires the following material
* X
constants: X
- modified compression index =
;K
- modified swelling index
l + e0
=- ; M- slope of critical state line; c - cohesion; 4> - friction angle; y - dilatancy
l +eQ
angle; v - Poisson's ratio; and Konc- coefficient of lateral stress in normal
consolidation.
5.2.3 Variation of Extent of Smear Zone
The extent of the smear zone with depth was predicted using the proposed cavity
expansion theory (CET), as explained in Chapter 3 (Section 3.1), incorporating the
modified Cam clay parameters given in Table 5.1. The predicted normalised pore water
pressure (_/av0) variation with radial distance for each soil layer is shown in Figure
The CET predicted extent of the smear zone (i.e., the distance from the centreline at
which w/avo^l) is illustrated in Figure 5.8, which shows that the smear zone decreases
from 6.6rw to 4.9rw (230-170mm) when the depth increases from 0 to 10.5m. In this
case the equivalent radius of the drain rw was 35 mm.
170
1.0Depth (m)
0.0-2.5
0.9-
2.5-5.0
5.0-10.5
s n0.8RI
Range of smear zone
0.7-
0.6-
12
16
20
rlr.
w
Figure 5.7 Normalised pore water pressure variation with radial distance
Figure 5.8 Variation of extent of smear zone with depth
5.2.4 Plane Strain Permeability

The finite element analyses were executed using the equivalent plane strain conversion
described in Chapter 3 (Section 3.2.5). The equivalent plane strain permeabilities are
given in Table 5.3. It is noted that the axisymmetric (in situ) permeabilities are identical
to the equivalent permeabilities of Section B.
171
Table 5.3 Equivalent Plane Strain permeabilities of embankment sections

Depth
(m)
Section B (10"10 m/s)
Section A (10"10 m/s)
Section C(l(f10 m/s)
kh=khp
ks=khp
**
0.0-2.5
48.89
18.45
14.76
4.89
11.66
3.41
2.5-5.0
28.09
10.60
8.48
2.75
6.70
1.85
5.0-10.5
21.07
7.95
6.36
2.04
5.03
1.34
16.0-18.0
13.12
4.95
13.12
4.95
13.12
4.95
Sand
86.79
32.75
86.79
32.75
86.79
32.75
5.2.5
Numerical Calculations and Comparison with Field Observations
The finite element mesh, which contained 15-node triangular elements, is shown in
Figure 5.9. The full width of embankment had to be modelled because the loading was
not symmetrical. The prefabricated vertical drains were modelled with zero thickness
drain elements. For these elements, the excess pore pressure along the boundary is zer
i.e., well resistance is neglected. The smear zone was modelled with the same soil
properties as the adjacent soil except for coefficient of permeability. The reinforce
in the embankment was modelled with geogrid elements and these were combined with
interface elements to replicate the interaction with the surrounding soil. The locatio
instruments were conveniently placed in the mesh in such a manner that the measuring
points coincided with the mesh nodes.
172
Chapter 5 Case Study. Sunshine Motorway. Australia
Figure 5.9 Finite element mesh used to analyse Section B
5.2.5.1 Displacement Boundary
Only 20m depth of the foundation was considered due to the existence of the sand layer
(below the overlying soft clay layer), which was dense enough to neglect any associate
deformations. To minimize the boundary effect, lateral boundaries were placed 150m
(7.5 times the vertical dimension) from the centreline of the embankment and horizonta
movements along this boundary were fixed.
5.2.5.2 Drainage and Loading Boundary
Both the top (open boundary) and bottom (sand layer) surfaces of the subsoil foundatio
were assumed to be free draining and water table coincided with the ground surface.
Embankment loading (Figure 5.10) was simulated by applying incremental vertical
loads to the upper boundary.
173
3.0-
Section A
2.5-
Section B
Section C
& 2.(H
4
_3
'53
X
~ 1.51.0-
0.50
20
40
60
Time (days)
Figure 5.10 Construction History of the Trial Embankment
5.2.5.3
Comparison of Centreline Settlement
The predicted and observed surface settlements under each section of embankment are
compared in Figure 5.11. The settlement gauges under Sections A, B, and C, namely,
SCA1, SCB3, (both under the centreline) and SCC5 (lm to the left of centreline) were
selected for the purpose of comparing the field data with the numerical results. Figure
5.11 shows that the predicted values are in good agreement with field data, and as
expected, the settlement rate increases as the drain spacing decreases. The settlement
responses of Sections A and C are comparable whereas the centreline settlement under
Section B (no drain) is only about 60% of the settlement of the other two sections. This
suggests that the installation of vertical drains significantly reduces the consolidatio
time (from years to days) and thereby reducing the subsequent post-construction
settlement. Generally, the settlement rate is sensitive to drain spacing but in this stu
174
the differences under Section A and C are small and therefore any benefits derived from
installing the vertical drains at lm spacing as compared to 2m spacing are minimal.
However, this could be negated by the smear effect caused by the vertical drain
installation.
0-*
200-
400_
60(H
FieldData-SCAl
_/.
Field Data-SCB3
Field Data-SCC5
FEM-SCA1
800-
FEM-SCB3
FEM-SC5
1000-
20
40
60
80
Time (day)
Figure 5.11 Centreline settlement of trial embankment sections
The settlement contours at the end of construction and after 100 days for Sections
B and C are illustrated in Figures 5.12 and 5.13, respectively. These plots indicate
the settlements under Sections B and C can be negligible below a depth of 18m;
therefore, the assumption of fixed supports at a depth of 20m is justified. Furthermo
small heave is seen to occur at the toe of Section B but the amount of heave has beco
less due to the vertical drain installation (Section C).
175
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway, Austral

la
-290
-260
-230
-200
-170
-140
-110
-80
-50
-20
10
-90
-40
10
(a) Settlement (mm)-Section B
_490
-440
-390
-340
-290
-240
-190
140
(b) Settlement (mm)-Scction C

Figure 5.12 Settlement contours at the end of construction
-470
-422
-374
-326
-278
-230
-182
-134
-86
-38
-202
-128
-54
(a) Settlement (mm)-Section B
-720
-646
-572
-498
-424
-350
-276
(b) Settlement (mm)-Scction C

Figure 5.13 Settlement contours at the end of 100 days
176
20
Even though the settlement contour patterns under both Sections B and C are
similar, the contour lines intensified within the vertical drain zone, i.e., the postconstruction settlements were concentrated within the improved zone.
5.2.5.4 Comparison of Lateral Displacements
Lateral deformation measured by the inclinometers installed at the middle of the main
batter and toe of the berm are compared with the numerical predictions in Figures 5.14
and 5.15. Inclinometers IA1 and IB3 were installed in the centre of the main batter of
Sections A and B, whereas inclinometers IA2, IB4, and IC5 were installed at the toe of
the berm of Sections A, B, and C, respectively.
0o o^^ V
D \
4\
o "*--,
ym
_
B
y
y
8-
__^ ^ ^
c_
Q
"#
12-
Field Data-IAl (56days)
Field Data-IA 1 (1 OOdays)
Field Data-IB3 (56days)
Field Data-IB3 (1 OOdays)
F T 7 A 4 T A 1 l^fÂ-iirc\
I'Liivi-iAi (poaaysj
16
TTCTv/l T A 1
(\ C\C\A<*iic\
r.civi-i_A.i tiouaaysj
FEM-IB3 (56days)
[i
20-f
FEM-IB3 (1 OOdays)
1
. 1
1
100
200
Lateral displacement ( m m )
'
Figure 5.14 Lateral displacement profile at the middle of the main batter
177
300
O
O
Q
D
DO
aqj
Field Data-1A2 (56days)

Field Data-IA2(1 OOdays)
B
a.
u
Field Data-1B4 (56days)

Field Data-IB4(1 OOdays)
Field Data-IC5 (56days)

Field Data-IC5(l OOdays)
_
_
F E M - I A 2 (56days)
F E M - I A 2 (1 OOdays)
F E M - I B 4 (56days)
FEM-IB4(1 OOdays)
F E M - I C 5 (56days)
F E M - I C 5 (1 OOdays)
40
80
120
160
Figure 5.15 Lateral displacement profile at the toe of the berm
Figure 5.14 illustrates the predicted and observed lateral displacement profiles at
inclinometer locations IA1 and IB3 after 56 days (at the end of construction) and at
days. The results indicate that the predicted lateral displacement below a depth of 3m
represents an acceptable match with the field data, whereas a noticeable discrepancy
found near the ground surface due to surface crust. It is also interesting to note th
installation of vertical drains increased the lateral displacement at the middle of t

main batter by an average of about 52%.
178
The predicted and observed lateral displacement profiles after 56 and 100 days at
the toe of the embankment sections are plotted in Figure 5.15. Once again an acceptab
agreement is found below a depth of 3m and as expected, the vertical drains
significantly curtailed lateral deformation. Vertical drains installed at lm intervals

(Section A) reduced lateral displacement by about 46% but only by 22% at 2m spacing
(Section C).
Lateral displacement contours at the end of construction and after 100 days for
Section B and C are shown in Figures 5.16 and 5.17, respectively. These figures clear
show that lateral displacements are negligible beyond a distance 50m and 35m from the
centreline of the embankment Sections B and C, respectively. Therefore, the assumption
of a fixed lateral boundary at a distance of 150m is warranted. As expected, Figure 5
shows maximum lateral displacement occurs at a depth of approximately 5m (1.7 x fill
height) beneath the berm and this location moves towards the toe of the main batter a
consolidation progresses (Figure 5.17).
5.2.5.5 Comparison of Excess Pore Pressure Variation
The predicted and observed variations of excess pore pressure at selected points benea
the embankment centreline and the middle of the berm are shown in Figures 5.18 and
5.19, respectively. The selected pneumatic piezometers PPA13, PPB31 and PPC43
were installed at a depth of 3.85m beneath the middle of the berm of embankment
Sections A, B, and C, respectively. In contrast, the selected vibrating wire piezometer

PVA4, PVB22, and PVC39 were installed close to the centreline of the embankment at
a depth of 5.5m, 6.6m, and 6.75m under the embankment Sections A, B and C,
respectively.
179
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway, Australia
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90
42
56
70
(a) Lateral displacement (mm)-Section B
n
T
-70
-56
_42
-28
-14
14
28
(b) Lateral displacement (mm)-Scction C

Figure 5.16 Lateral displacement contours at the end of construction
-200
-160
120
-80
-40
40
80
120
160
200
102
136
170
(a) Lateral displacement (mm)-Scction B
170
-136
-102
-68
-34
34
68
(b) Lateral displacement (mm)-Scction C

Figure 5.17 Lateral displacement contours at the end of 100 days
180
Figure 5.18 shows that all sections generated significant excess pore pressure
due to embankment loading and the predictions are in acceptable agreement with the
field data. As expected the induced excess pore pressure under Section B (no drain
significantly higher than the other sections while the excess pore pressure develo
under Sections A and C are comparable. Although the drain spacing of Section A (lm)
is smaller than Section C (2m), differences in the rate of dissipation is low beca
piezometer PPC43 is further away from the boundary of the influence zone whereas t
piezometer PPA13 is closer to boundary.
30Fielddata-PPA13
Field data-PPB31
Field data-PPC43
FEM-PPA13
FEM-PPB31
FEM-PPC43
U
.3
20-\
\
\
\
\
=3
i/i
Ui
<u
u
p.
*_
o
&
Ui
Ui
10-
_
o
X
W
20
40
60
80
100
Time (day)
Figure 5.18 Excess pore pressure variation with time beneath the middle of the berm
181
.Chapter 5 Case Studv: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
60Field data-PVA4
Field data-PVB22
Field data-PVC39
FEM-PVA4
03
FEM-PVB22
_>
40-
FEM-PVC39
Ui
Ui
0.
_
c_
0.
_H
O
OH
CW
1/3
20-
(D
40
60
80
100
Time (day)
Figure 5.19 Variation of excess pore pressure below the embankment centreline
The predicted and measured excess pore pressure variations at the embankment
centreline for each section are plotted in Figure 5.20. Again an acceptable match
between predictions and field data are found. Surprisingly, the generated excess pore
pressure under Section B, which has no drain, was lower than the other sections. This
could be the result of less amount of fill placement over the section B compared to the
other sections (since the centreline settlement of Section B < Section C < Section A,
amount of fill required to make the same reduced level at the embankment centreline at
the end of construction would be in the same order). The excess pore pressure
developed under Sections A and C (vertical drains are installed at lm and 2m spacing,
respectively) are comparable. It is also important to note that the rate of pore press
182
dissipation at piezometer locations PPA13 and PPC43 (beneath the berm, Figure 5.18)
is higher than that of piezometer locations PVA4 and PVC39 (beneath the embankment
centreline, Figure 5.19). This is because the piezometers PVA4 and PVC39 were placed
close to the drain influence zone boundary where the flow was constrained.
5.3 Summary
The performance of a trial embankment consisting of three different sections
constructed with and without prefabricated vertical drains was analysed using 2D multidrain (plane strain) finite element analysis. The effect of smear associated with the
installation of PVD was considered but the effect of well resistance was neglected sinc
the discharge capacity of prefabricated vertical drains was large enough. The extent of
the smear zone was evaluated using the cavity expansion theory explained in Chapter 3
(Section 3.1). Predictions incorporating the proposed solutions, namely, the plane stra
matching and cavity expansion theory were made using the finite element code
PLAXIS. It shows that the inclusion of exact extent of the smear zone and the
application of the plane strain matching, improves the accuracy of the numerical
predictions.
The predicted centreline settlement, excess pore water pressure beneath the berm
and the centreline of the embankment section, and the lateral movements at the toe of
the embankment and middle of the main batter of each sections were compared with the
available observed data. Good agreement between the predicted and measured
settlements was found, whereas an acceptable matching was found between the
predicted and measured excess pore pressures. Even though lateral displacements were
harder to match an acceptable comparison was found below a depth of 3m.
183
The settlement response of the embankment sections indicated that the installation
of vertical drains significantly decreased the consolidation time, whereas the benefits
derived from installing vertical drains at lm spacing as compared to 2m spacing were
insignificant. Closer spacing invariably contributes to increased smear (the total exten
of smear zone under Section A was about 18.9m but only 9.7m under Section C).
The predicted and measured lateral movements showed that the installation of
vertical drains increased lateral movement under the middle of the main batter while
decreasing it at the toe of the embankment. These results also verified that maximum
lateral movement occurred at a depth of about 1.7 times the fill height. The pore
pressure dissipation rate under Sections A and C was comparable which proved that the
effect of smear was greater under Section A.
184
Chapter 6 Case Studv: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
6 CASE STUDY 2: SECOND BANGKOK INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

(SUVARNABHUMI, THAILAND)
6.1 General
Construction of the Second Bangkok International Airport (SBIA) has been planned
since the 1960s to accommodate the rapid growth of air traffic at the Bangkok
International Airport at Don Muang (Thailand). The SBIA site is located at Nong Ngu
Hao (in Samutprakan Province), about 30 km east of capital city Bangkok (Figure 6.1).
This site is situated on a swampy land in a flat marine deltaic deposit with an average
elevation of less than one meter above mean sea level (MSL). In the past, most of this
area was covered by fishponds or agricultural land usage with several canals.
Site investigations at the SBIA showed that the subsoil conditions are relatively
uniform throughout the site, consisting of a weathered crust formed by cyclic wetting
process together with natural cementation with total thickness of 1 to 2m, overlying sof
Bangkok clay layer extending to about 8-1 lm below the surface, followed by medium
stiff to stiff clay to a depth of 20m or more. Groundwater level is at about 0.5m depth
from the surface. The major concern for the airport construction was the presence of the
8 to 11m thick soft Bangkok Clay which often has a natural water content more than
100 percent with low shear strength. The general properties and compressibility
parameters of the in-situ subsoil are summarized in Figures 6.2 and 6.3, respectively.
The compression index ratio varies from 0.18 to 0.53 and the recompression ratio was
found to be about 10 times smaller than the compression index ratio. The over
consolidation ratio (OCR) of the soils varies from 1.0 to 2.5.
185
Bjingkok International Airport
SBIA SITE
HOENGSAO
LAEN CHABANG
EASTERN SEABOARD
DEVELOPMENT
Figure 6.1 Location of SBIA site (after M o h and Lin, 1997)
Figure 6.2 General soil properties at S B I A site (modified after Sangamala, 1997)
186

shear strength
(kN/m 2 )
10
15
20
|
25
Initial void ratio

(eo)
30 1.5 2 2.5 3
, | ' | ' ' '| I '|
CO
10
12
<
CO
Depth (m)
compression index
Over consolidation
Cc/(1+e0)
ratio (OCR)
3.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8
14
Figure 6.3 Compressibility parameters at SBIA site (adopted from Sangmala, 1997)
D u e to the underlying high compressibility and low strength soft Bangkok clay,
ground improvement was needed to overcome potential problems related to excessive
and differential settlements. Several well-instrumented test embankments were
constructed using Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) with preloading. In this Thesis
the behaviour of embankments (namely, TV1 and TV2) improved by prefabricated
vertical drain system with vacuum and surcharge preloading are analysed. The vertical
drains (Mebra MD-7007, 100mm x 3mm) were installed beneath TV1 and TV2 in a
triangular pattern at lm spacing to a depth of 15m and 12m, respectively. The total ba
area of each embankment is 40m x 40m and the cross sections of embankments with
key instrumentation that includes surface settlement plates, extensometers,
inclinometers, and piezometers are shown in Figure 6.4. In embankment TV1, a hyper
net drainage system was used while perforated pipes were utilized in embankment TV2.
187
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
Geomembrane Liner ( L L D P E ) Q e o n e t ^
Geotextile
______
4 5m >k
13m.
10m w
Vacuum Pump
LBMS4
S3
S2 Fi_l\ SI
,2.2m
10.3m
_____
Bentonite
Inclinometer
Legend
D
Surface settlement plate
0
Extensometer
Electrical piezometer
* Stand-pipe piezometer
-S
Vertical drains
l
1 I
@3m
(a) T V I (PVD's are installed at l m interval upto a depth of 15m)
*L
Perforated pipe Geomembrane Liner ( L L D P E )
10m
I.In
0.3fL'M
0.5ir
-H' 10m
Vacuum Pump
Inclinometer
(b) T V 2 (PVD's are installed at l m interval upto a depth of 12m)

Figure 6.4 Cross section of embankments with key instrumentation at SBIA (modified
after Indraratna et al., 2005)
The drainage blanket, which serves as a working platform, was constructed with
sand (unit weight of 18 kN/m3) to a thickness of 0.3m for TVI and 0.8m for TV2. Bot
embankments have a water and air-tight linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
geomembrane liner on top of the drainage system. The borders of the geomembrane
liner were completely sealed off from the atmosphere by placing the liner borders
bottom of a trench, which was filled with a 0.30 m thick layer of sand-bentonite mi
188
The water collection system in each embankment was connected to a vacuum pump
having a capability of supplying a continuous vacuum pressure of 70 kPa. Both
embankments were constructed in stages up to a maximum height of 2.5m, the loading
history of which is shown in Figure 6.5.
3.02.5_E_
'<3
X
4"
TV1
TV2
2.01.5-
No PVD
c
__
1.0-
0.5-
o.o-
V a c u m m + Surcharge
V a c u m m o n l y * | (unit weight offillis 18 kN/m 3 )
iiriiii|iii|iii|' i ' | ' r~
0
20
Time (Days)
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 6.5 Construction loading history
6.2 Finite Element Analysis
A plane strain multi-drain analysis was carried out using the finite element code
HKS/ABAQUS (Version 6.3), incorporating the Modified Cam-clay theory. The Cam-
clay parameters for each soil layer are given in Table 6.1, which includes the slop
the critical state line (M), gradients of compression (X) and swelling (K) line on
v-lnp space, Poisson's ratio (v), the initial void ratio (co), the saturated unit w
t
soil (Ys), a n d the preconsolidation pressure
(pc).
189
Table 6.1 Modified Cam-clay parameters of SBIA site (Indraratna et al., 2005)
ys
Depth (m)
0.0-2.0
1.19
0.3
0.03
0.30
e(0
1.8
Average pc
3
kN/m
(kPa)
16
58
2.0-8.5 1.19 0.7 0.08 0.30 2.8 15 45
8.5-10.5 1.19 0.5 0.05 0.25 2.4 15 70
10.5-13.0 1.19 0.3 0.03 0.25 1.8 16 80
13.0-15.0 1.07 1.2 0.10 0.25 1.2 18 90
6.2.1
Element Types used in A B A Q U S
The types of elements used in the finite element code ABAQUS are illustrated in Figur
6.6. The basic element type is a 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure eleme
(CPE4P) consisting of 4 displacement and pore pressure nodes at the corners. A higher
order element consists of a 20-node tri-quadratic displacement and tri-linear pore
pressure nodes with reduced integration (C3D20RP), which contain 20 displacement
nodes and 8 pore pressure nodes. The common element type used in the case history
analysis in this Chapter is the CPE8RP, which contains 8 displacement nodes and 4 por
pressure nodes. In finite element analysis the pore pressure shape function is usuall
one order less than the displacement shape function. The pore pressure shape function
linear in most of the elements shown in Figure 6.6 while the displacement shape
functions are either quadratic or cubic
190
<>
O<S>
CPE6P
CPE4P
O<)
CPE8RP
--
O
G>
-e
CINPE5R
-i
ASI3
(interface element)
C3D20RP
pore pressure node
displacement node
Figure 6.6 Types of elements used in A B A Q U S (Hibbirt et al., (2004)
Interface elements are most appropriate to simulate soil-drain interaction. Since

the thickness of PVD is relatively thin compared to its spacing, the interface element is
envisaged as the soil element having properties similar to the adjacent soil, except for
permeability. A 3-node interface element (ASI3) is shown in Figure 6.6 where there are
2 pore pressure nodes at the ends.
6.2.2
Variation of Extent of Smear Zone
The extent of the smear zone with depth was predicted using the cavity expansion
theory as explained in Chapter 3 (Section 3.1), incorporating the Modified Cam clay
parameters given in Table 6.1. The predicted normalized pore water pressure (i.e.,
UIGV0)
variation with radial distance for each soil layers is shown in Figure 6.7. As expected, it
clearly shows that the induced pore pressure during mandrel installation is very high
close to the mandrel boundary but gradually decreases with radial distance. For better
191
clarity, the predicted extent of the smear zone with depth is shown in Figure 6.8, which
indicates that the smear zone decreases form 6.30rw to 3.10rw when the depth varies
from 0 to 15m.
Depth (m)
0.0-2.0
2.0-8.5
8.5-10.5
- - - 10.5-13.0
13.0-15.0
Figure 6.7 Normalized pore water pressure variation with radial distance
6.2.3 Plane Strain Permeability
The multi-drain plane strain numerical analysis was executed using two models:
Model 1- Assuming a constant extent of smear zone (i.e. rs=150mm, taken as 6 times
the equivalent drain diameter of rw=25mm, Indraratna et al. 2005).
Model 2- Varying extent of smear zone (as illustrated in Figure 6.8).
192
In the analysis described here, axisymmetric to equivalent plane strain conversion was
executed using the permeability matching method proposed in Chapter 3 (Section
3.2.5). The axisymmetric and equivalent plane strain permeabilities (calculated using
the Eqns. 3.74a and 3.74b) are given for both models in Table 6.2.
__.
Extent of Smear zone

Predicted based on Cavity
Expan sion Theory
Assun led Value
(Indraratna et al., 2005)
3
_
6-J
_
ex
_
"c.
9-
12-
i ^
()
1
2
' 1
3
's^w
Figure 6.8 Variation of extent of smear zone with depth
Table 6.2 Axisymmetric and Plane Strain permeabilities for both embankments
Depth
(m)
10"9m/s
0.0-2.0
K (io-9 m/s)
10"9m/s
10"9m/s
Model 1 Model 2
30.1
15.1
8.064
3.474
3.482
2.0-8.5
12.7
6.4
3.403
1.474
1.465
8.5-10.5
6.0
3.0
1.607
0.690
0.679
10.5-13.0
2.6
1.3
0.697
0.299
0.288
13.0-15.0
0.6
0.3
0.161
0.069
0.066
193
6.2.4 Numerical Predictions and Comparison with Field Data
The finite element mesh, which contained 8-node bi-quadratic displacement and bilinear
pore pressure elements, is shown in Figure 6.9. Due to the symmetrical nature of the
embankment, it was sufficient to model half width of embankment. For the area with
PVDs and smear zone, a finer mesh was employed so that each unit cell represented a
single drain with the smear zone on either side of the drain. The instrumentation poin
were placed in the mesh in such a manner that the measuring points coincided with the
mesh nodes. Only the top surface of the clay was assumed to be free draining because
the presence of the stiff clay layer at the bottom was considered to be impervious. The
embankment loading was simulated by applying incremental vertical loads to the upper
boundary whereas the vacuum pressure was modelled by applying negative pressure
along the surface and drain. The value of vacuum pressure was assumed to be constant
over the soil surface but varying linearly to zero along the length of drain.
Figure 6.9 Finite element mesh used in the analyses (Model 2)
194
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airnort. Thailand

160r
Applied vacuum pressure

Measured surface vacumm pressure
D t
Assumed surface vacuum

pressure in FEM analysis
12m
c_
_
_
(fl
u
-_
OH
_
O
E2
n
1
80
Time (Days)
160
(a) TVI
u
~
P^
V
u
o
o
H
80
Time (Days)
(b)TV2
Figure 6.10 Measured total pore pressure and simulated vacuum pressure at surface
195
Figure 6.10 illustrates the measured pore pressure at various depths of the
embankment from electrical piezometers installed 0.5m away from the centreline. A
discrepancy between the measured and applied vacuum pressure is noted. The suction
head in the field could not be maintained because of possible air leaks. Therefore, in
numerical analysis, the magnitude of applied vacuum pressure at the surface with time
was adjusted based on the field measurements, which is also plotted in Figure 6.10.
The results of the multi-drain plane strain analysis (neglecting well resistance)
based on both models, together with the available field data, are shown in Figures 6.11
6.13. The predicted and measured settlements at various depths are illustrated in Figur
6.11. These plots show that the predictions based on Model 2 are much closer to the
field data than the predictions based on Model 1, i.e., the predictions based on the
changing smear zone with depth (estimated using cavity expansion analysis) are more
accurate than the results based on a constant extent of the smear zone. Even though the
total fill height and drain spacing are the same, and the length of drain under
embankment TVI is high, the rate of settlement under the embankment TV2 is greater
than TVI. In fact, the settlements under embankment TVI are about 22.52% smaller
than those of TV2. These differences could be attributed to the presence of geotextile
embankment TVI, as well as the different loading rate, and the variations in vacuum
pressure.
Comparisons between the predicted and measured excess pore water pressure 3m
below ground level for both embankments are shown in Figure 6.12. Once again, the
predicted excess pore pressures based on Model 2 agree well with the field data,
implying the correct assessment of the extent of the smear zone. It is important to not
that after about 100 days (end of embankment construction), the field measurements
196
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport Thailand
indicated an increase in pore water pressure, which further suggests that the constant
suction could not be sustained during the entire construction period.
80
Time (Days)
Depth (m)
-40B
O
*->
B
B
33
00
-80-
(b) T V 2
Symbols: Field data
Solid lines: Model 1
Dot lines: Model 2
120-
40
80
Time (Days)
120
160
Figure 6.11 Settlement variation with depth for embankments (a) T V I and (b) T V 2
197
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport Thailand
30(a) T V I
Sa
_
Ui
Ui
<D
u
DH
_
S-l
Field Data
PH
<z>
Model 1
CO
Model 2
-20-
40
80
Time (Days)
160
120
0.
S-i
_
_
_
1-
Field Data
OH
<D
Model 1
CJ
!><
Model 2
w
80
Time (Days)
160
Figure 6.12 Variation of excess pore water pressure at 3 m depth below ground level,
0.5m away from the centreline for embankments (a) TVI and (b) TV2
At the end of monitoring period (150 day) the lateral deformation measured by
the inclinometer installed at the toe of the embankments together with the predict
results are shown in Figure 6.13. Unlike settlement, the observed lateral displace
could not be matched well, but an acceptable agreement could be found below the
middle of the very soft clay layer using Model 2. But the field observations close
198
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport, Thailand
ground surface do not support the significant 'inward' lateral movements as indicated
by the numerical predictions. These results confirm the difficulties associated with
accurate modelling of the surficial compacted crust.
(a) TVI
Field Data
Model 1
Model 2
r
1
'
|
|
50
100
150
Lateral Displacement ( m m )
|
200
250
Field Data
Model 1
-- Model 2
40
80
Lateral Displacement ( m m )
160
Figure 6.13 Lateral displacement profiles (after 150days) through the toe of the
embankments (a) T V I and (b) T V 2
199
Previous studies on embankments constucted on soft clay have shown that the
accurate prediction of lateral movement is a difficult task compared to vertical
displacement (Tavenas et al., 1979; Indraratna et al., 1997). The errors made in the
prediction of lateral movements can be numerous and are attributed to soil anisotropy
and the assumption of 2D plane strain. The embankment corner effects are not properly
modelled in 2D plane strain. The behaviour of the stiff crust just below the ground
surface cannot be modelled using conventional Cam-Clay properties but requires the
accurate assessment of its highly over-consolidated (compacted) parameters as
discussed by Indraratna et al., (1994). Given the difficulties of modelling lateral
displacements in plane strain, Model 2 still provides an acceptable comparison.
6.3
Summary
The performance of two test embankments stabilised with vertical drains subjected to
vacuum preloading was investigated using a plane strain (multi-drain) finite element
analysis. The effect of smear associated with PVD installation in conjunction with the
applied surcharge load and vacuum was considered. The predictions were made based
on two different models, namely, Model 1- assuming a constant extent of smear zone,
and Model 2- varying the extent of the smear zone.
The predicted centreline settlement at different depths, excess pore water pressure
and lateral movement of the soil were compared with the available field data. Good
agreement between the predicted and measured settlements was found but the pore
pressures and lateral displacements were more difficult to match. Also, the settlement
analysis showed that the drainage efficiency of the embankment using perforated pipe
(TV2) is better compared to embankment using hypernet (TVI) drainage system. It was
200
demonstrated that the predictions based on Model 2 with the inclusion of time and depth
dependent vacuum pressure distribution improves accuracy.
From the field studies, Choa (1989) also confirmed that the propagation of
vacuum pressure decreases substantially with depth due to various practical limitations,
improper sealing, and the nature of soil conditions (e.g. presence of fissures and macropores). Hence, in this study, the assumption of diminishing vacuum pressure along the
drain length is warranted in the finite element analysis.
Even though the conventional preloading (surcharge) method is more economical

than the vacuum assisted soft clay improvement, the use of a sufficient vacuum pressure
with a properly sealed surface membrane will significantly accelerate pre-construction
settlement, thereby compensating for the initial capital costs by enhanced speed of
construction and minimising post-construction settlement. It is also important to note
that the application of vacuum pressure substantially decreases lateral displacement,
thereby minimizing the risk of shear failure.
201
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
7 NUMERICAL MODELLING OF VERTICAL DRAINS AND DESIGN

IMPLICATIONS
7.1 General
Construction of structures on subsiding or derelict ground is becoming a major task in

today's civil engineering work. Due to increasing loads as well as the need to construct
in areas of soft and compressible soils necessitate the improvement of the soil
properties. The choice of the appropriate ground improvement technique has to be made
depending on the type of soil, the application of loads (loading rate) and the time
available for the improvement process. Evaluating the design and performance of each
structure and foundation is accomplished by analytical, semi-analytical (empirical), or
numerical methods. Design charts or certain design methods based on well known
governing equations are available for embankments stabilized with prefabricated
vertical drains. In general the embankments are constructed on variable ground with
multi-drain system, therefore, numerical computation has become popular among
design engineers.
For construction sites with a large number of PVDs, two-dimensional (2D) plane
strain conversion is the most convenient approach with regards to computational
efficiency. It is far less time consuming than a three dimensional (3D) multi-drain
analysis where each drain has its own axisymmetric (3-D) zone which substantially
affects mesh complexity and the corresponding convergence. In the analysis described
in this Chapter, axisymmetric to equivalent plane strain conversion was executed using
the method described in Section 3.2.5 (Indraratna et al., 2005).
202
Numerical analysis in geotechnical engineering must fulfil certain basic

requirements, i.e., evaluation of initial stress, embankment slope, construction rate, the
spacing of vertical drains and the possibility to simulate the sequential construction
stages. In multi-stage construction a rest period is allowed after each stage of loading so
that excess pore water pressure in the foundation can dissipate. Such dissipation is
accompanied by consolidation and a gain in the soil strength. This increased shear
strength enables the embankment to be raised to a greater height during the next stage of
construction. In this Chapter, selected numerical studies have been carried out to
investigate the effect of the embankment slope, construction rate, drain spacing, extent
and parameters of the smear zone, stage loading, and the influence of surface crust on
the potential failure of a soft clay foundation.
7.2
Design of E m b a n k m e n t Constructed on Soft Clay without Vertical Drains
In this section the effect of embankment slope and rate of embankment loading are
studied using the finite element code PLAXIS. The subsoil profile is assumed to consist
of 4 sub-layers. The Modified Cam-clay parameters and the soil properties are shown in
Table 7.1. The finite element mesh (15-node triangular element), which is used for this
analysis, is shown in the Figure 7.1 where only half the embankment (half base width is
20 m) is considered by symmetry. A foundation depth of 15 m was considered
adequate for the purpose of analysis because of the existence of a stiff clay layer
beneath this depth. The lateral boundary of the finite element is defined 100 m away
from the centreline of the embankment and the ground water table is assumed to be at
the ground surface.
203
The embankment fill is modelled as a fully drained elastic-perfectly plastic

material with Mohr-Coulomb criteria. Thefillis defined as having a bulk density of
/'bulk =20 kN/m3; elastic parameters are =105 kN/m2 and v = 0.3; and the strength
parameters are ^ =30 and c = 10 kN/m .
Table 7.1 Soil parameters used in finite element analysis
Permeability (m/day)
y
Depth
e0
X*
v
(kN/m 3 )
fa
fa
0-2
1.8
0.107 0.011
1.2
16.0
0.30
0.0025
0.00125
2-8
2.8
0.211 0.021
1.0
14.5
0.30
0.0010
0.00050
8-10
2.4
0.147 0.015
1.2
15.0
0.25
0.0005
0.00025
10-15
1.8
0.107 0.011
1.2
16.0
0.25
0.0003
0.00015
U
^^\
\ / \ / \
yi\\
1y
~7\/\ /
yi
7\
l__--r-_A_/
Hj
Jl
4
/
- T- t. .T
H H
-\
fffffft!
B-n
Iftftttftfttttttt tt
- \__.
'
- \- -
1t T T T T T T T T T T T T r T
Figure 7.1 Finite element mesh (consists of 15-node elements) used in this analysis
204
7.2.1 Effect of Embankment Slope on Foundation Failure
The effect of embankment slope on foundation failure has been studied through plane
strain finite element analysis using the mesh shown in Figure 7.1. Three different slopes
(1:1, 2:1 and 3:1) are considered in the analysis and the influence of embankment
loading is simulated by a continuous loading of 0.1m per week until failure. Failure is
identified when the solution fails to converge and the displacement increases
continuously without further addition of load. It was noticed that excess pore pressure
under the embankment would not provide a clear indication of failure.
7.2.1.1 Surface Settlements and Displacement
The predicted centreline settlement and heave at the toe with embankment height and
the displacement contours when the fill height is 1.5 m are illustrated in Figures 7.2,
7.3, and 7.4, respectively. Figures 7.2 and 7.3 show that settlement increases at a low
rate as the embankment height increases (up to about 1.75 m), after which there was a
significant and sudden change in the settlement rate is observed that was close to
failure. This clearly indicates that as expected a decrease in the embankment slope
would contribute to a greater height at failure and in this analysis the embankment
height at failure increases from 1.85 m to 2.25 m (increased by 21.6%), when the slope
decreases from 1:1 to 3:1.
The displacement contours are shown in Figure 7.4 when the embankment height is 1.5
m it is close to the failure embankment height. This indicates that when the
embankment is about to reach failure height, maximum displacement takes place near
the embankment toe. Once again, it proves that a decrease in embankment slope would
205
contribute to a greater embankment height at failure, as well as decreasing

displacement. In this analysis when the slope decreases from 1:1 to 3:1 the maximum
displacement decreases from 784.50 mm to 609.72 mm (a reduction of 22.3%).
0-200-
3 -400-
g
3
-600H
Slope =1:1
Slope = 2:1
-800-
Slope = 3:1
ty_
-1000
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Embankment Height (m)
2.0
2.5
Figure 7.2 Surface settlement at the embankment centre withfillheight
1000800Slope=l:l
Slope = 2:1
600-
Slope = 3:1
8
X
400H
200-
0.5
1.0
Figure 7.3 Surface heave at embankment toe withfillheight
206
2.0
(a) Slope =1:1 (Maximum displacement = 784.50 m m )
80
160
240
320 400 480
560
Total displacement (mm)
640
720
800
(b) Slope =2:1 (Maximum displacement = 691.92 m m )
70
140
210
280
350 420
490
560
630
700
(c) Slope =3:1 (Maximum displacement = 609.72 m m )
61
122
183
244
305 366
427
488
549
610
Figure 7.4 Displacement contours for different slopes
207
7.2.1.2 Lateral Displacement
The lateral displacement contours for different embankment slope are shown in Figur
7.5 when the fill height is 1.5 m. This illuminates that the effect of embankment s
are more influential on lateral displacement than settlement. When the embankment
slope decreases from 1:1 to 3:1 the maximum lateral displacement decreases from
628.23 mm to 331.42 mm (a reduction of 47.3%), while settlement is only reduced by
22.3%.
(a) Slope =1:1 (Maximum lateral displacement = 628.23 m m )
64
128
192
256
320 384
448
512
576
640
(b) Slope =2:1 (Maximum lateral displacement = 432.27 mm)
_ _ _ _ _ . ^ ^ n
0
45
90
135
180 225 270
315
360
405
450
(c) Slope =3:1 (Maximum lateral displacement = 331.42 mm)
35
70
105
140
175 210
245
280
315
350
Figure 7.5 Lateral displacement contours for different slopes
208

Figure 7.6 shows the excess pore water pressure contours when the fill height is 1.5m,
which indicates there is no significant different in excess pore pressure with changes
the embankment slope. As a result the excess pore pressure measurement cannot be
used as a clear indication of failure height in comparison to settlement or lateral
displacements.
(a) Slope =1:1 ( M a x i m u m excess pore water pressure = 28.42 kPa)
10
15
20
Excess pore water pressure (kPa)
25
(b) Slope =2:1 ( M a x i m u m excess pore water pressure = 28.31 kPa)
10
15
20
(c) Slope =3:1 ( M a x i m u m excess pore water pressure = 28.18 kPa)
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 7.6 Excess pore pressure contours for different slopes

209
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Tmpli^tinn.
7.2.2
Effect of Loading Rate on Foundation Failure
Loading rates on foundation failure has been studied using the finite element mesh
shown in Figure 7.1. Embankment construction is simulated with three different loadi
rates (0.1, 0.2 and 0.25 meters per week), with an embankment side slope of 3:1.
Surface settlement at the embankment centreline and toe are depicted in Figures 7.7
7.8, respectively, which shows how failure height of embankment is influenced more b
the loading rate than the embankment slope. As expected, the slower construction rate
permits a greater embankment height at failure because this gradual rate allows more
dissipation of pore water pressure. When the loading rate increases from 0.1 to 0.25
meters per week the failure height of embankment decreases from 2.25 to 1.3 m.
0-
-200-
-400-
-600-
&_
0.1 m/week
0.2 m/week
-800-
0.25 m/week
1000-
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Figure 7.7 Surface settlement at embankment centreline withfillheight
210
2.5
. Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
1000i
800-
1 600-
200-
0.0
0.5
i -
1.0
1.5
2.0
Figure 7.8 Displacement (heave) at embankment toe with fill height
Figure 7.9 shows the contour plot of total displacement, lateral displacement, and
excess pore water pressure for a loading rate of 0.2 meters per week when the fill heig
is 1.5 m. When the construction rate is 0.2 meters per week the maximum total and
lateral displacements are 1020 and 984.84 mm (Figure 7.9a and 7.9b), whereas these
values are reduced to 609.72 and 331.42 mm (Figure 7.4c and 7.5c) when the loading
rate is reduced to 0.1 meters per week. In other words, when the construction rate
increases from 0.1 to 0.2 meters per week the total and lateral displacements increase
67.29% and 197.16%, respectively. This result also confirms that, not only the rate of
construction influences the failure height of embankment, but also the failure could be
monitored on the basis of lateral displacement which can be measured by an
inclinometer.
When the embankment height is 1.5 m the maximum excess pore water pressure
for the construction loading of 0.1 and 0. 2 meters per week are 28.18 and 35.15 kPa,
211
respectively (Figure 7.6c and 7.9c). A s expected, the small construction rate results in
i a
smaller excess pore water pressure because the slower rate of construction allows th
soft clay to dissipate the pore pressure more effectively.
(a) Total displacement contours (Maximum displacement = 1020 m m )
105
210
315
420
525 630
735
Total displacement ( m m )
840
945
1050
(b) Lateral displacement contours (Maximum lateral displacement = 984.84 mm)
100
200
300
400
500 600
700
800
900
1000
(c) Excess pore pressure contours (Maximum value = 35.15 kPa)
7.5
15
22.5
30
37.5
Figure 7.9 Contour plots for a loading rate of 0.2 m/weck (the height and the slope of
the embankment are 1.5m and 3:1, respectively)
212
7.3 Design of Embankment Constructed on Soft Clay with Vertical Drains
As discussed in the previous section embankments can only be built up to 1.5m to 3m

high on very soft clays without any improvement to subsoil layers. However, higher
embankments are often needed and their rapid construction is often required given the
usual stringent deadlines. To achieve these goals, special construction measures such as
light-weight embankment fill, the provision of geogrid reinforcement at the foundation,
suitable ground improvement techniques, and staged construction may be considered. It
is often advantageous to install prefabricated vertical drains in the soft clay foundation
to decrease the length of drainage path and thereby speed up consolidation, as described
in details in Chapter 2.
The effect of vertical drains on embankment stability has been investigated via the
finite element code PLAXIS incorporating the 2-D plane strain solution proposed
earlier. An embankment slope of 3:1 is simulated at a construction rate of 0.2 meters per
week on a soft clay foundation improved with prefabricated vertical drains installed in a
square pattern. Since the dimensions of the prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs)
commonly in use today are quite small and the discharge capacities are big enough to
neglect well resistance, the PVDs are modelled using zero thickness drain elements to
avoid an unacceptable aspect ratio. In this section, five different analyses have been
carried out to examine:
i. Effect of drain spacing (assuming perfect drain condition)
ii. Effect of the extent of smear zone (assuming constant kh / kh ratio)
iii. Effect of smear zone permeability for a given smear zone area
213
iv.
Effect of stage loading, and
v. Effect of surface crust
7.3.1 Effect of Drain Spacing
The effect of drain spacing on embankment stability is studied by assuming two

different drain spacing. The converted equivalent plane strain permeability (/chp) of the
undisturbed zone is given in Table 7.2 as a function of drain spacing. The predicted
displacements are compared with the 'no drain condition'. Surface settlement at the
embankment centreline and the displacement at the embankment toe are shown in
Figures 7.10 and 7.11, respectively. Figure 7.10 shows h o w the installation of drains
significantly increases the settlement rate while displacement at the toe (Figure 7.11),
represents the effect of spacing on the potential failure height. Figure 7.11 demonstrates
that the failure height increases from 1.3 m (no drain) to more than 5 m w h e n vertical
drains are installed at 1 m intervals.
Table 7.2 Equivalent permeability

faP (m/day)
Depth
5=1 m
S=2 m
0.000670
0.000539
2-8
0.000268
0.000216
8-10
0.000134
0.000106
10-15
0.000080
0.000065
0-2
214
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Impl'
N o drains
Drains at 2.0 m spacing
-200-
-400-
OJ
-600CO
-800-
1000-
0.0
-|
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Figure 7.10 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for different drain spacing
1000
800-
600_
i_L 4 0 0 N o drains
200-

r
2
3
Figure 7.11 Displacement at embankment toe for different drain spacing
215
The lateral displacement contours for different drain spacing are plotted in Figure
7.12 when the embankment height is 1.5m. The maximum lateral displacement for 'no
drain' condition and for drains installed at 2 m and 1 m intervals, are 984.84, 417.
and 270.15 mm, respectively. This result proves that the installation of vertical dr
curtail the lateral displacement because the PVD's decrease the lateral yield due to
rapid dissipation of pore water pressure.
(a) Drain at 2 m intervals ( M a x i m u m lateral displacement = 417.94 m m )
42
84
126 168 210 252 294 336 378 420

(b) Drain at lm intervals (Maximum lateral displacement = 270.15 mm)
28
56
84
112 140 168 196 224 252 280
Figure 7.12 Lateral displacement contours for different drain spacing
7.3.2
Effect of the Extent of Smear Zone
In the field, the vertical drains are installed using a steel mandrel. This process
significant remoulding of the subsoil, especially in the immediate vicinity of the
216
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling a n d Desitm [mplir--,..-.-,.
mandrel. The resulting smear zone will have a reduced lateral permeability, which
affects the pore pressure dissipation rate. In this section the effect of the extent of
smear zone is studied by assuming a constant permeability ratio (kjk'h =2), and two
different areas of smear zone (rs/rw= 4 and 6). Tlie converted plane strain permeabiliti
are given in Table 7.3 as a function of the extent of the smear zone for a drain spaci
of 2m. The predicted settlement and displacements are compared with those of 'perfect
drain' condition. Figures 7.13 and 7.14 illustrate surface settlement at the embankment
centreline and displacement at the toe, respectively.
Figure 7.13 shows that the degree of consolidation is affected by the extent of the
smear zone (i.e., the degree of consolidation decreases as the extent of the smear zon
increases). Displacement at the embankment toe for two different extent of the smear
zone is plotted in Figure 7.14. This indicates that the displacement increases with th
extent of the smear zone, thereby decreasing in the failure height of embankment. For
example, when the embankment height is 2m the displacement increases from 541.41 to
778.97 mm (an increased of about 44%), while the extent of smear zone ratio (rs/rw)
varies from 1 to 6.
Depth
khp (m/day)
fav (m/day)
rs/rw=4
rs/rw=6
0-2
0.000539
0.000168
0.000192
2-8
0.000216
0.000067
0.000077
8-10
0.000106
0.000034
0.000038
10-15
0.000065
0.000020
0.000023
217
0-,
^^5r>\_-
-04'V ^
v
B
0 8-
IB
\^
V_
T.
--V
Perfect drain
With smear (rs=4rw)
-1.2-
With smear (rs=6rw)

f.
u
0.5
0.0
1.0
1.5
Fill Height (m)
'
2.0
2.5
Figure 7.13 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for two different smear zones
1.6-
1.2Perfect drain
With smear (rs=4rw)
8
CD
O
0.8-
With smear (rs=6rw)
'E,
Ui
0.4-
0-|
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Fill Height (m)
Figure 7.14 Displacement at embankment toe for two different smear zone
218
2.5
7.3.3
Effect of Smear Zone Permeability
In the previous section the effect of the extent of smear zone was studied and it wa
concluded that the extent of the smear zone would play a major role in the prediction
embankment behaviour. Here, an attempt is made to study the role of smear zone
permeability on embankment behaviour by assuming a constant area of smear zone
(rs/rw is taken as 6). The converted plane strain permeabilities are shown in Table 7.
a function of the axisymmetric permeability ratios.
Figures 7.15 and 7.16 present the predicted surface settlement at the centreline
and displacement at the embankment toe for four different permeability ratios where a
expected a higher settlement is shown by the lower permeability ratio (Figure 7.15).
Also, Figure 7.15 shows there is no sudden change in the settlement rate when the
permeability ratio is small (2 or 3), but when it's high (5-10), the settlement rate
suddenly changed when the embankment height was about 2.5m high. This is a clear
indication that failure height is influenced by the permeability of the smear zone.
hP
Depth
(m/day), when
fap (m/day) -
kjkh=3
kjkh=5
kjkh=\0
0-2
0.000539
0.000117
0.000066
0.000031
2-8
0.000216
0.000047
0.000016
0.000012
8-10
0.000106
0.000023
0.000013
0.000006
10-15
0.000065
0.000014
0.000008
0.000004
219
0.0-r
2
Fill height (m)
Figure 7.15 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for different permeability

ratios
0.5
1
1.5
Fill height (m)
Figure 7.16 Displacement at embankment toe for different permeability ratios
220
Figure 7.16 shows the displacements at embankment toe for different permeability
ratios. It is observed from Figure 7.16 that irrespective of permeability ratios, the rate
displacement is almost the same at small embankment heights (less than 1 m). This
analysis reaffirms that the performance of an embankment is not only influenced by the
extent of the smear zone, but also by the accurate evaluation of the smear zone
permeability.
7.3.4
Effect of Stage Loading
In those situations discussed above the embankment is likely to fail at smaller heights
because the strength of the foundation soil is not sufficient to withstand higher loads. I
this situation potential failure can be avoided by halting construction and allowing a
sufficiently period of time to dissipate the pore pressure. The corresponding increase in
shear strength contributes to an increased height of embankment during the next loading
stage.
To evaluate how staged construction affects failure height of embankment a plane
strain analysis was conducted for a perfect drain (the spacing is assumed to be 2m) with
a loading condition as shown in Figure 7.17. The predicted surface settlement at
embankment centreline with time and fill height is plotted in Figure 7.18. This clearly
shows that the settlement rate is almost the same for all loading stages but in the case o
continuous loading the displacement rate suddenly increased when the fill height
reached the critical fill height of about 2.5 m.
221
.Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications

5-1
4-
1"
_3 ^
_* 2 ^
Loading rate = 0.2 m/week

"
Stage loading
E
1-
Continuous loading
0-
100
Time (days)
H
300
200
Figure 7.17 Construction loading history
0.0-1
40
80
120
Time (day)
160
(a)
0.0
1.0
2.0
Fill Height (m)
3.0
(b)
Figure 7.18 Surface settlement at embankment centreline with (a) time, (b) fill height
When the embankment height is 1.6 m the total and lateral displacements
illustrated in Figures 7.19 and 7.20, respectively. This shows that a 25 days resting
period after lm loading decreases the total and lateral displacements by about 15% a
43%o, respectively. This is an indication that the resting period is beneficial to i

the m a x i m u m (failure) height of embankment.
222
(a) Displacement contours-for continuous loading (Maximum value = 909.08 mm)
95
190 285 380

475 570
665
760
855
950
(b) Displacement contours-for stage loading (Maximum value = 769.20 mm)
80
160 240 320

400 480
560
640
720
800
Figure 7.19 Displacement contours when the fill height is 1.6 m
(a) Lateral displacement contours-continuous loading (Max. value = 778.81 m
80
160
240 320
400 480
560
640
720
800
(b) Lateral displacement contours-stage loading (Maximum value = 443.66 mm)
45
90
135
180
225 270
315
360
405
450
Figure 7.20 Lateral displacement contours when the fill height is 1.6 m
223
7.3.5
Effect of Surface Crust
To demonstrate the effect of the surface crust the above example has been re-analyse
by assuming that the top 2 m of the surface as weathered compacted clay. Because the
surface crust has a high overconsolidation ratio it can be modelled using the MohrCoulomb model with the following elastic properties: Young's modulus, __.=25 MN/m
and Poisson's ratio, v = 0.3 .
The variation of centreline displacement with embankment height is plotted in
Figure 7.21, which shows that the surface crust plays the role of increasing the pot
embankment height by decreasing settlement. For example, when the embankment
height is 2m the centreline settlement is decreased from 86.01 cm to 46.74 cm (a
reduction of about 46%) due to crust.
0-i~^\\
-20-
1T
^\""*--.
\^ !-.. with crust
-20\.
\with crust
B
O
^*s^
-40-
*\
\^^
\^
\.
-60-
a<u
\
M -60- without crust\
<D -80-
oo
Ns
N.
fi
<D
1^
^v
<U>
r -40
^v
!_
*^
without crust
-80-
00
-100
i I i | i | i | <
40
80 120 160 200
Time (days)
-100
1
1
2
Fill height (m)
'
(b)
(a)
Figure 7.21 Effect of surface crust
Based on the analyses illustrated in this Chapter, it is interesting to note that
contrary to expectation, there is a discrepancy in the critical locations. Figure 7

example, shows the occurrence of maximum settlement beneath the side slope of the
embankment rather than at the centreline, and Figure 7.20 illustrates the occurrenc
224

m a x i m u m lateral displacement at a section through the middle of the side slope rather
than at the toe. The increment of vertical displacement, lateral displacement, an

strain are plotted in Figure 7.22 when the height is increased from 1.8 to 2.0 m.
(a) Vertical incremental displacements (maximum= -47.74 m m )
_^^^H
-48
-34
-21
-7
6
Vertical displacement increment ( m m )
20
(b) Horizontal incremental displacements (maximum= 35.28 m m )
7.2
14.4
21.6
28.8
Horizontal displacement increment ( m m )
36.0
(c) Shear strain increments (maximum= 1.33%)

^^^^^
1 _1^^^^
0.0
0.28
0.56
0.84
Shear strain increment (%)
1.12
.40
Figure 7.22 Increment contours when the embankment height increases from 1.8 to 2.0
m (a) vertical displacement, (b) lateral displacement, and (c) shear strain
225
Figures 7.22a and 7.22b also indicate a discrepancy in the critical locations and as
expected, the lateral displacement and shear strain contours show a very similar patter
(Figure 7.22b and 7.22c). The above variations could be the result of shear-induced
displacements (Zhang, 1999). In the following section an attempt is made to explain the
critical location using induced stresses.
7.3.6 Identification of the Critical Location

Generally, it is observed that the maximum settlement and maximum lateral
displacements occur at, or close to the embankment centerline and at the toe of the
embankment, respectively. This is true for most soft soil foundations under highway
embankments (narrow) but this may differ for soil foundations beneath wide
embankments such as airport terminals. The settlement profiles (Figure 7.23), beneath
Muar test embankments in Malaysia, showed that the location of maximum settlement
occurred slightly away from the centerline and gradually moved towards the centerline
as the fill height increased (Indraratna et al., 1992). That is, the locations where the
maximum settlements occurred were 11.0m, 10.5m, 9.0m, and 5.5m corresponding to
the embankment height of 2m, 3m, 4m and 5m. This discrepancy could be the result of
shear-induced displacements (Zhang, 1999).
Induced Normal and Shear Stress Distributions

The stress distributions beneath an embankment are closely related to the settlement
pattern. To facilitate setting up a 'stress criterion' for classifying the foundation
deformation patterns the embankment shown in Figure 7.24 is considered.
226
Ground
Level
a.
<D
>
o
c_
o
Measured surface settlement
Fill height,h=2 m
'-5
>
10
Fill height,h=3 m
Fill height,h=4 m
Fill height,h=5 m
20
Distnace form centreline (m)
30
40
Figure 7.23 Measured settlement of Muar test embankment, Malaysia (after Indraratna
et al., 1992)
Figure 7.24 Typical embankment
227
The induced vertical stress (Arjv) and shear stress (Axxz) due to embankment loading at
point A (x, _.) can be derived based on the theory of elasticity, as follows (modifi
Gray, 1936):
Aav =
[a(ax + a2 + Pi +p2)+b(al
+a2)+ x(a} -a2)]
(7.1)
na
ynz(
(7.2)
Ka
where, y: unit weight of embankmentfill;h: height of embankment; and the relevant

angles are:
az
c.j = tan -l
(7.3a)
z +{a + b + xfb + x)_
az
z +(a + b-x\b-x)
a2 = tan-l
(7.3b)
Px = tan *
bz
(7.3c)
z +x (b + x)
and, Pi = tan-l
bz
(7.4d)
z -x (b-x\
Figure 7.25 illustrates the variation of the increment of vertical total stress and
shear stress with horizontal distance at a depth of 6 m for a number of embankments.
This clearly indicates that shear stress is negligible in the central area but is mo
significant than the vertical stress under the side slope of the embankment, i.e., s
induced displacement will be greater beneath the side slope.
228

>
<
S-c
&
<D
IH
a=2,b=18,h=2, z=6
--
- a=4, b=16, h=4, z=6
<u
O
a=6,b=14,h=3,z=6
_>
a=8,b=12,h=4,z=6
13
cs
a=2,b=18,h=2,z=6
a=4,b=16,h=4,z=6
<
20-
a=6, b=14, h=3, z=6
a=8,b=12,h=4,z=6
"T
10
15
Distance from centreline (m)
Figure 7.25 Variation of induced vertical stress and shear stress
Identification of Location of M a x i m u m Shear Stress
Figure 7.26 shows the variation of shear stress with horizontal distance for two
embankments at different depths. These plots indicate that the largest shear stre
foundation induced by embankment loads occurs beneath the middle of the side slop
At these locations the distribution of shear stress with normalized depth are sho
229
Figure 7.27 for eight embankments, which certifies that the m a x i m u m shear stress
occurs at a normalized depth of around 1.4-2.0, with an average of 1.7.
8
Distance from centreline, x (m)
Figure 7.26 Variation of shear stress with horizontal direction at different depths
230
M a x . Shear stress
(Average, z/h=1.7)
w=20m|
Critical section-
Solid lines for 1:1 slope

Dot lines for 2:1 slope
10
20
Shear stress, x x z (kPa)
30
Figure 7.27 Shear stress distribution with normalized depth under embankments
Since shear-induced deformation is closely related to the shear stress distribution

(Zhang, 1999) and clarified based on Figures 7.25-27, it is reasonable to argue that the
critical locations under embankments occur at a vertical section through the middle of
the side slope, and a horizontal section at a depth of 1.7 times the fill height. This is
good agreement with the numerical predictions (for example, see Figures 7.5, 7.9b, and
7.12). Variation of incremental lateral displacement at different cross section is shown
in Figure 7.28 when the embankment height increases from 1.8 to 2.0 m. This also
shows that the maximum lateral displacement occurred in the middle of side slope, 17m
from the centreline.
231
Lateral displacement increment ( m m )

10
o-
20
'
30
40
-t: '
:-$>
3-
6-
14 m from centreline
9-
(middle of side slope)
12-
(embankment toe)
15Figure 7.28 Variation of lateral displacement at different cross section
The distance from the embankment centreline to the point where m a x i m u m settlement
occurs (L\) can be defined as (Zhang, 1999):
*-rHl
(7.4)
where, L is the distance from the embankment centreline within which the settlement
can be considered as 1-D (i.e., the region in which the shear stress is negligible).
232
7.4
Summary
The stability of a typical embankment constructed on soft clay was analysed using a
number of plane strain finite element models. The factors influencing the failure of
embankment were investigated using the following analyses:
> Effect of embankment slope on failure height;

> Rate of construction on failure height;
> Influence of vertical drain spacing on failure height;
> The extent and permeability of smear zone on failure height;
> The use of multi-stage loading; and
> Effect of surface crust.
It was found that a steeper slope and greater construction rates reduce the failure
height. For very soft clays the critical height is about 2 m unless the foundation is
stabilized by vertical drains or other means but higher embankments are often needed
and moreover, their rapid construction is pertinent given the usual stringent deadlines.
In these instances use of vertical drains in soft clay is an economical and effective way
to increase failure height by accelerating consolidation. It is also found that failure
height is more sensitive on extent of smear zone and its permeability. Therefore, it is
important to evaluate those parameters in an accurate way such as presented in this
Thesis.
The analysis with multi-staged construction shows those intermediate rest periods
allow embankments to be raised to considerable heights by allowing pore pressure
dissipation prior to subsequent loading. Numerical predictions with the surface crust
233
show that it increases the embankment height by decreasing settlement. Finally, the
critical locations beneath the embankment have been explained using induced shear
stress. This analysis shows that the critical locations under the embankments occur at a
vertical section through the middle of the side slope, and at horizontal section at a dep
of about 1.7 times the fill height, for the range of properties considered in this study.
234
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 General
Although significant progress has been made in the past through analytical and
numerical modelling (Hird et al., 1992; Chai et al., 1995; Indraratna and Redana, 1997
among others), the available literature indicates that there has always been a
discrepancy between the observed and predicted behaviour of embankments stabilized
with vertical drains. This discrepancy is usually attributed to numerous factors such as
the uncertainty of soil properties, estimating the effect of smear, the inability of exist
theories to model consolidation, and improper conversion of the axisymmetric condition
to the plane strain (2-D) analysis of vertical drains. Some of these uncertainties and
difficulties are overcome through this doctoral research by studying the effect of smear
in more detail as well as the proper conversion of the axisymmetric to plane strain with
greater rigour.
The accuracy of the settlement estimation relies on the correct assessment of the
preconsolidation pressure of the clay, as described in detail by Casagrande (1936).
Generally, the values of preconsolidation pressure show considerable scatter when
plotted with depth. In multi-stage construction, it is important to note that the first st
of loading might not exceed the natural preconsolidation pressure of the foundation soil.
Therefore, appropriate values for compression index (Cr and Cc or K and X) should be
selected which may represent a state of over-consolidation. The overall conclusions are
presented below in addition to the concluding remarks made earlier at the end of
individual chapters.
235
8.2
Specific Observations
In this research a new method for evaluating the extent of the smear zone using cavity
expansion theory ( C E T ) incorporating the modified C a m clay ( M C C ) theory is
proposed and verified via large-scale consolidometer tests. In addition, an equivalent 2D plane strain analysis of embankments stabilized with vertical drains, subjected to
vacuum pressure has been carried out incorporating the smear effects. Well resistance
has been ignored in this analysis because previous studies have shown that the effect of
well resistance could be ignored for most modern prefabricated vertical drains which do
not deform (form kinks) during installation.
The proposed solutions were incorporated into the finite element code PLAXIS
and A B A Q U S to study the behaviour of a few selected embankments stabilized with
vertical drains. The predictions based on the proposed model were compared with the
available field data and an acceptable agreement was found. Finally, the proposed
model was used to predict the failure height of embankments under various conditions.
Specific conclusions, which can be drawn based on this study, are summarised below in
details.
8.2.1 Mathematical Formulations and Modifications to the Existing Theories
1. Previous studies indicated that the effect of smear is a significant and unavoidable
problem caused by mandrel driven prefabricated vertical drains (PVD). The size and
permeability of the smear zone is often difficult to quantify and determine from
laboratory tests and thus far, there is no comprehensive or standard method for
measuring them.
In this research, an analytical solution based on C E T was
proposed to estimate the extent of the smear zone and the predicted results were
236
verified via large-scale consolidometer testing. The extent of smear zone evaluated
from the large-scale laboratory studies (described in Section 8.22) is close to the
value that calculated using the proposed CET solution. This results show that the
CET solution could be used to estimate the extent of the smear zone.
2. Existing theories based on the Darcian linear flow law of a unit cell (Hansbo, 1981,
Indraratna and Redana, 1997) were modified to include vacuum pressure
application. This combined vacuum and surcharge preloading technique follows the
principle of superposition, using the same equation for analysing the degree of
consolidation. However, the combination of vacuum and surcharge pressure further
accelerates the rate of pore pressure dissipation due to an increased hydraulic
gradient generated towards the PVD.
3. New plane strain lateral consolidation equations based on exponential flow were
formulated which are valid for both Darcian and non-Darcian flow. A matching
procedure for the proposed solution was explained, and the new parameters
introduced in this study were graphically presented for the convenience of practical
application.
8.2.2 Laboratory Program
1. Laboratory tests utilizing a large-scale consolidometer revealed that the installation

of vertical drains, significantly increased pore water pressure (during mandrel
installation) in the immediate vicinity of the mandrel, and reduced the horizontal
permeability and water content surrounding the drain. This induced pore pressure
was compared with the predicted value and a good agreement was found. The extent
of the smear zone based on the induced pore water pressure was about 2.4-2.6 times
237
the equivalent radius of the mandrel. This is comparable with previous research
reported in the literature. For example, Hansbo (1979), mdraratna and Redana
(1998) Chai and Miura (1999) proposed that the extent of smear zone is about 1.5 3, 2 ~ 3, and 2-3 times the mandrel radius, respectively, which is close to the
extent of smear zone found in this studies.
2. Permeability measurements indicated that the horizontal permeability (fa)

significantly decreases within the smear zone, whereas the variation in vertical
permeability (fa) with radial distance is generally negligible. The extent of the smear
zone was estimated based on the permeability anisotropy (fa/fa ratio) and
normalised permeability (fa/fau ratio). These results verified that smear zone was
about 5 times the equivalent drain radius while horizontal permeability (in the smear
zone) was smaller by 1.0943 to 1.6437 (an average of 1.3429) times that of the
undisturbed zone. Moreover, the fa/fa ratio converged towards unity close to the
drain where the soil suffers from maximum disturbance (smear).
3. Variation of water content demonstrated a similar trend to the variations of

horizontal permeability. The normalized water content reduction, (wmax-w)/wmax was
found to be confined within a narrow band for all surcharge pressures, and based on
this result, the smear zone was estimated to be around 5 times the equivalent drain
radius. An empirical expression between the reduction of water content and the
change in horizontal permeability within the smear zone was found. This empirical
expression is useful in a practical sense for estimating the lateral smear zone
permeability by measuring the water content.
4. The excess pore water pressure and the surface settlement of the soil observed in th
large-scale consolidometer were compared with the predicted values. Given the
238
good agreement, one can conclude that the proposed analytical solutions can be used
confidently to study the behaviour of soft clay foundations improved with
prefabricated vertical drains.
8.2.3 Case History Analysis
1. The competency of the CET solutions was certified by an acceptable agreement

between the available field data and numerical predictions of the few full-scale
embankments reported in this study. The effect of smear associated with PVD
installation was considered, while the effect of well resistance was neglected for
reasons explained earlier. Based on the proposed CET solution, the extent of the
smear zone was evaluated to be about 4-6 times the equivalent radius of the drain,
and also the smear zone size was found to vary with depth. There is no doubt that
the accurate prediction of the extent of the smear zone is also dependent upon the
correct assessment of the critical state soil parameters.
2. Multi-drain analysis of vertical drains installed at the Sunshine Motorway presented

a very good match between the predicted and measured settlements, whereas an
acceptable agreement was found between the predicted and measured excess pore
pressures. Even though lateral displacements were harder to match, still a reasonable
comparison was found below a depth of 3m. In addition, the following conclusions
can be drawn from this case study:
(i) A closer spacing of drains invariably contributes towards an increased

smear effect because the total area of the smear zone is higher under a closer
239
spacing system (note that the area of the smear zone is proportional to
number of drains).
(ii) Vertical drains increase the lateral movement under the middle of the main
batter but decrease it at the toe.
(m) Maximum lateral movement occurred at a depth approximately 1.7 times the
fill height.
(iv) Near the surface, the lateral displacements were harder to match due to the
existence of the compacted crust, which has a significant benefit on the
stability of the embankment. Further accuracy of the writer's numerical
predictions may be achieved by using improved procedures for accurately
modelling of the properties of the over-consolidated (compacted) crust that
does not obey the modified Cam-clay theory or the simplified MohrCoulomb theory.
3. Selected embankments stabilised with vertical drains subjected to vacuum

preloading were investigated using a plane strain finite element analysis. Predictions
were made based on two different models: (1) assuming a constant extent of smear,
and (2) varying the extent of the smear zone, with depth. It was demonstrated that
the predicted values based on Model 2 are in good agreement with the field data. In
addition, the following conclusions can be drawn from this case history analysis:
(i) The extent of the smear zone variation with the inclusion of time and depth
dependent vacuum pressure distribution significantly improves the accuracy
of predictions.
240
(ii) The drainage efficiency of the perforated pipe is better than the hypernet.
(iii) The application of vacuum generates 'inward' lateral displacement rather

than 'outward', and substantially decreased the lateral displacement, thereby
minimizing the risk of shear failure.
8.2.4 Application of Finite Element Modelling for General Design
1. The height of an embankment, which can be raised on soft clay without any stability
problems, depends on the embankment slope, construction rate, vertical drain
spacing, smear zone parameters, subsoil properties, and the method of construction
(continuous loading or multi-stage loading).
2. A steeper slope and faster construction rate would reduce failure height, but the
critical height of embankment can be increased by installing prefabricated vertical
drains (PVD). Introduction of PVD for subsurface drainage can provide increased
stiffness of the soft clay and curtail lateral displacement substantially, thereby
minimizing the risk of shear failure. The drain spacing and propagation of smear
effect will influence the critical height of embankment. Even though the ultimate
settlement of the soil is not changed by the pattern of PVD, their spacing and length
can still influence the construction rate and final height of embankment.
3. The drain installation method should be carefully implemented to reduce the smear
effect as much as possible. The foundation response upon loading is more sensitive
to nominal changes in the permeability of the smear zone than its size.
241
4. Multi-staged construction showed that intermediate rest periods permit

embankments to be raised to greater final heights by allowing pore pressure
dissipation prior to subsequent loading.
5. The presence of surface crust (over-consolidated) beneath an embankment can resist

lateral displacement, thereby significantly increasing the failure height of the
embankment. The presence of a surface crust has a similar influence as placing a
geogrid reinforcement underneath the embankment.
6. Stress distribution beneath the embankment showed that the role of shear stress is
negligible in the central area but more significant under the side slope of the
embankment. As a result of this shear-induced displacement, the location of
maximum settlement is found to occur slightly away from the centerline, but
gradually moved towards the centerline as the fill height was increased. A similar
trend was also observed beneath the Muar test embankments in Malaysia (Indraratna
etal., 1992).
7. The critical locations beneath an embankment have also been explained on the basis
of induced shear stress. This analysis demonstrates that the critical locations under
the embankments occur in a vertical section through the middle of the side slope,
and at a horizontal section at a depth of about 1.7 times the fill height.
8.3 Suggestions for Future Research
Based on the current study, further analytical, numerical, and experimental studies
associated with embankments stabilised with vertical drains are recommended. Such
future work should focus more on the following aspects:
242
1. Available finite element programmes based on coupled consolidation theory (Biot

theory) can be modified to incorporate non-Darcian flow, or a new finite element
code may be written so that it can be used for both Darcian and non-Darcian flow.
2. Anisotropic soil properties have a significant effect on embankment behaviour

(Potts and Zdravkovic, 2000). To predict the embankment responses more
accurately, the use of complex constitutive models such as MIT-E3 (Whittle, 1991)
and Structured Cam Clay model (Liu et.al. 2002) incorporating the anisotropy
observed in the laboratory and field are recommended.
3. The drain-soil interface is often unsaturated, and therefore, the soil constitutive
models employed in this current study should be further extended to become more
realistic for unsaturated soils. For this purpose, a separate subroutine incorporating
moisture characteristic curves may be developed to directly link the laboratory data
and then used at the drain-soil interface.
4. It is important to evaluate the coefficient of permeability of the saturated clay as

accurately as possible. Often, the coefficient of permeability obtained via
conventional oedometer tests is not accurate, in contrast to the field permeability
data (when available). Therefore, if the field permeability values are not available, it
is recommended that a more realistic permeability coefficient should be obtained
through back analysis.
5. Controlled stress path testing of soft foundation soils is also preferred in order to
obtain the most accurate soil properties and to rationally quantify the role of the
applied stresses in relation to the pre-consolidation pressure of the foundation soils.
243
6. The numerical model should also incorporate the role of both axial and lateral
stiffness of vertical drains where warranted. Especially, in plane strain models
where a continuous vertical drain 'wall' is assumed, the increased stiffiiess of this
drain 'wall' may become excessively higher than the soft clay (of same wall
thickness), hence the need for modelling the correct stiffness should be considered.
7. In order to examine the accuracy of soft clay foundation responses, it is

recommended to carry out a parametric study on the assumed plane strain model.
Various parameters such as construction rate, embankment slope, and drain spacing
etc. should be taken into account, and finally, a numerical scheme to estimate
maximum fill height in relation to the PVD patterns may be developed.
8. Comprehensive design charts for a combined vertical and radial drainage system
with vacuum and surcharge pressure application can be developed based on nonDarcian flow equations incorporating the smear effect.
9. The author used an Excel spreadsheet formulation to evaluate the extent of the
smear zone and equivalent plane strain permeabilities, however, it is advisable that a
separate subroutine is written, which can be directly linked to a selected finite
element code, such as PLAXIS or ABAQUS.
10. The accurate prediction of foundation response requires careful examination of soil
properties and the selection of an appropriate soil model, especially for the topmost
over consolidated (compacted) crust. The available soil models, such as the MohrCoulomb and modified Cam-clay model are not appropriate for modelling the
behaviour of a weathered and compacted crust due to the significant differences in
244
soil fabric and anisotropy. Therefore, it is recommended that the available soil
models may be modified to replicate the effect of the crust.
11. In many classical theories (e.g. Barron, 1948; Hansbo, 1981), the influence of the
smear zone is considered with an idealized two-zone model, i.e., an undisturbed
zone with natural permeability and a smear zone with reduced permeability. In
addition, they assumed that the permeability within the smear zone is constant,
although reduced. However, laboratory measurements indicate that the coefficient of
permeability varies with radial distance within the smear zone. Therefore, it is
recommended that the available axisymmetric and plane strain solutions are
modified to incorporate this permeability variation within the smear zone. A linear
variation of fa/fa ratio may be assumed in the simplest case.
245
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Appendix 1 R - O C R Relationship
APPENDIX 1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ISOTROPIC AND

CONVENTIONAL OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO
To properly account for the effect of initial stress condition, one needs to differentiate
between the overconsolidation ratio defined in terms of either the vertical effective
stress or the mean effective stress. The isotropic overconsolidation ratio, R, is defined a
the ratio of maximum stress on yield locus pc0 and the in situ mean effective stress p0.
That is,
R=^f-
(Al)
Po
The conventional overconsolidation ratio, O C R , is defined in the one-dimensional

condition as the ratio of the vertical preconsolidation stress crvmax and the in situ
effective vertical stress cv0. I.e.,
0CR=^vnmX_
(A2)
CT
vO
The in situ mean effective stress is usually related with the in situ effective vertical
stress as:
p0=^{l + 2K0)or'v0 (A3)
where, K0 is coefficient of earth pressure at rest, can be approximated by (Mayne and

Kulhawy, 1982)
262
ÔÔncOCR8^
(A4)
where, ^ : effective friction angle;Konc : the value of K0 for a normally consolidated

soil and can be estimated from the well known expression (Jaky, 1944):
Ônc =l-sin^
(A5)
W h e n <7v0 reacheso-vmax, the maximum past mean effective stress p'm becomes
1,
.,
Pm -^V 1 + 2A-0nc)_rvmax
(A6)
And the corresponding deviator stress qm is
m = (l-^0nc)"vmax = s i n ^ <*vmax
(A7)
Substituting Eqns. (A6) and (A7) into the M C C equation, the p'c0 can be found as
9(l-Konc)2 + M2{l + 2Koncf

PcO =
3M2{\ + 2Konc)
vmax
(A8)
where, M: slope of critical state line, can be related with effective friction angle as:
., 6sind
M =
3-sin^
. / 3M
or sin^ = 6 + M
(A9)
Substituting Eqns. (A3) and (A8) into Eqn. (Al) and rearranging with Eqns. (A2), (A4),
and (A9), the isotropic overconsolidation ratio can be found as:
263
Appendix 1 R - O C R Relationship
.(45- 12M + M
R =
JOCR
(A10)
(1
(6-A/1 6 + M + 2{6-M)OCR^6+M)
Figure A l shows the relationship between the isotropic overconsolidation ratio and the
conventional overconsolidation ratio for different M (slope of critical state line).
shows that assuming R to be equal to OCR may produce errors up to a 20%, and there is
a need to differentiate R from OCR.
<<
_.
a
o
"_J
i
"3
00
o
0
.3
>
Mo
o
..
1.4-
OH
o
o
Ui
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
Conventional overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
3.0
Figure A l Variation of the isotropic and conventional overconsolidation ratio with slope
of critical state line
264

Modelling of Vertical Drains With Smear Installed in Soft Clay

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University of Wollongong Thesis Collections

Modelling of vertical drains with smear installed in

Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the

MODELLING OF VERTICAL DRAINS WITH SMEAR

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements

IYATHURAI SATHANANTHAN, BSc Eng (Hons)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

I authorise the University of Wollongong to lend this thesis to other institutions or

Indraratna, B., Sathananthan, I., Bamunawita, C. and A.S. Balasubramaniam. (200

Indraratna, B., Sathananthan, I., Rujikiatkamjorn, C. and A.S. Balasubramania

Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C. and Sathananthan, I. (2005). Analytical and

Sathananthan, I. and Indraratna, B. (2005). Laboratory Evaluation of Smear Zon

Correlation between Permeability and Moisture Content. Submitted to Journal o

Indraratna, B. and Sathananthan, I. (2004). Numerical Prediction of Soft Clay

Indraratna, B. and Sathananthan, I. (2003). Comparison of Field Measurements and

Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C. and Sathananthan, I. (2005). Analytical Modelling

Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C, Sathananthan, I., Shahin, M. and Khabbaz, H.

Geosynthetic Vertical Drains with Special Reference to Embankments. The 5

In this research, analytical, experimental and numerical investigations were carried o

A series of large-scale model tests were conducted using a specially designed

(IPRS and U P A Scholarships) fund administered through the

University of Wollongong and this deserves special acknowledgment.

List of Publications iii

Table of Contents viii

List of Figures xix

List of Tables xxviii

List of Symbols xxix

1.2 Use of Vertical Drains 3

1.3 Methods of Deformation Analysis 5

1.3.1 Analytical Method 5

1.3.2 Numerical Analysis 6

1.3.3 Observational Methods 7

1.4 Scope and Objective of Study 7

Organization of the Dissertation

2.1 History and Development of Vertical Drains 12

2.2 Types of Vertical Drains 13

2.2.1 Sand Drains 13

2.2.2 Prefabricated Vertical Drains 14

2.3 Installation and Monitoring of Vertical Drains 16

2.3.2 Settlement Indicators 19

2.4 Drain Properties 19

2.4.1 Diameter of Influence Zone 19

2.4.2 Equivalent Drain Diameter of Band Shaped Vertical Drain 20

2.4.3 Filter and Pore Size 23

2.4.4 Discharge Capacity 24

2.5 Factors Influencing the Vertical Drain Efficiency 29

2.5.1 Smear Zone 29

Soil Macro Fabric

2.5.1.2 Size and Shape of the Mandrel 34

2.5.1.3 Installation Procedure 35

2.5.2 Effect of Sand Mat 36

2.5.3 Well Resistance 37

6 Development of Consolidation Theories 39

2.6.1 One-Dimensional Consolidation 39

2.6.2 Coupled Consolidation Theory 41

2.6.3 Development of Vertical Drain Theory 42

2.6.3.1 Rendulic and Carillo Diffusion theory 43

2.6.3.2 Barron's (1948) Suggestion - Equal Strain Hypothesis 44

2.6.3.3 Rigorous Solution (Yoshikuni and Nakanode, 1974) 47

2.6.3.4 Hansbo (1981)-Analysis with Smear and Well Resistance 48

2.6.3.5 X Method (Hansbo, 1979 and 1997) 49

2.6.4 2-D Modelling of Vertical Drains 50

2.6.4.1 Shinsha et al. (1982)-Permeability Transformation 52