Table of Contents

A. Introduction
1. What is Lime
2. History of Lime
3. The Lime Cycle

B. Properties of Lime
1. Physical Properties
2. Chemical Properties

C. Classification of Limes
1. Fat Lime
2. Hydraulic Lime
3. Poor Lime

D. Uses of Lime
1.
2.
3.
4.

Cement Making
Construction Industry
Agriculture
Why Use of Lime

E. Manufacture of Lime
1. Lime Production

F. Interesting Facts about Limestone

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

What is Limestone
Chemical Composition
Physical Characteristics
Role in the Industry and Environment
Production of Limestone
Structures Made of Limestone

Lime has been used for approximately 2000 years within mortar, internal plaster, external render, foundations,
flooring, infilling of walls, casing of water conduits, jointing compounds and decorative applications. Many
publications detail the history of lime as a building material either as a result of general work in the field or as part of a
more specific study. An abundance of material exists to document the substances use throughout the West;
however, many other parts of the world tend to be neglected.
Every small locality of the world has developed its own style and practice in regards to building techniques. The
four key regionsChina, India, Africa, and Mesoamerica or South Americaare studied in order to compare and
contrast in general terms the evolution of lime as a building material in a global context. Where no sources relating to
the direct use of lime mortar are available, then a description of the architecture of the region has been included as
this description may allow a determination of whether lime mortar may have been used.

1. What is Lime
Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates, oxides and hydroxides predominate.
Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is also the name of the natural mineral (native lime) CaO which occurs
as a product of coal seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta. The word "lime" originates with
its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of "sticking or adhering.

2. History of Lime
The earliest archaeological evidence for lime burning is a kiln from Mesopotamia dating 2450 BC. Roman
lime kilns have been found in Britain but in the post Roman period there is very little evidence for lime burning. A 12 th
century reference to the church in York being whitewashed in 690 AD may suggest Anglo-Saxon use of lime, though
later building accounts also refer to making a whitewash from chalk dust and size made from leather scraps. Early
kilns would have been of clamp construction with clay or turf covering alternating layers of fuel and stone and would
leave very little archaeological evidence; the earliest definite evidence for lime burning in post Roman Britain comes
from a brick lime kiln found in Guildford, Surrey, dating from the 12th century. As with other building materials
Medieval building accounts are a good primary source for information, holding references to the burning, buying and
use of lime. Lime was either bought already burnt as quicklime or, for large building projects, was often burnt on site
in specially constructed kilns. In 1229 the Abbot of Abingdon allowed Henry III to clear timber from 26 acres of Saghe
wood to fuel kilns producing lime for work on the city walls. Early complaints were lodged at the destruction of
woodland for fuel; the Hundred Rolls of 1275 complained that two of the kings lime kilns had devoured 500 oaks of
the forest of Wellington. The destruction of timber for lime kilns lessened with the use of sea coal, though this also led
to complaints, the smog produced being denounced as a nuisance in London in 1285 and coal being prohibited,
though the prohibition was probably not observed, from 1307. Barrels that had contained tar were used for starting
the fire inside lime kilns, the 3s paid to John Tyghler of Goring, West Sussex in1365 for 9 empty barrels is just one
such reference to this practice. The increasing use of brick led to a greater demand for lime for mortar in the 17 th
century as did the growing use of lime for agricultural purposes and the trade of lime burner appears at this time also.
The use of lime, because of the cost, had been restricted to higher status buildings (except for use in limewash), but
by the end of the 18th century, bigger, more efficient kilns and the expansion of the canal and rail network meant lime
became more widely available as a building material.

Historical Use of Lime in Building Construction

In China, the use of lime for mortar and plaster is of similar antiquity. The Great Wall of China, for instance,
was built with lime mortars.

Great Wall of China

Lime is an appropriate and durable binding material is well proven. The Pont du Gard at Nimes in Southern
France, a Roman aqueduct built in 18AD with hydraulic lime-based mortar, is still water- proof; the excellence of the

mortar is attributed to the selection of the materials used as well as to the time spent tamping the mix into place
during construction.

Pont du Gard at Nimes in Southern France

History does not record where burning limestone to produce quicklime was first practised. We do know that
the Cretan Civilization in the Mediterranean made use of lime as a masonry mortar more than three thousand years
ago.

Cretan Civilization Mediterranean

3. The Lime Cycle

In the Beginning
Limestone is a naturally occurring and abundant sedimentary rock consisting of high levels of calcium or
magnesium carbonate, or dolomite (calcium and magnesium carbonate), along with minerals. Lime production begins
by extracting limestone from quarries and mines.
Sizing
Limestone enters a primary crusher to break the rock. Depending on the size of the feedstone required,
limestone may go through a secondary or tertiary crusher to further reduce its size. The stone is then screened into
various sizes ranging from several inches to dust-sized particles, the sized stone is then washed.
Calcining
Processed stone is transported by conveyor belt to the lime kilns. To cook or calcine limestone, there must
be a significant transfer of heat to the limestone. In general, the heat transfer from the fuel source to limestone can be
divided into three stages:
Preheating limestone is heated by direct contact with kiln exhaust gases that enter the preheater kiln.
Calcining the kiln fuel is burned in the preheated air from the cooling zone and, as the limestone moves
down the kiln the heat turns the limestone into quicklime and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Cooling quicklime leaving the calcining zone is cooled by direct contact with cooling air.
While there are multiple kiln types in use, the rotary kiln is the most common kiln found in the U.S. A rotary
kiln consists of a rotating cylinder that sits horizontal on an incline. Limestone is fed into the upper or back end of the
kiln, while fuel and combustion air are fired into the lower front end of the kiln. The limestone is heated as it moves
down the kiln toward the lower end. As the preheated limestone moves through the kiln, it is calcined into lime. The
lime is discharged from the kiln into a cooler where it is used to preheat the combustion air. Lime can either be sold as
is or crushed to make hydrated lime.
Quicklime can be processed into hydrated lime by crushing the quicklime, adding water to the crushed lime
(water accounts for approximately 1% of raw hydrate), and then classifying the hydrated lime to ensure it meets
customer specifications before it is transported.

1. Physical Properties

Lime is Vapor Permeable

Air can pass through it in a way that doesn't happen with a denser material like cement, or polymerbased renders and plasters. This allows buildings to breathe, so that when moisture forms it can escape and
that's important because moisture is the enemy of natural materials like stone, timber and iron. Lime should
be the first choice option when looking to ensure a building retains its structural integrity and stays protected
for many years to come.
Lime is Good at Absorbing and Releasing Moisture
This means it can act as natural humidity control, taking out moisture from the air when there's too
much, and releasing it back when the air gets too dry, all of which makes for more pleasant living conditions.
No Condensation
Because moisture isn't accumulating in rooms, when you use lime for building you won't get
condensation on the surface of walls that can lead to the growth of mould, something that's not only
unsightly, but can lead to release of spores which are unhealthy to breathe in.
Strength and Long Lasting Adhesion
Since one of the properties of lime is that it is made of very fine particles, much smaller than those
that make up cement, it's very sticky. This means it penetrates into the tiny spaces on the surface of other
materials, allowing it to bind to them extraordinarily well for long lasting adhesion.
Lightweight
Dense renders can also put a strain on a building if they are applied to a substrate or background
that's been weakened. Lime on the other hand, because it is less dense, is the ideal for solution for walls and
surfaces that aren't in top-notch condition.
Flexible
As lime is a flexible building material that gives a little when a building moves, it's far more forgiving
than denser cement materials which may crack or deform even with just a little ground movement or swell.
Lime Lasts
For evidence of the enduring properties of lime example is the Rome's Pantheon Temple whose
concrete dome not only spans an impressive 43 metres but was built nearly 2,000 years ago.
Lime is Environmentally Friendly
It not only absorbs potentially damaging carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but the amount of
energy required to produce it is less than is required for the production of cement and as it can be produced
on a small scale, there is less impact on the local area.
Binds Well
Lime binds well with many things, recycled material such as glass can be easily incorporated into it,
like the range of insulating lime plasters and lime renders, which contain recycled glass beads.
Good to Work With
Lime mortars and lime plasters stay smooth and malleable, even against the suction from porous
brick and block. This workability helps greatly in ensuring that joints are full and bonds are good, essential for
good workmanship. What's more, this workability also means that variously graded aggregate can be added
to the lime mix to further improve performance and create different looks.
Disinfectant
Because it's caustic, lime has disinfectant qualities, especially when it's used as limewash, but the
same is also true for lime mortars, lime plasters and lime renders. This means it will resist the buildup of
moulds that can lead to breathing difficulties, creating a healthier living environment, and making lime an
ideal materiel for building.
Lime is Autogenous
Which means it can heal itself. While movements in stiff cement-bound buildings tend to result in
cracks, the same movement in buildings where lime is used produces many fine cracks. When water
penetrates these, it dissolves any free lime it encounters, depositing it there as it evaporates. In this way, lime
seals and heals.
Lime Gets Stronger Over Time
Lime surfaces and materials can actually become stronger over time through the formation of calcite
crystals that form in lime-rich environments, something that doesn't happen with cements.
Beautiful and Natural Finish
Lime as a surface finish is aesthetically pleasing, with a more natural look that comes from the
double refraction of light through the calcite crystals that are present in it. This creates a softer texture than
you get with harder cement-based products, which can complement the appearance of either contemporary
or traditional buildings. With lime, you also get a visually unique finish each time with the surface quickly
developing a distinctive patina that has a translucent glow, something that's seen for instance on the beautiful
buildings in Venice.
7

Stores well
Lime has a long shelf life when kept in airtight conditions, so if it's not all used at once it can be
stored away until you are ready to use it again.

2. Chemical Properties
Limestone
Calcium carbonate shares the typical properties of other carbonates. It reacts with strong acids, releasing
carbon dioxide:
CaCO3 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
It releases carbon dioxide on heating, called a thermal decomposition reaction, or calcinations to form
calcium oxide, commonly called quicklime, with reaction enthalpy 178 kJ / mole:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Molecular formula

CaCO3

Molar mass

100.0869 g/mol

Appearance

fine white powder, chalky taste

Odor

odorless

Density

2.711 g/cm3 (calcite)

2.83 g/cm3 (aragonite)

Melting point

825 C (aragonite)
1339 C (calcite)

Boiling point

decomposes

Solubility in water

0.0013 g/100 mL (25C)

Solubility

4.810-9

Solubility in dilute acids

soluble

Acidity

9.0

Refractive index

1.59

Quicklime
Limestone is a rock consisting essentially of carbonate of lime by burning, it produces Quicklime (CaO).
Molecular Formula

CaO

Molar Mass

56.0074 g/mol

Appearance

white to pale yellow/brown powder

Odor

odorless

Density

3.34 g/cm3

Melting Point

2613 C, 2886 K, 4735 F

Boiling Point

2850 C, 3123 K (100 hPa)

Solubility in Water

1.19 g/L (25 C), .57 g/L (100 C)

Solubility in Acids

soluble ( glycerol, sugar solution)

Solubility in Methanol

insoluble (diethyl ether, n-octanol)

Acidity

12.8
Hydrated Lime

When heated to 512 C, the partial pressure of water in equilibrium with calcium hydroxide reaches
101kPa, which decomposes calcium hydroxide into calcium oxide and water.
Ca(OH)2 CaO + H2O
A suspension of fine calcium hydroxide particles in water is called milk of lime. The solution is called
limewater and is a medium strength base that reacts with acids and attacks many metals. Limewater turns milky in the
presence of carbon dioxide due to formation of calcium carbonate, a process called carbonization:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
Molecular formula

Ca(OH)2

Molar mass

74.093 g/mol

Appearance

white powder

Odor

odorless

Density

2.211 g/cm3, solid

Melting point

580 C (loses water)

Solubility in water

0.189 g/100 mL (0 C)
0.173 g/100 mL (20 C)
0.066 g/100 mL (100 C)

Solubility product

4.6810-6

Solubility

Soluble in glycerol and acids

Insoluble in alcohol

Acidity

12.4

Basicity

2.37

Refractive index

1.574

10

1. Fat Lime - is named as high calcium lime, pure lime, rich lime, or white lime. It is obtained from the pure
limestone, shell and coral. It absorbs carbon dioxide when it is left in air, and gets transferred into calcium
carbonate. When compared with quick lime, the volume of fat lime gets increased to about 2 - 2 1/2 times.

Properties of Fat Lime

It hardens very slowly

It is having the high degree of plastic
The color is pure white
In the presence of air, it tends to set very slowly
It slakes vigorously
Use of Fat Lime

It is used in white washing and plastering of walls. It forms lime mortar with sand, which sets in thin joints.
This type of mortar can be used to apply in thin joints of brickwork and stone work.
Structure of Fat Lime

2. Hydraulic Lime - has the capacity to set and harden even under water, where the quick lime cant able to
do it. The composition of the hydraulic lime is different from quick lime; it contains a definite quantity of clay
which gives its hydraulic property. Hydraulic lime consists of 70-80% of CaO and clay about 15
30%.Hydraulic lime is obtained by burning the limestone containing rich in clay, or adding clay materials to
the lime stone while burning. Depending upon the hydraulicity, it is divided into feebly hydraulic, moderately
hydraulic, and eminently hydraulic.
11

 Structure of Hydraulic Lime

3. Poor Lime - is called as impure lime or lean lime.

Properties of Poor Lime

It consists of 30% clay

It slakes very slowly
The thin paste is formed along with water
It never gets dissolved with water and gets frequently changed
It is use to hardens very slowly
The binding property is very poor

12

 Structure of Poor Lime

13

14

1.

Cement Making

Cement making is the largest of all consumption of lime, accounting for about 25% of global consumption.
Cement is most commonly used as a construction material, especially as the setting component in concrete. The
properties which make lime an excellent cementations building material are the shape and fineness of the particles,
which provide the plasticity necessary for a good workable mortar or plaster, and its chemical properties which are the
mechanical, strength giving characteristics.
Good mixing proportions are:
lime

cement

sand

1
1

1
6
2
9
The first mix is used where greater strength and resistance to weather are required and the second where
these properties are unnecessary.
In situations where the sand to be used is very fine and/or not well graded, a mix of 1:1:7 can be used. Where
the use of cement is limited in one way or another, small proportion of cement will suffice or none need be used at all.
The use of such mortars or plasters is however limited since they are susceptible to weathering. They are best used
on internal walls, external walls which are well protected from the rain, and in dry climates. The mix suitable under
such circumstances is 1:2/3, i. e. 1 part lime to 2 or 3 parts sand. The same mix proportions are used for mortars and
plasters. Special care must be taken where the' lime is of low quality (relatively low hydroxide content) and the sand
badly graded and fine.
Limewash as an external and sometimes internal wall coating is used in many countries today. Its
advantages are that it is relatively cheap, easy to apply and gives a clean white finish, whilst its disadvantage is that it
rubs off easily.
The durability of limewashes can be improved by adding small amounts of common salts or stearates. The
recipes given by Bessey are:
Quicklime
1 kg
Tallow

60 g

Water

2.5 Iitres

Quicklime is broken into small lumps and tallow is placed in shreds over it. Enough water is then added to
slake the quicklime. Once slaking is complete the remaining water is added and then the slurry is screened to remove
any lumps and remaining shreds of tallow.
If only hydrated lime is available, powdered calcium stearate and water are added to it to produce a slurry. The recipe
is:
Hydrated lime
1 kg
Powdered Calcium Stearate
50 g
Water
As required
Lime in combination with pozzolanic material can be used as an alternative cementitious material to portland
cement. This type of cement can be used successfully for most purposes other than structural concrete work, i.e. in
plaster, mortar, production of building blocks, screeds etc. Some types of pozzolanic materials are: pulverized fuel
ash, blastfurnace slag, volcanic ash, diatomatious earth, under-fired clay bricks, porcellanite and others. Each has a
particular form in which it is most effective as a pozzolana.
2.

Construction Industry

The construction of roads in tropical and sub-tropical regions in areas where the soil is clay or laterite will
require the use of a soil stabilizer. Lime, like portland cement, reacts chemically with certain constituents of the clay
and acts as a binder. The effectiveness of lime as a soil stabilizer is increased in warm climates where its rate of
strength development will be faster than in cooler areas, 2 - 5 % hydrated lime is mixed with soil from the road and
spread over the road surface for compaction. The quantities required will depend on the compaction density, width and
thickness of sub-base or base designed, and also on the proportion of available lime in the lime hydrate. For a road 11
m wide, sub-base 200 mm thick and a compaction density of 1500 kg/m3, where 4 % lime is to be added, 130 tonnes
lime per kilometer of road will be required.
For an existing limework with a low output (up to 15 tonnes), the implications of such a demand are:
A long period of warning will be required to develop stockpiles, the development of which will require special
financing arrangements since the stockpiling will cause excessive strain on cashflow.

15

 The accent will be placed on the quantity rather than the quality produced. It should be noted however, that
the higher the quality the lower the quantities of lime required. The economic effects on transport cost, sales
prices, etc. need to be carefully considered.
A dry hydrate needs to be produced.
The possibility of installing a small limeworks near the road works, if possible in a situation where its
operation will be continued after the completion of the road, must be considered as it may be more economic
than transporting large quantities over long distances.
Mortar
Lime mortar was used to lay brickwork, building stone and to point roof tiles. The main ingredients were lime
and sand but additives such as eggs, casein, keratin (from boiled hooves), tallow, blood, beeswax or bitumen to
increase water resistance. Crushed brick or tile was often added to mortar to improve setting times, and other
additions might be used for their aesthetic qualities one Mediaeval building account lists 16 bushels of smithys dust
provided for blacke mortar requisite for the laying of flint. Mortar can be made by mixing putty with sand but, in the
past, was also prepared by slaking the lime with sand as described in Richard Neves The City and Country Purchaser
(1726). Gerard Lynch has demonstrated this method at the Museum: a ring of sand is formed on a wooden platform,
the quicklime is put in the middle and lightly watered. As it begins to slake the sand is drawn over the lime, the damp
sand providing extra moisture for slaking and stopping the lime from over burning. When judged ready the pile is
broken open, resulting in a dry mix of sand and lime. After sieving water is added; Richard Neve notes the difference
in opinion as to whether it should be left to lie for up to three years or used immediately. He also gives a lengthy
discourse on the ratio of lime to sand as suggested by different workman and finally suggests that the proportions
ought to be various depending on the quality of the materials and the judgement and experience of the workmen. Non
(and weakly) hydraulic lime mortars can be knocked up and re-used and there are references to this in old building
accounts. Pevensey Castle in 1288 had men digging stones and old mortar where the wall had been thrown down
and carrying chalk from the keep to the gate and making old mortar and new. Lime mortars were used until the
middle of the 20th century. Portland Cement was invented in 1824 but it was expensive and too strong for many
building applications; cement based mortars didnt fully take over until after the Second World War with changes in
building methods and materials. Lime was, and still is retained as a minor ingredient to improve workability.
Render and Plaster
Render usually refers to an exterior finish and plaster to the interior, though the terms were, and are,
sometimes used interchangeably. The methods of application were the same as were the materials, though internal
plasters often had a finer finish and external renders do not always contain hair as a binder. The main ingredients
were lime and sand or finely sieved earth and external renders were, in the past, modified with blood, beeswax, eggs,
milk or even cheese to improve water shedding properties.
As with mortar lime renders and plasters vary considerably in composition, texture and in numbers of coats,
or layers, with ratios of between 1 part lime to 3 6 parts sand or sieved earth. At the lower end of the social scale,
lime might not have been used at all (see wattle and daub introduction sheet) or would have been used as one rough
coat. Higher status houses would often have had three coats: a coarse undercoat applied direct to wood laths, brick,
flint or stone, a second, slightly less coarse undercoat (or float) and a top or finishing coat of a finer grade. The base
coat and second coat were usually reinforced with chopped ox or horse hair (or straw in rough work) which provided
reinforcement and reduces the risk of shrinkage and cracking, as the straw does in wattle and daub. The lime putty for
plaster should ideally have been left to slake for 6 months or more to ensure all particles have slaked, otherwise the
lime can continue to slake in the plaster causing it to blow. It is possible that renders and plaster were made in a
similar way to mortar, slaking the sand and lime together.
From the mid 16th century, in the eastern counties, it became increasingly common to cover the whole face of
a timber frame building with lime render, though this fashion only really spread as far west as Kent by the 18 th century.
Interiors were plastered too (from the 17th century within the Museum collecting area) with the plaster fixed over both
the frame and daub infill or, later, to horizontal laths nailed on the face of the slighter timber structural frame. Rendered
buildings sometimes carried combed, moulded or incised decorative designs known as pargeting though, again, this
was more common in the eastern counties and Kent. As with wattle and daub panels, plaster was sometime
decorated, either with combing or paint; the panels from Fittleworth (in the entrance lobby to Crawley hall) and the
wall paintings in the house extension from Reigate are good examples of this.
For interiors, lime plaster was not the only plaster available, gipsum, franco plaster or plaster de parrys
was mentioned in building accounts as early as the mid 13th century, though this was confined to higher status
buildings. From the mid 18th century gypsum plaster became more common and was, by the 19th century, widely used.
From the late 18th century until the mid 19 th century stucco, a very fine exterior finish of lime render with brick
or stone dust (and later, Portland cement), became very popular in towns and for substantial country houses, where it
was usually applied direct to brick work. This effect filtered down to lower status dwellings such as Whittakers
Cottages, built c.1846, where the render is applied onto lath nailed to the light timber frame and lined to imitate stone
blocks or ashlar. Cement based renders were introduced from the beginning of the 20th century and gradually replaced
lime, though as with mortars, lime was often retained as a minor ingredient.

16

Whittakers Cottages with Interior detail showing timber frame, render and lath.
Limewash
Limewash or whitewash is made by either adding enough water when slaking quicklime to produce the
required thin milk consistency or by adding water to lime putty. Additives such as tallow, linseed oil or casein (in the
form of skimmed milk) were added to improve water resistance, the tallow being added at the slaking stage so that it
would melt. Limewash was used extensively, on wattle and daub and other earthern building materials such as cob, on
lime renders or plasters, and on stone buildings. The Keep of Tower of London was known as the White Tower due to
its brilliant whitewash and in 1255, at Guildford building accounts
record that the hall, two royal chapels and other buildings were
whitewashed inside and out. However, as mentioned previously
there are also references to the purchase of chalk dust and size
derived from leather for whitening walls so it is not always
possible to tell if building accounts that write of wasshyng refer
to this or lime. Limewash, applied in three or more layers, dries
to a brilliant white as evidenced by the Museum buildings but
pigments such as red or yellow ochre could be added. Images
of London buildings with brightly coloured exteriors panels used
to be dismissed as fantasy but with more examples being
identified, by visual or scientific means, there is growing
evidence that this it may not have been artistic caprice. Timbers
could be painted too, North Crays timbers carried a residue of
red ochre (and size), and the timbers in the picture of the White
Tower show red and blue tones. Limewash was also used to
scrub and cleanse in kitchens, the slightly abrasive quality
smoothing the wood, the mildly antiseptic and antibacterial
properties cleansing thesurfaces.
3. Agriculture
Lime and limestone are used in agriculture to neutralize the acidity of the soil and to promote effective use
of added fertilizers. Crushed limestone, dolomite, chalk, etc. are preferred as they are slower acting than lime and
therefore last longer.
Other uses are:
- water purification,
- sugar refining,
- tanning,
- neutralizing acid mine water,
- oil well drilling,
- wire drawing,
- paper and pulp production,
- sewage treatment,
- metallurgical processing,
- petroleum refining,
- calcium silicate brick production,
- paints production

17

4. Why Use of Lime

Lime Allows Building to Breathe
In the search by architects and conservators for building materials sympathetic to traditional construction, lime
was found to be one of the most important. One of the reasons lime binders are promoted by the Society for
Protection of Ancient Buildings for repair is because they are vapour permeable and allow buildings to breath.
This reduces the risk trapped moisture and consequent damage to the building fabric.
Lime Provides A Comfortable Environment
Porous and open textured material such as lime plasters, help to stabilize the internal humidity of a building by
absorbing and releasing moisture. This makes for more comfortable environment and reduces surface
condensation and mould growth.
The Use Of Lime Has Ecological Benefits
-Lime has less embodied energy than cement.
-Free lime absorbs carbon dioxide in the setting process of carbonation.
-It is possible to produce lime on small scale.
-The gentle binding properties of lime enable full re-use of other materials
-A very low proportion of quicklime will stabilize clay soils.
-Small quantities of lime can protect otherwise vulnerable, very slow energy materials such as earth construction
and straw bales.
Lime Binds Gently with Early Adhesion
The fine particle size of lime, far smaller than cement, is linked to the root meaning of of the word lime, which is
sticky material.Due to the fine particle size. lime mixes penetrate minute voids in the background more deeply
than other materials. They bind gently and the stickness gives good adhesion to other surfaces
Lime Mortar Can Protect Adjacent Materials
Lime mortars with a high free lime content are porous and permeable. These
characteristics allow lime mortars to protect adjacent materials by handling moisture movements through the
building fabric and protecting them from harmful salts. Adjacent materials frequently affected this way include
timber and iron as well as stone and brick masonry.
Lime Renders Can Assist Drying Out By Evaporation
Dense and impermeable renders can trap moisture within the building fabric. Trapped moisture is often the agent
for various decay mechanisms. Dense renders used in conjunction with softer materials or on weaker
backgrounds can cause serious problems by creating local stresses. High calcium lime renders allow evaporation
and reduce the risk of trapped moisture and decay. In simple terms, the greater the extent of pure lime and
permeability the better this is for the building. This needs to be balanced with durability, however, and some
reduction in permeability may be necessary to obtain adequate weathering qualities, hence the dvantage of feebly
hydraulic limes for external use.
Lime Mixes Have Good Workability
The ability of a mortar or plaster to remain smooth and mouldable, even against the suction it may experience
from porous building materials, is termed workability. Good workability greatly assists good workmanship, helping
to achieve full joints with good bonding to the other materials. This is what makes lime based mixes such a
pleasure to use. The workability provided by the lime allows the inclusion of widely graded and sharp aggregates
in the mix. These enhance both the performance and the aesthetic of the finished work.
Lime Binders Can Be Durable And Have Stood The Test Of Time
When used carefully, lime is exceptionally durable. Caesar's Tower at Warwick Castle has stood the test of time
for over 600 years, and many cathedrals have stood longer. An outstanding example is the Pantheon Temple in
Rome which has a lime concrete dome spanning over 43 meters (142 feet). This has survived for nearly 2000
years.
Lime Finishes Are Beatiful
The double refraction of light through calcite crystals give a unique aesthetic combinig a soft texture with a lustre
that has a liveliness and delight of its own. The graceful softness apparent in lime based materials is a visual
indicationof their intrinsic permeability, workability and soft binding properties. They can rapidly develop a rich
patina which has a glowing translucent quality.
Lime Contributes To A Healthy Environment
Lime is a caustic and has been extensively used, often in the form of limewash, for its disinfectant qualities. Lime
is also use for water purification. Lime mortars, plasters, renders and limewash have been used to create hygienic
surfaces and improve comfort conditions within buildings for thousand of years.
Self Healing
The nature of ground conditions and the elements are such that all buildings are subject to varying degrees of
movement over time. When buildings made with lime are subject to small movements they are more likely to
develop many fine cracks than the individual large cracks which occur in stiffer cement-bound buildings. Water
penetration can dissolve the 'free' lime and transport it. As the water evaporates this lime is deposited and begins
to heal the cracks. The process is called autogenous, or self healing.
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 Free Lime Encourages the Growth of Calcite Crystals

Calcite crystals are a different shape to those formed by the more complex compounds in hydraulic limes and
cements. The crystals form in voids in lime rich environments. The growth of calcite crystals adds strength over
time and generally provides a more open and permeable material than the denser eminently hydraulic and OPC
mixes with little or no free lime.
Local Limes Enhance Regional Identity and Diversity
The diversity of limestone types provides variety and local distinctiveness. Different limes will vary in colour,
texture and setting properties. Local limes have a regional identity, they give a sense of place and provide a
continuous link with the local aesthetic. Local colour is the obvious example in respect of limewashes.
Disfiguring By Cement Can Be Avoided By The Use of Lime
On site the temptation to use quick and easy solutions for short term gain can lead to long term problems. The
attraction of using excess cement to be 'safe' is understandable if not desirable. The fact that it is plentiful,
inexpensive and readily available adds to the problem. There is a high probability that over-strong and dense
mixes that are not fit for purpose will be used in excess. The physical damage and unsightly aesthetic that results
from this can be avoided by the use of lime.
Indefinite Shelf Life
Non-hydraulic limes have an indefinite shelf life when stored without access to air, usually as a putty under water
or in sealed containers. In fact the quality of the putty improves the longer it is stored.

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1. Lime Production

Manufacture of Calcium Oxide (Quicklime)

Quicklime is produced in refractory-lined kilns. Many designs are used, but the most common are based on
the Vertical Shaft Kiln. The kiln is made of steel, lined with refractory bricks. The limestone is fed in from the top and
air is either sucked by fans or pushed by roots type blowers, through the kiln from the bottom (counter flow). The fuel
is fed through the sides of the kiln, using about 8-10 lances inserted around the kiln.
The lime kiln consists of three principal zones:
In the preheating zone, the heat in the combustion products, including carbon dioxide from the dissociation of
limestone, is used to preheat the limestone to 1200 K.
In the burning zone the limestone is decomposed to quicklime at gas temperatures of 1500 K, a process
known as calcining.
In the cooling zone, the heat in the quicklime leaving the burning zone is used to preheat the air required for
combustion to 600-750 K.
The fuels used vary, depending on what is available. Many kilns use natural gas but in others oil is pumped
in. In others, solids, such as finely powdered coal is pressurized and pumped in so that it acts as a fluid.
If there is not enough air to complete combustion of the fuel, more is fed in directly to the burning zone.
The Vertical Shaft Kiln

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The Parallel Flow Regenerative (PFR) Lime Kiln

Many recently introduced kilns have two parallel units. They are known as two-shaft kilns. In the two-shaft
kiln, known as the Parallel Flow Regenerative (PFR) lime kiln, the air and combustion gases travel parallel to the
limestone. The fuel is injected just above the burning zone and the limestone absorbs most of the heat released by
the fuel and so the temperature of the burning zone can be reduced to 1400 K, the temperature of the
decomposition of limestone.
In the diagram, the left-hand shaft is described as in burning mode. The exhaust gases cross over into the
right-hand shaft, which is said to be in non-burning mode. These hot gases travel up in counterflow to the stone,
heating it up ready for the right-hand shaft to become the burning shaft and the left-hand shaft becomes nonburning. Each shaft cycles through the burning and non-burning mode about every 10 minutes. There is a large
reduction in the fuel used by the two-shaft kiln compared to the single shaft kiln. Shaft kilns have capacities for
producing up to 800 tonnes of lime per day. Quicklime is generally sold either as granules or as a finely ground
powder.

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23

1. What is Limestone
Limestone is composed of sedimentary rock, it is partially soluble in water and weak acid solutions.
Depending on how it formed, the natural state of limestone can be crystalline, granular or massive. It is composed
mostly of calcite and aragonite, which are crystal forms of calcium carbonate. Most limestone comes from skeletal
fragments of prehistoric marine life, such as coral, and often contains varying amounts of clay, sand, silica or silt.
About 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rock on Earth is Limestone.
Varieties of Limestone
There are many different names used for limestone. These names are based upon how the rock formed, its
appearance or its composition and other factors. Here are some of the more commonly used.
Chalk: A soft limestone with a very fine texture that is usually white or light gray in color. It is formed mainly from
the calcareous shell remains of microscopic marine organisms such as foraminifers or the calcareous remains
from
numerous
types
of
marine
algae.
Coquina: A poorly-cemented limestone that is composed mainly of broken shell debris. It often forms on beaches
where
wave
action
segregates
shell
fragments
of
similar
size.
Fossiliferous Limestone: A limestone that contains obvious and abundant fossils. These are normally shell and
skeletal
fossils
of
the
organisms
that
produced
the
limestone.
Lithographic Limestone: A dense limestone with a very fine and very uniform grain size that occurs in thin beds
that separate easily to form a very smooth surface. In the late 1700's a printing process (lithography) was
developed to reproduce images by drawing them on the stone with an oil-based ink and then using that stone to
press
multiple
copies
of
the
image.
Oolitic Limestone: A limestone composed mainly of calcium carbonate "oolites", small spheres formed by the
concentric precipitation of calcium carbonate on a sand grain or shell fragment.
Travertine: A limestone that forms by evaporative precipitation, often in a cave, to produce formations such as
stalactites,
stalagmites
and
flowstone.
Tufa: A limestone produced by precipitation of calcium-laden waters at a hot spring, lake shore or other location.

2. Chemical Composition
Limestone is made up of varying proportions of the following chemicals with calcium and magnesium
carbonate being the two major components.
Calcium carbonate
CaCO3
Magnesium carbonate
MgCO3
Silica
SiO2
Alumina
Al2O3
Iron oxide
Fe2O3
Sulphate
Phosphorus
Potash
Soda

SO3
P2O5
K2O
Na2O

For a general purpose lime, a limestone with an SiO2 content of up to 3.5 % and Al2O3 content of up to 2.5 %
may be used where purer stone is not available, whereas lime for building or road construction purposes may have an
SiO2 content of up to 10% (perhaps slightly more) and an Al2O3 content of 5 %. An Al2O3 proportion of greater than 5%
will produce a semi-hydraulic or hydraulic lime.

3. Physical Characteristics
The colour of most limestones is varying shades of grey and tan. The greyness is caused by the presence of
carbonaceous impurities-and the tan by the presence of iron. It has been found that all limestones are crystalline but
with varying crystal sizes, unit formity, and crystal arrangement. This results in stone with a corresponding variance in
density and hardness. For lime production purposes there are two factors related to limestones crystallinity and crystal
structure which are of specifc interest:
Density or porosity is determined as the percentage of pore space in the stone's total volume. It ranges from 0.3%
- 12%. At the lower end are the dense types (marble), and at the upper the more porous (chalk). Generally, the finer
the crystal size, the higher the porosity but there are anomalies which suggest that each case be considered
separately. A high porosity makes for a relatively faster rate of calcination and a more reactive quicklime.
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Limestone varies in hardness from between 2 and 4 on Moh's scale with dolomitic lime being slightly harder than
the high calcium varieties. Limestone is in most cases soft enough to be scratched with a knife. Marbles and
travertines have the highest compressive strength whilst chalk has the lowest.
Due to the variance in porosity, the bulk densities of various limestones range from 2000 kg/m 3 for the more porous to
2800 kg/m3 for the most dense. The specific gravities of limestones range from 2.65-2.75 for high calcium limestones
and 2.75-2.9 for dolomitic limestones. Chalk has a specific gravity of between 1.4 and 2.

4. Limestone in the Industry and Environment

Many lakes have become too acidic because of aerial pollution (acid rain), for example in the US, Scandinavia and
Scotland. The lakes are sprayed with very finely powdered calcium carbonate. Another effective way to treat this
problem is to apply the powdered limestone to unplanted areas near to the sources of the streams leading to the
lakes.
Powdered limestone is being sprayed over a lake near Hemsj, in Southern Sweden

Limestone and the various forms of lime are used in large quantities to clean up the environment, by
neutralising acids. For example, limestone and quicklime are used to remove sulfur dioxide produced in the burning of
coal in power stations. Even clean coal can contain about 1% sulfur.
Uses of Limestone

5. Production of Limestone
Annual production of limestone is approximately 1 billion tonnes of its two principal ores, limestone and
dolomite, are mined annually in the US. Given the relative amounts of lime that is used in different countries, an
estimate of worldwide mining of calcium carbonate is 15 billion tonnes a year.
Annual production of lime (calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide)
World
United States

348 million tonnes

19 million tonnes
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Europe
China
Rest of Asia

27 million tonnes
220 million tonnes
32 million tonnes

6. Structures Made of Limestone

The outside cover of the Great Pyramid of Giza is entirely made of limestone

Kingston, Canada is nicknamed The Limestone City because so many buildings are constructed from
limestone.

The Empire State Building (USA)

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 The Pentagon (USA)

The Palace of Westminster (UK)

The London Bridge (UK)

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