Chapter 23: Respiratory System

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Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the functions of the respiratory system.
2. Describe the structure and function of each of the following: nasal cavity,
pharynx, larynx, epiglottis, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, alveolus,
pleura
3. Define ventilation.
4. Explain how changes in alveolar volume cause air to move into and out of
the lungs.
5. Name two things that make the lungs recoil.
6. Describe the alveolar pressure changes and air movements associated
with inspiration and expiration.
7. Define tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve
volume, vital capacity, and residual volume.
8. According to Daltons law, what is the partial pressure of a gas?
9. According to Henrys law, how does the partial pressure and solubility of a
gas affect its concentration in a liquid?
10. Describe the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the
respiratory membrane and tissue capillaries.
11. Describe how oxygen is transported in the blood.
12. Describe how carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.
13. Explain how pH, carbon dioxide levels, and oxygen levels affect
respiratory rate.
Respiration:

the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cells of the body and the
atmosphere

included four processes:

1.

ventilation: movement of air into and out of the lungs

2.

external respiration: gas exchange between air in lungs and blood

3.

the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide int the blood

4.

internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and tissues

Functions:

Regulation of blood pH: supply body with oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide

Production of chemical mediators

Voice production

Olfaction: smell

Protection

Anatomy of the Respiratory System

upper respiratory tract: includes the external nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated
structures
lower respiratory tract: includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

Nose

1.

external nose: visible structure that forms a prominent feature of the face

2.

nasal cavity: extends form the nares to the choanae; entrance to respiratory
system
a. lined by mucus membrane
b. nares: nostrils external openings of the nasal cavity
c. choanae: openings into the pharynx
d. has five functions
i. passageway for air
ii. cleans air
iii. humidifies and warms air
iv. contains olfactory organs
v. helps determine voice sound

Pharynx

1.

Common opening for respiratory and digestive system

2.

leads to larynx and esophagus

3.

divided into three regions

a. nasopharynx: extends from internal nares to uvula; auditory tubes open into this
area; lined with mucous membrane
b. oropharynx: extends from uvula to epiglottis
c. laryngopharynx: extend from tip of epiglottis to opening sof the larynx and
esophagus

Larynx: voice box

1. attached to hyoid bone superiorly and continuous with trachea

2. three important functions:
a. provide open passageway for air movement

b. prevents swallowed materials from entering the lower respiratory tract and
regulates the passage of air into and out of the lower respiratory tract-act as
switching channel to route air and food
c. voice production
d. traps debris in air
3.

Framework:

consists of 9 cartilage connected by muscle and ligaments (6 paired small and 3

are unpaired large)

unpaired cartilages:
a. thyroid cartilage: Adam's apple, largest of the unpaired
b. cricoid cartilage: anchors larynx to trachea, forms base of larynx on which other
cartilages rest, most inferior
c. epiglottic: flap that covers the glottis during swallowing

three pairs of small cartilage that forms walls of larynx

paired cartilages:
a. arytenoid cartilage:
b. corniculate cartilage:
c. cuneiform cartilage:

Two pairs of horizontal mucousal folds stretch across larynx

a. vocal or true vocal cords: produce sound; inferior folds
b. vestibular or false vocal cords: superior folds
a. prevents objects form entering larynx

Trachea: windpipe

membranous tube attached to larynx

reinforced by 15-20 C-shaped cartilage

provide airway

branch to form primary bronchi

Bronchi:
tracheobronchial tree: the trachea divides to form main bronchi, which in turn divide to
form smaller and smaller bronchi, leading eventually to many small tubes and sacs
1.

trachea divides into left and right primary bronchi

2.

insert into lungs

3.

smaller branches are called bronchioles (lack cartilage)

4.

branch to form smaller and smaller tubes

Lungs

occupy entire thoracic cavity

pleura
each lung is located in a pleural cavity
pleural cavity is lined with parietal pleura
(pleura: serous membrane of the pleural cavity)
visceral pleura covers each lung
pleural fluid fills cavity and provides lubrication

right lung has 3 lobes and left lung has 2 lobes

primary bronchi divide into smaller secondary bronchi which in turn divide (23
orders of branching)
smaller branches are called bronchioles
smallest division include the terminal bronchioles which branch to form
respiratory bronchioles (attached to alveoli)

Alveoli: air sacs

small, air-filled chambers where gas exchange between the air and blood takes
place
walls of alveoli composed of a single layer of squamous epithelium
elastic fibers are wrapped around the alveolus for support (supported by elastin
fibers)
allow alveoli to expand and recoil

alveoli are densely covered by pulmonary capillaries

type II pneumocytes: cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which makes it easier
for alveoli to expand during inspiration, and helps reduce surface tension of the alveoli
and prevents them from collapsing

phagocytes ingest dust and microorganisms that may reach alveoli (remove
debris)

Respiratory Membrane

formed by the alveolar wall and capillary wall

where gas exchange between air and blood takes place

very thin layer->to facilitate the diffusion of gases

Respiration: Two processes

External respiration: all processes involved in exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the interstitial fluids and external environment
Internal respiration: gas exchange between the interstitial fluids and cytoplasm of
individual cells
Four aspects of external respiration:
1. Pulmonary ventilation: movement of air into body
2. Gas exchange at respiratory membrane
3. Storage and transport of gases in blood
4. Exchange of gases between blood and interstitial fluids
Pulmonary ventilation

physical movement of air into and out of the respiratory tract

maintains and ensures adequate alveolar ventilation

physical laws govern movement of air: pressure differences

difference between intrapulmonary pressure and atmospheric pressure determines
the direction of air flow
air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of lower pressure

in pulmonary ventilation, two pressures of interest:

a. atmospheric (barometric) air pressure: external environment
b. intra-pulmonary (alveolar) pressure: inside respiratory tract
c. P(B) - P(alv) = air movement

change pressure difference between atmospheric and intrapulmonary pressures

by changing the volume of pleural cavities or air movement
1. end of expiration
2. during inspiration
3. end of inspiration
4. during expiration

lung recoil

lung recoil: the tendency for the lungs to decrease in size as they are stretched,
similar to the way a rubber band will snap back to its original size when released
expanded alveoli decrease in size for 2 reasons:
1. elastic recoil caused by the elastic fibers in the alveolar walls
2. surface tension of the film of fluid that lines the alveoli

Boyle's Law:

pressure is inversely proportional to volume, thus, increase volume, decrease

pressure
P=k/V

P: gas pressure
k: constant for a given temp.
V: volume of the container
PRESSURE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO VOLUME

as volume increases-pressure decreases

as volume decreases-pressure increases

Change volume through contraction and relaxation of muscles of the thoracic

cavity: diaphragm and external intercostals
change the volume of the pleural cavity to determine direction of air flow
contractions of the diaphragm increases the volume of the pleural cavities
FIG. 23.14:

Respiratory Cycle: inspiration + expiration

inspiration/inhalation:
-muscles of thorax (diaphram and intercostals) contract
-thoracic volume increases causing the lungs to expand
-intrapulmonary pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure
-air moves into the lungs
expiration/exhalation:
-muscles relax
-thoracic volume decreases causing lung volume to decrease
-intrapulmonary pressure increase above atmospheric pressure
-air moves out of lungs
alveolar pressure changes during inspiration and expiration
1.

the end of expiration: the intra-alveolar pressure [P(alv)] is equal to barometric

air pressure [P(B)] and there is no air movement

2.

during inspiration: increased thoracic volume results in increased alveolar

volume and decreased intra-alveolar pressure. barometric air pressure is greater than
intra-alveolar pressure, and air moves into the lungs

3.

the end of inspiration: intra-alveolar pressure is equal to varometric air pressure

and there is no air movement

4.

during expiration: decreased thoracic volume results in decreased alveolar

volume and increased intra-alveolar pressure. intra-alveolar pressure is greater than
barometric air pressure, and air moves out of the lungs

Respiratory Volumes
respiratory cycle: inspiration + expiration
spirometry: the process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the resp.
system
spirometer: device used to measure pulmonary volumes
Four Pulmonary Volumes:
1.

Tidal Volume: (TV) volume of air moved into and out of respiratory tract in one
respiratory cycle; during eupnea (quiet breathing)

2.

Expiratory Reserve Volume: (ERV) maximum volume of air forced out of

respiratory tract after a normal exhalation

3.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume: (IRV) maximum volume of air forceably inhaled

after a normal inspiration

4.

Residual Volume: (RV) volume of air in lungs after forced exhalation

Respiratory Capacities
Pulmonary capacities: sum of two or more pulmonary volumes
Four Pulmonary Capacities:
1.

Inspiratory capacity: the tidal volume + the inspiratory reserve volume

2.

functional residual capacity: expiratory reserve volume + the residual volume

3.

Vital Capacity: (VC) maximum volume of air that can be moved into and out of
the lungs in one respiratory cycle; VC=TV+ERV+IRV
Total Lung Capacity: = VC + RV

4.

the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volume
and the residual volume
Respiratory Rate: number of breaths per minute

Respiratory Minute Volume: volume of air moved each minute; TV x respiratory

rate

Gas exchange in the body

determined by pressure differences

Partial Pressure

Dalton's law: total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the
pressures exerted independently by each gas in the mixture

Partial Pressure: Pressure exerted by each gas; it is proportional to it's percentage

in the total gas mixture

Partial Pressure Calculation:

air consists of:
70% nitrogen
20% oxygen
9% carbon dioxide
at sea level air pressure is 760 mmHg
the partial pressure of oxygen is equal to 20% of the total pressure or:
760mmHg x 20%=152 mmHg

Diffusion of gases into and out of liquids

Henry's law:
describes the concentration of a gas at equilibrium in a liquid
when a gas is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in the liquid in
proportion to it's partial pressure
concentration of dissolved gas=pressure of gas x solubility coefficient

Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood
depends on partial pressure differences: gas will move from areas of high
pressure to areas of lower pressure

FIGURE 23.16:

Gas Transport
A. Oxygen transport
1. only 3% of oxygen in blood is dissolved gas, rest (97%) is bound to hemoglobin
2. binding of oxygen to hemoglobin shows cooperativity, after binding of first
oxygen to first heme, subsequent binding is easier; allows for rapid uptake of
oxygen at lungs
B.

Carbon dioxide transport

CO2 moves from tissues->pulmonary capillaries->alveoli

1. 7% transported as free CO2 within plasma
2. 23% bound to hemoglobin (globin chain)

3. 70% transported as bicarbonate ion

Neural regulation of respiratory rate
A. Medulla and pons are involved in regulating respiration
B. Chemical factors that affect breathing rate:

Partial pressure of carbon dioxide: most powerful stimulant; increases in carbon

dioxide in CNS will cause an increase in the breathing rate

Partial pressure of oxygen: affects PNS; substantial decrease in oxygen is needed

affect breathing rate

to

Effect of pH on Respiratory Rate

the respiratory system plays and important role in controlling pH because pH can
be altered by changes in carbon dioxide levels

if blood pH decreases: the respiratory center is stimulated so that CO2 is

eliminated and blood pH increases back to normal levels

if blood pH increases: resp. rate decreases and CO2 levels increase causing blood
pH to decrease back to normal levels

Effect of CO2 on Respiratory Rate

even a small increase in CO2 in the blood stream triggers a large increase in the
rate and depth of ventilation

hypocapnia: lower than normal level of CO2 in bloodstream; results in periods

when resp. movements are reduced or do not occur at all

hypercapnia: a greater than normal level of CO2 in bloodstream

Effect of O2 on Respiratory Rate

hypoxia: a decrease in oxygen below its normal values