Physical Electronics and Semiconductors B39MB1

Introduction/Revision of Some Fundamental Concepts

Kinetic Energy
It can be shown that kinetic energy

1
mv 2 where m is mass and v is velocity.
2

Potential Energy
A body has potential energy by virtue of its position. The reference level of potential energy
is arbitrary; only differences in potential energy at two different levels have physical
significance.
Velocity
The average velocity of a particle during a specified time interval is a vector quantity defined
as the displacement of the particle during that time interval divided by the time interval.
Acceleration
In most cases, the velocity of a moving body changes as the motion proceeds and the body is
said to move with accelerated motion or to have an acceleration.
The average acceleration of a particle during a specified time interval is a vector quantity
defined as the change in velocity of the particle during the time interval divided by the time
interval.
Motion in Circle at Constant Speed
A particle moving in a circle of radius r at constant speed v has acceleration a which at each
v2
instant is directed towards the centre of the circle and has magnitude
. This is called the
r
centripetal (centre seeking) acceleration. It is this acceleration that accomplishes the
continuous turning of the velocity vector in direction, without change of speed.
Newtons Principles
From the second principle we conclude that F ma . For motion in a circle as discussed in
v2
the previous section, the acceleration is given by
. If the particle has mass m, it must be
r
acted upon by a force F ma if it is to have this acceleration. This force is called the
centripetal force and its magnitude is
F

mv 2
r

Since the centripetal acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle, the centripetal
force is also directed towards the centre of the circle.
Principle of Universal Gravitation
1

Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other with a gravitational force. The
equation expressing this relation for a given pair of particles of masses m 1 and m2 is
mm
F G 1 2 2 where r is the distance between the two particles and G is a fixed
r
proportionality constant called the gravitation constant.
The value of G is
11
2
2
6.670 10 N.m / Kg
Coulombs Principle
The electric force between two point charges is proportional to the magnitude of each of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges
QQ
F 2 1 2 where 0 is a dimensional constant known as the permittivity of free space,
r 4 0
0

8.85 10

12

C2
N.m 2

Electric Field
An electric field is said to exist at a point if a force of electrical origin is exerted on a charged
body placed at the point. The magnitude of the field at any point, represented by E, is
defined as the quotient obtained when the force F on a test charge placed at the point, is
divided by the quantity of charge Q on the test charge.

F
F
or sometimes lower case
Q
q

In other words, the magnitude of an electric field is the force per unit charge.
Current
The rate at which charge is transported across a section of a wire, or

dq
, is called the current
dt

in the wire. Current is represented by the letter i (or I)

dq
dt

i nevA where n is the number of free electrons per unit volume, e the electron charge, v the
average velocity of the electrons and A the cross section of the wire. The current density in
the wire, represented by J, is defined as the ratio of the current to the cross-sectional area.
J

i
A

nev

The direction of the current is in the opposite direction to the direction of motion of the
electrons.
Force on a Moving Charge
2

A positive charge q, moving with velocity v perpendicular to the direction of a uniform

magnetic field, B, is found to experience a force F in a direction as given by the left-hand
rule. First finger points in the direction of the field, second finger in the direction of speed or
velocity. The thumb then points in the direction of the Thrust or force.

F Bqv
Clearly, the force on electrons having negative charge is in the opposite direction to the force
on positive charges.
Electron Volt
The electron volt is a very small slang unit of energy and is equal to 1.6 10 19 Joules. It is
the energy gained by an electron in being accelerated through 1 volt. Clearly, the gain in
energy in being accelerated through 100 volts is 100 electron volts
100 1.6 10 19 1.6 10 17 Joules, etc. This energy gain manifests itself as an increase in
1
kinetic energy, i.e. eV
mv 2 where V is the accelerating potential.
2
Electromagnetic Radiation
The electromagnetic spectrum covers an extremely large frequency range. The energy of the
photons or quanta is given by E hf where h is Plancks constant equal to 6.63 10 34 J.s
and F is the frequency. Photons or quanta always travel at the velocity of light, c, which in
free space or vacuum can be taken to be 3 108 m / s . The relationship between c, f and the
wavelength, is c f . Note carefully, contrary to what is shown in programmes such as Star
Trek, particles of matter cannot travel at the velocity of light. As very high velocities are
achieved, an increase in mass starts to take place. In nuclear reactions and particle
accelerators, velocities for entitites such as electrons and protons can approach to within a
few per cent of those for light, but never actually reach it.
Useful Data

1 A or Angstrom is 10

10

m 10 8 cm 0.1nm

1 nanometre = 10 9 metres 1nm 10 A

1 micrometre = 10 6 metres 1 m 1000nm
Electron Charge = 1.6 x 10 19 Coulombs
Electron Mass = 9.1 x 10 31 kg
Velocity of Light is 3 x 10 8 m / sec
Mass of electron is 9.1 x 10 31 kg
Plancks Constant is 6.63 x 10

34

J.s

Wave Particle Duality

Photoelectric Effect
Pre 1900 Classical Theories
Light
This was thought of as purely a wave phenomenon and its properties could be
explained by Maxwell type of equations.

Electrons and Nuclei

Distinct particles since they possess charge and mass and properties could be
explained by Newtonian Mechanics.
Post 1900 - Wave Mechanical, Quantum Mechanical Theories
Phenomena such as black body radiation and photoelectric effect could not be
explained satisfactorily by classical theory.
Wave particle duality is fundamental to understanding modern physical electronics.

The Photoelectric Effect - First observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887.

If light of sufficiently short wavelength impinges on the surface of certain solids,
(usually metals), then it is possible for electrons to be emitted from the solid. This is
called the Photoelectric Effect. The effect may be demonstrated by using an
apparatus of the type shown in the diagram.
Incident light
(frequency f)

electrons
collector
anode

grid

vacuum envelope
photocurrent

photocathode

microammeter

Vg

Va

A photoelectric experiment.

Light of frequency f, illuminates a cold cathode situated inside a vacuum tube. If

electrons are emitted, then provided they have sufficient energy to overcome the
retarding force field set up by voltage Vg between grid and cathode, they will be
swept to the anode and a current registered on the microammeter in series with it.

A diagram illustrating the emission of electrons from a metal plate, requiring energy gained
from an incoming photon to be more than the work function of the material.

Experimental Results
Two points to note.
Unless the frequency of the incident light is greater than some critical value f0, which
is dependant on the cathode material, no emission is observed, no matter how
intense the light.

collector
photocurrent

For constant light frequency and provided f is greater than f 0, the photocurrent can
be measured as a function of grid voltage Vg and of light intensity keeping collector
voltage, constant to give typical collector current data of the form shown.

high light intensity

low light intensity

-V0
retarding

Grid voltage,

Vg

accelerating

Variation of photocurrent with grid voltage in the photoelectric experiment.

No matter what the intensity of the light, there is a constant retarding voltage, in this
case, V0 (stopping potential) which entirely inhibits emission. This implies that the
maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons is constant and independent of the
intensity of the incident light. If we plot a graph of stopping potential against incident

(V0)

Stopping Potential

light frequency, a straight line is produced with a slope of

h
.
e

Constant
Slope

Incident Light Frequency

(f)

Classical Theory Explanation

According to the Classical Theory electrons can gain sufficient energy to be emitted
if the light is bright enough, ie., if the light is of sufficient intensity.

Contradictions to Classical Theory

Electrons are emitted instantaneously, ~ 10
enough.

14

s , providing the frequency is high

There is no explanation for the threshold frequency.

The maximum energy of emitted photoelectrons is not dependent on the intensity of
the incoming radiation.

Quantum Explanation of Einstein 1905

Each photon has an energy equal to hf and this is the total energy used in the
interaction. Some of the energy is used to overcome the binding forces and the
remainder is converted to kinetic energy of the emitted electron.
is known as the
work function of the material.
K.E. of emitted electron = photon energy work function

1
mv 2
2

hf

eV0

The limiting case when the photon energy is equal to the work function and an
electron is just emitted with zero kinetic energy.
Then hf0

f0

, f0 is the critical frequency or threshold frequency.

The wave theory of light and the quantum theory of light complement each other.

Quantum Theory - Individual Events

Wave Theory - Statistical average of a large number of events.
1 electron volt (eV) = 1.6 X 10-19 Joules and is the energy gained by an electron in
going through a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 Watt

1 Amp

1 Joule per sec

1 Coulomb per sec
10-10m

known as an Angstrom Unit

The photoelectric yield is the number of electrons given off or emitted by a single
photon or quantum.
Example 1.
When ultraviolet light of wavelength 300 nm falls on a zinc surface, a retarding
potential of 0.5 V must be applied to keep the most energetic electrons from
reaching the collector. Determine the work function, the wavelength of the
photoelectric threshold and the retarding potential required for light of 200 nm
wavelength.
Solution
Since 0.5 volts is required to stop the most energetic electrons, this is equal to the
energy required in accelerating an electron through a potential difference of 0.5 volts
i.e., 0.5 electron volts (eV). The frequency f can be obtained from
c

f ;f

3 10 8
300 10

1 1015 Hz
34

Energy of a photon, E = hf = 6.63 x 10

1 x 1015
-19
= 6.63 x 10 Joules

19

6.63 10

1
mv 2
2

hf

1
2
mv max
2
hf
E

4.14 eV

19

1.6 10

0.5 volts

1
2
mv max
2

0.5 eV

4.14 eV 0.5 eV

3.64 eV

hf

3.64 1.6 19
6.63 10

19

34

5.824 10 19
6.63 10 34

hf

1.6 10

34

6.63 10

c f ; f

34

6.63 10

9.945 10

19

8.78 1014 HZ

200 nm wavelength,
E

5.824 10

3 108
200 10

1.5 1015

1.5 1015 Hz

9.945 10

19

Joules

19

6.22 eV

19

6.22 3.64

2.58 eV

Thus a retarding potential of 2.58 volts would be needed for the light of 200 nm
wavelength.
Example 2
The threshold wavelength to stop all emission from a photoelectric surface is
600 nm. Light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on the surface. Determine:
(a)

the work function of the material

(b)

the maximum velocity of the emitted electrons

Solution
At the threshold condition, hf0

3 10 8
600 10

6.63 10

34

3.315 10

19

and c

5 1014 Hz

5 1014

Joules

3.315 10 19
1.6 10 19

1
mv 2
2
for

2.07 eV electron volts

h
6 1014 Hz

500 nm; f

1
mv 2
2

6.63 10

1
mv 2
2

39.78 10

20

1
mv 2
2

0.663 10

19

mv 2

1.326 10

1.326 10

v2

1.457 1011

6 1014

3.315 10

3.315 10

19

Joules

19

19

v2

9.1 10

34

31

3.817 10 5 m / s

19