State Space Lecture

ME 381
Mechanical and
Aerospace Control
Systems
Dr. Robert G. Landers
State Space Representation
Definitions
The dynamic systems state is a set of physical quantities, the

specification of which (in the absence of external excitation)
completely determines the systems temporal evolution.
Note that the specific physical quantities that define the systems
state are not unique, although their number (called the system order)
is unique.
In many situations there is an obvious choice of the state variables to
define the system, but there are also many cases in which the choice
of state variables is by no means obvious.
Definitions
In order to obtain a solution to a system of ordinary differential

equations it is necessary to specify a set of initial conditions.
The number of initial conditions that must be specified is equal to the
system order.
Since only one initial condition is needed to specify the solution of a
firstorder equation, the number of firstorder differential equations in
the mathematical model is equal to the system order. The dynamic
variables that appear in the system of firstorder equations are called
the state variables.
State (Matrix) Equation

The set of firstorder linear differential equations may be written in
the form
x t
A t x t
B t u t
x(t) is an k x 1 column vector (state vector)

A(t) is an k x k matrix (plant matrix)
B(t) is an k x m matrix (input matrix)
u(t) is an m x 1 column vector (input vector)
The dot superscript denotes differentiation with respect to time.
Output Equation
The variables of interest (or measured variables) are
y t
C t x t
D t u t
y(t) is an p x 1 column vector (output vector)

C(t) is an p x k matrix (output matrix)
D(t) is an p x m matrix (feedforward matrix)
Typically D(t) = 0
If A(t), B(t), C(t), and D(t) are not functions of time, the notation (t) is
dropped and the system is called Linear Time Invariant (LTI)
Note the output equation is a static equation
Example 1
Convert the differential equation below into statespace format where

y(t) is the measured variable.
y t
6
y t
11y t
6y t
6u t
Example 1
Select the state variables as follows
x1 t
y t
x2 t
y t
x3 t
y t
The state variable differential equations are
x1 t
x2 t
x2 t
x3 t
x3 t
6 x1 t
11x2 t
6 x3 t
6u t
Example 1
The state and output equations are
x1 t
x2 t
x3 t
y t
0
0
1
0
0
1
x1 t
x2 t
0
0 u t
11
x3 t
x1 t
1 0 0 x2 t
x3 t
This system has one input and one output and is known as a Single
Input SingleOutput (SISO) system
1st Companion Form
Assume the transfer function has the following form
H s
Y s
U s
sk
a1s k
1
ak 1s ak
Transforming the transfer function into a differential equation
dk y t
dt k
d k 1y t
a1
dt k 1
ak 1 y t
ak y t
u t
The states are the output and its first, second, , kth1 derivative with
respect to time
x1 t
y t
x2 t
y t
xk t
d k 1y t
dt k 1
1st Companion Form
10
The first k1 first order differential equations are
x1 t
x2 t
x2 t
x3 t
xk
xk t
The last first order differential equation is derived from the original kth
order differential equation
xk t
a1 xk t
ak 1 x2 t
ak x1 t
u t
1st Companion Form
11
The state equation is
x1 t
x2 t
xk t
0
0
ak
1
0
ak
The output equation is
0
1
y t
a1
x1 t
x2 t
xk t
0
0
u t
x1 t
x2 t
1 0 0
xk t
0u t
1st Companion Form
12
Assume the transfer function has the following form
H s
b1s k 1 bk 1s bk
s k a1s k 1 ak 1s ak
Y s
Z s
where
Z s
U s
b1s k
sk
Y s Z s
Z s U s
bk 1s bk
1
a1s k
1
ak 1 s a k
The system Z(s)/U(s) is the same as before (i.e., the A and B matrices
are the same as before using Z as the output).
1st Companion Form
13
The states are defined as
x1 t
z t
x2 t
z t
xk t
d k 1z t
dt k 1
Transforming Y(s)/Z(s) into a differential equation, the output is
y t
d k 1z t
b1
dt k 1
bk 1 z t
bk z t
Writing the output in terms of the states
y t
b1xk t
bk 1x2 t
bk x1 t
1st Companion Form
14
The state equation is the same as before
x1 t
x2 t
xk t
0
0
ak
1
0
ak
0
1
y t
a1
bk
x1 t
x2 t
xk t
bk
0
0
u t
b1
x1 t
x2 t
xk t
0 u t
2nd Companion Form
15
Multiplying the transfer function by the characteristic polynomial
sk
a1s k
ak Y s
b0 s k b1s k
bk U s
Grouping terms in like powers of s
sk Y s
b0U s
sk
a1Y s
bU
s
1
akY s
bkU s
Dividing by sk and implicitly solving for Y(s)
Y s
b0U s
1
1
bU
s a1Y s
k bkU s akY s
1
s
s
Xk s
2nd Companion Form
16
Multiplying by s
sX k s
s Y s
b0U s
a1Y s
bU
s
1
1
1
b2U s a2Y s
k 1 bkU s akY s
s
s
Xk
Multiplying by s again
sX k
s2 Y s
b0U s
s Y s
a2Y s
b2U s
1
1
b3U s a3Y s
k 2 bkU s akY s
s
s
bU
s
1
Xk
Continuing
sX1 s
sk Y s
akY s
b0U s
bkU s
s Y s
ak X k s
bk 1U s
b0U s
bkU s
2nd Companion Form
17
The first order state equations are
x1 t
x2 t
ak xk t
x1 t
ak
b0u t
xk t
bk u t
b0u t
bk 1u t
xk
xk
xk t
xk
2
1
a2 xk t
a1 xk t
y t
b0u t
b0u t
b0u t
b2u t
b1u t
xk t
2nd Companion Form
18
x1 t
x2 t
xk 1 t
xk t
0 0 0
1 0 0
ak
ak 1
0 1
ak
0 0 1
y t
a1
x1 t
x2 t
bk
bk
ak b0
ak 1b0
xk 1 t
xk t
b2 a2b0
b1 a1b0
x1 t
x2 t
0 0 1
xk t
u t
b0 u t
Example 2
19
For the system given below, determine the first companion and
second companion forms.
d5y t
dt 5
12
y t
6
u t
66
y t
66
u t
206
y t
320u t
345 y t
802u t
234 y t
792u t
Example 2
20
The state equation for the first companion form is
x1 t
x2 t
x3 t
x1 t
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
x2 t
0
0 u t
x4 t
x5 t
234
345
206
66
12
x4 t
x5 t
x3 t
0
1
x1 t
The output
equation for the
first companion
form is
x2 t
y t
792 802 320 66 6 x3 t

x4 t
x5 t
0 u t
Example 2
21
The state equation for the second companion form is
x1 t
x2 t
x3 t
x4 t
x5 t
0 0 0 0
234
x1 t
792
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
345
206
x2 t
802
320 u t
0 0 1 0
66
0 0 0 1
12
x4 t
x5 t
x3 t
66
6
x1 t
The output
equation for the
second companion
form is
x2 t
y t
0 0 0 0 1 x3 t
x4 t
x5 t
0 u t
Partial Fraction Expansion
22
Partial Fraction Expansion (PFE) is a technique to represent complex

transfer functions by simpler transfer functions. A general transfer
function can be written as
H s
b1s k 1 bk 1s bk
s zk 1 s zk 2 s z2 s z1
K
s pk s pk 1 s p2 s p1
The quantities zi (i = 1,,k1) are known as the zeros and the

quantities pi (i = 1,,k) are known as the poles.
23
Assuming the poles are real and distinct, the transfer function can be
written as
H s
b1s k 1 bk 1s bk
c1
s
p1
ck 1
c2
s p2
s pk
ck
s pk
To determine the coefficients ci (i = 1,,k), compare this equation with

the original transfer function, multiple both transfer functions by the
denominator of the original transfer function, and equate like
coefficients in s.
Example 3
Determine the Partial Fraction Expansion of the following transfer
function
H s
s b
s s a
24
Example 3
25
Applying Partial Fraction Expansion, the transfer function is
H s
s b
s s a
c1
s
c2
s a
Multiplying both sides by s(s+a)
s b c1 s a
c2 s
Equating like coefficients
H s
b/a 1 b/a
s
s a
26
For a system having a pair of complex conjugate poles located at

j where j is the imaginary number (i.e., square root of 1), the transfer
function can be written as
H s
as b
j s
s2
as b
2
2 s
In the partial fraction expansion, every pair of complex conjugate

poles will be represented by
H s
s2
c1s c2
2
2 s
Example 4
27
Determine the Partial Fraction Expansion of the following transfer

function
H s
a
s s2 2 s
Example 4
28
H s
c1
s
a
s s2 2 s
Multiplying by the
denominator of H(s)
Equating like
coefficients in s
s2
a c1s 2 c1 2 s c1
2
a c1
H s
a
2
c1 2
a
The transfer
function is
c2 s c3
2
2 s
s2 2 s
c2 s 2 c3s
c3 0 c1 c2
2 a
2
2
2
2
29
The transfer function of a system with real repeated roots, where a(s)
is a general polynomial in s with order k1, can be written as
H s
a s
s b
c1
k
s b
c2
s b
ck
ck
s b
k 1
s b
Example 5
30
Determine the PFE of the following transfer function
H s
a
s s b
Example 5
31
H s
s s b
Multiplying by the
denominator of H(s)
Equating like
coefficients in s
The transfer
function is
c1
s
c3
c2
s b
s b
a c1 s b
a
H s
c1b 2
a / b2
s
c2 s s b
c1 2b c2b c3
a / b2
s b
a/b
s b
c3 s
c1 c2
Jordan Form Real Distinct Roots
32
A general transfer function is
H s
Y s
U s
b1s k 1 bk 1s bk
Applying Partial Fraction Expansion, assuming the system has real

distinct roots, the transfer function can be rewritten as
H s
r1
r2
s s1
s s2
rk
s sk
The individual first order state equations are
x1 t
s1 x1 t
u t
xk t
y t
sk xk t
r1x1 t
u t
rk xk t
Jordan Form Real Distinct Roots
33
x1 t
xk t
s1

x1 t
1
u t
0 sk
xk t
y t
r1 rk
x1 t
0 u t
xk t
The system eigenvalues are the diagonal elements of the matrix A.
Jordan Form Complex Conjugate Roots
34
The transfer function of a general second order system with complex

conjugate poles is
H s
Y s
U s
j
s
2 s 2
j
j
s2 2 s
The conceptual state space representation is
x1 t
x2 t
y t
j
0
j
x1 t
0
j
j
x1 t
x2 t
x2 t
0 u t
1
u t
1
Jordan Form Complex Conjugate Roots

The practical state space representation is
x1 t
x2 t
y t
1
2
2
2
x1 t
x2 t
x1 t
x2 t
0
u t
1
0u t
35
Jordan Form Real Repeated Roots
36
The transfer function of a system with a real repeated pole is
H s
Y s
U s
r1
r2
s a
s a
Writing the first term as

a first order system
Y1 s
U s
The state and output

equation are
x1 t
Writing the second term

as a first order system
The state and output
equation are
s a
Y1 s X1 s
X1 s U s
ax1 t
Y2 s X 2 s
X2 s U s
x2 t
x1 t
r1
u t
r2
ax2 t
1
s a
y1 t
1
s a
r1 x1 t
X1 s
r2
s aU s
1
y2 t
r2 x2 t
The set of first order state equations are
x1 t
x2 t
y t
y1 t
ax1 t u t
x1 t ax2 t
x t
37
y t
r1 x1 t
ax t
rx t

x1 t
x2 t
x 1 t
x t
a 0 0 0
x1 t
1 a 0 0
0 1
0 0
x2 t
0
u t
x 1 t
x t
0 0 1 a
y t
r1 r2 r
x1 t
x2 t
x t
0 u t
0
0
38
Jordan Form General System
39
If the system contains mixed types (i.e., real, complex conjugates, and
real repeated), the Jordan form is the concatenation of the different
Jordan blocks. For q systems, the A, B, and C matrices in the state
space representation are
A1
B1
A2

B2
Aq
Bq
C1 C2 Cq
Example 6
40
Determine the A, B, C, and D matrices for the following transfer

function.
H s
Y s
U s
s 2
s 3
3
s 3
5
2
s 2
Example 6
41
For the distinct real root, the A, B, C, and D matrices are
2 B 1 C 4 D 0
For the real repeated root, the A, B, C, and D matrices are
3
1
0
3
2 3
D 0
For the complex conjugate roots, the A, B, C, and D matrices are
13
0
1
5 0
D 0
Example 6
42
The state space representation for the entire system is
2
0
0
0
0
C
0
3
1
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
4 2 3 5 0
0
0
0
1
4
1
1
0
0
1
D 0
Matlab
43
A system is given below in both transfer function and state space

forms. In Matlab, commands operate on systems. To set up the
system in transfer function form, sys = tf(6,[1 6 11 6]). In state space
form, sys = ss(A,B,C,D). To transform the system from transfer
function to state space, [A,B,C,D] = tf2ss(6,[1 6 11 6]). To transform
the system from state space to transfer function, [NUM,DEN] =
ss2tf(A,B,C,D,1) where 1 refers to the first input. NUM = 6 and DEN =
[1 6 11 6].
Y s
U s
6
s3 6s 2 11s 6
0
11
0
B
0
6
1 0 0
D 0

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ME 381

Dr. Robert G. Landers

State Space Representation

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

The dynamic systems state is a set of physical quantities, the

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

In order to obtain a solution to a system of ordinary differential

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

State (Matrix) Equation

x(t) is an k x 1 column vector (state vector)

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

y(t) is an p x 1 column vector (output vector)

Note the output equation is a static equation

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

Convert the differential equation below into statespace format where

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

Select the state variables as follows

The state variable differential equations are

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

The state and output equations are

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

1st Companion Form

Assume the transfer function has the following form

Transforming the transfer function into a differential equation

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

1st Companion Form

The first k1 first order differential equations are

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

1st Companion Form

The state equation is

The output equation is

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

1st Companion Form

Assume the transfer function has the following form

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

1st Companion Form

The states are defined as

Transforming Y(s)/Z(s) into a differential equation, the output is

Writing the output in terms of the states

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

1st Companion Form

The state equation is the same as before

The output equation is

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers

2nd Companion Form

Multiplying the transfer function by the characteristic polynomial

Grouping terms in like powers of s

Dividing by sk and implicitly solving for Y(s)

State Space Representation

Dr. Robert G. Landers