Genetics and Evolution Summary Notes

Describe the process of meiosis. Meiosis is the process of sex cell formation. (1)

Function

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

Mitosis is the process of normal cell

division.

For sexual reproduction. Occurs in

the testes and ovaries. It produces
the gametes. There are two types of
gametes. Egg cells and sperm cells.

Growth : multi-cellular organisms

grow in size and complexity by
making more cells
Repair: old and damaged cells are
continuously replaced by the division
of cells
Genetic Stability: Daughter cells
contain same number and kind of
chromosomes as the parent cell.

When does it
happen?

Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotes.

When the sperm and the egg unite.

Where does it
happen?

Mitosis occurs in most cells

Sex cells

How many cell

divisions?

1 cell division

2 divisions

How many cells?

2 cells. (two daughter cell swish the

same chromosome number as the
parental cell.

4 cells

How many
chromosomes?

46 chromosomes each

23 chromosomes

Is there variation
in offspring?

Mitosis is the copying of cells.

Sometimes there might be an error
after the egg fertilization.

There is variation because the

chromatids exchange DNA sections.

Uses and results of

their use

Mitosis is the process by which all

cells divide. Many cells have a limited
life span, and mitosis allows them to
be renewed on a regular basis. Mitosis
is also responsible for generating the
many million of cells that are needed
for an embryo to develop into a foetus,
an infant, and finally an adult.

Meiosis functions to reduce the

number of chromosomes to one half
.Each daughter cell that is produced
with have one half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell.
Meiosis is important in assuring
genetic diversity in sexual
reproduction.

Identify genes as units of heredity (carriers of genetic information). (2)

-

A gene is a unit of heredity in a living organism. It is normally a stretch of DNA that codes
for a type of protein.

Describe the structure of DNA in terms of four bases; the double stranded backbone, and the
double helix shape. (3)
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid
-

DNA carries the genetic information and passes it from one generation to the next. DNA
carries the code to make proteins (that contribute to determining eye colour and hair colour)
to enable the cell to reproduce and perform its function.

The Double helix

-

In 1953, James Watson, Francis Crick and Rosalind

Franklin discovered that the structure of DNA was a
double helix

Structure:
-

Two strands intertwine like a spiral staircase to form a

structure called a double helix.
Sides: Deoxyribose sugar and a unit of phosphate
forms the upright supports along the sides. Each sugar
joins with a base.
Bases form the rungs of the staircase
The sugar (deoxyribose) + phosphate + a base = a
nucleotide.
Base

Matching base

Adenine

Thymine

Guanine

Cytosine

Thymine

Adenine

Cytosine

Guanine

Outline the connection between chromosomes, genes and DNA and particularly identify that
information is transferred as DNA when cells reproduce themselves and explain the
advantages of DNA replicating exactly. (4)
ABOUT: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
-

Within each cell is a nucleus which controls all the activities of the cells.
Inside the nucleus of each of your cells is your unique set of 46 chromosomes.
Each of these is a long, thread-like structure made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Sections of DNA on the chromosomes that contain complete messages are called genes.
The message in a gene is a coded formula needed by the cell to produce one protein. E.g.
hair.
The DNA molecule is made up of simple bases called nucleotides.

Each nucleotide is made up of three chemical groups: a Sugar, a Phosphate, and a Base.
The order in which the bases are strung along the chain forms the basis of the genetic code.

Appreciate the role that environmental factors have in determining the features of an
organism. (5)
The environment plays a big role in the appearance of an organism. The environment includes all
surrounding forces of an organism, such as diet, nutrition, climate, exposure to disease. It can
affect the expression of genes. Identical genotypes (twins) do not always produce the same
phenotypes because the environment can affect the expression of genes.
Example:
Identical twins have exactly the same genes, such as for tall height and strong muscles. If one
twin is brought up in a poor family he may eat very little, be thin, not very tall, he may suffer
from malnutrition resulting in rickets (bandy legs), scurvy (vitamin C deficiency), and poor teeth,
he may be unable to play sport. If the other twin is brought up on a good nutritious diet in a
wealthy family he may reach his full height, be fit and strong with good legs and teeth, or if he
was brought up on hamburgers and chips he maybe obese.
Environmental Factors influencing your phenotype:
-

Diet
Nutrition
Exposure to disease
Climate
Temperature
Sunlight

Environmental Factors promoting Cancer

-

Smoking lung cancer

Drinking liver cancer
Exposure to UV light skin cancer
Exposure to radiation thyroid caner

Environmental Factors promoting rickets

Vitamin D is found in fish and vegetables. When the sun shines on our skin we can also make
vitamin D. When children do not get enough vitamin D, the bones in their legs bend, this is
called rickets.
Plants
Climatic factors - such as rainfall, temperature or exposure to wind - can be important, as well as
soil composition and the availability of nutrients.
What affects the growth of plants:
-

availability of water
nutrition in the soil
availability of sunlight
fertilisers
climate

Examples:
-

The pH of soil can affect the hydrangea plant.

Those grown in acidic soil produce blue flowers whilst those grown in basic soil produce
pink flowers

Distinguish between a gene and an allele. (6)

A gene is a unit of heredity and is a section of DNA whereas, alleles refer to different versions of
the same gene (e.g. if the height will be short or tall)
Define dominant and recessive genes and explain their influence in determining phenotype
given the inherited genotype. (7)
DOMINANT: The genes which determines the physical traits of a person. They dominate over
recessive genes.
RECESSIVE: A recessive gene is a gene that produces an effect in the organism only when it is
homozygous, having identical alleles for a single trait.
Genotype:
Refers to the genetic traits in an organism.
It has to do with the genetic coding of an organism. =
Such coding is inheritable.
The genotype is the genetic load that is copied every time a cell divides, and therefore is
inherited down to the next generation.
Genotype is something you can't see with your eyes (e.g.. dominant, recessive, heterozygous).
Phenotype:
Refers to observable, physical manifestations of an organism.
The phenotype includes physical characteristics, behaviours corresponding to such
species, structures, organs, behaviours, reflexes, etc.
Phenotype is things that can be seen with your eyes. (ex. colours, growth).
The genotype is the genetic programming that provides the phenotype.
Define biotechnology and explain that genetic engineering is a form of biotechnology. (8)
Biotechnology - Biotechnology is the practice of using plants, animals and micro-organisms such
as bacteria, as well as biological processes - such as the ripening of fruit or the bacteria that break
down compost - to some benefit.
Genetic Engineering - the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by
manipulating its genetic material to improve certain characteristics.
Outline the engineering of pest resistance into cotton plants or the production of human
insulin by bacteria as examples of genetic engineering. Use these as examples of where
developments in Science have led to new technologies. (9)
When the gene is inserted into cotton plants, they produce toxic proteins called Bt toxins that kill
the bollworm caterpillars. The poison stays in the leaves and does no harm until the bollworm

eats the leaf tissue. It is very specific - it only kills bollworm caterpillars and very closely related
species. It does not affect humans or other animals.
The production of insulin by bacteria, by inserting the human gene for making insulin into
the DNA of a bacterium.
People who are diabetic need supplies of insulin because their pancreas does not naturally make
it. Insulin is needed to keep the amount of glucose in your blood at the right level. People with
diabetes need to be given daily injections of insulin to keep their blood glucose levels correct.
Medical insulin was formerly extracted from the pancreases of pigs which were slaughtered for
meat, but now it can be produced in vast amounts in the lab from bacteria which have had the
human insulin gene inserted into its DNA.
The gene for insulin can be removed from a chromosome in a human pancreas cell using an
enzyme which cuts out the exact piece of DNA containing the gene. The gene can then be
transplanted into bacteria where it combines with the microbes DNA to turn the bacteria into
tiny factories for making insulin. As the bacteria reproduce by mitosis, making exact copies of
themselves (identical DNA) the new bacteria contain the human insulin gene. The bacteria being
used is Escherichia coli (E coli).
Discuss how different groups within society or different cultures may have different views
about biotechnologies. (10)

Group
Scientist

Citizen

Activist

Activist against GM

For
Against
- Not harmful
- Pests evolve resistance to
- Resistant to
GM crop e.g. BT cotton
disease
- Continuity of
species
- But with labelling - Destroying children
- Playing with god
- Allergies unknown
- Answer to solving word wide food
shortage e.g.
golden rice
- Control food productivity
MONSANTO

Identify choices that need to be made when considering whether to use particular scientific
advances such as GM crops, human cloning, and embryonic stem cells. (11)
GM Crops
Advantages:
- Crops are more productive and have a larger yield.
- Could potentially offer more nutrition and flavour (although this is debated).
- A possibility that they could eliminate allergy-causing properties in some foods.
- Inbuilt resistance to pests, weeds and disease.
- More capable of thriving in regions with poor soil or adverse climates.
- More environment friendly as they require less herbicides and pesticides.
- Foods are more resistant and stay ripe for longer so they can be shipped long distances or
kept on shop shelves for longer periods.

As more GMO crops can be grown on relatively small parcels of land, they are an answer to
feeding growing world populations.
Issues:
- Should be encouraged without research into the risks
- Not labelling is wrong and unfair to consumers
- GM crops pose a risk to food diversity
- Could give rise to super-weeds and super-pests
- GMO technology companies patent their crops
- Interferes with traditional agricultural methods
Human Cloning
Advantages:
- Can mas produce animals with desirable characteristics
- Producing animals that have been genetically engineer to provide human products, such
as insulin for organs or transplants
- Producing human embryos to supply stem cells for therapy
Ethical Issues:
- Raises issues of how far humans should be allowed to interfere with the production of
new life
Embryonic Stem Cells
Advantages:
- Form tissues and cells for medical therapies
- Potential to reverse diseases
- Able to produce new and healthy tissues for transplant
- New drugs can be tested on stem cells prior to animals and humans
Ethical Questions:
- Does life begin at fertilization, in the womb, or at birth?
- Is a human embryo equivalent to a human child?
- Does a human embryo have any rights?
- Might the destruction of a single embryo be justified is it provides a cure for a countless
number of patients?
List uses of biotechnology could include: (12)
-

AI (Artificial Intelligence)
IVF (InVitro Fertilisation)
GM foods
Production of human insulin

Put forward a case for and against the use of biotechnology.(13)

ADVANTAGES of biotechnology:

Different genes can be combined to make something better

Can be enriched with vitamins to increase health
Use of stem cells to treat diseases
Diagnosing genetic disorders

DISADVANTAGES of biotechnology:
May trigger allergic reactions
Many GM crops have pesticides built in them toxic insects
Moral and ethical issues surrounding cloning

Identify scientific skills that can be useful in a broad range of careers. (14)
-

Computer skills (ICT)

Critical thinking
Reading and writing
Fine motor skills
Ability to follow instructions
Observation
Cognitive abilities
Determining and minimising risks
Examination and evaluating
experiments
Drawing conclusions from evidence
Analysis of results

Measure accurately
Performing under pressure
Making judgements
Graphing results
Teamwork
Attention to detail
Mathematics
Collection of data
Writing an experimental report
Application of knowledge
Organisations

Plant research
Examiner of patents
Forensic scientist
Immunologist

Identify possible career paths in science. (15)

-

Cancer research
Bioengineer
Mathematical ecologist
DNA sequencing facility manager

Write arguments for and against assisted reproduction or genetic engineering. (16)
Group
Lab

Trial

GM
Farm

Arguments for genetic engineering:

- Could have health benefits for
example golden rice has a source
of vitamin A that could help
reduce blindness.
- Cancer-fighting genes can be
introduced to foods such as
tomatoes and broccoli.
- GM foods can improve the
nutrition of people who do not
have enough to eat.
- GM soy is resistant to herbicidefarmers can spray weeds without
harming their crops
- Genetic modification might be
able to increase the health and
cooking properties of soy
products.
- Some GM crops have pesticide
built into them, so farmers wont
have to add chemicals
- Australian experiments indicate
that some GM crops reduce the
use of pesticide by up to 75%
- Pesticides previously used may be
washed into and contaminate
water
- Greater ability to tolerate diseasehigher yields
- Greater ability to tolerate drought-

Arguments against genetic engineering

- Might trigger allergic reactions or
heightened allergic reaction e.g. a nut
gene inserted into another organism
- Set high prices which people wont be
able to afford e.g. Monsanto setting
high prices for their seeds making it
unaffordable for farmers

Non-target insects such as bees and

butterflies may be killed by the plants
Birds that eat poisoned insects may die
as well
Insects can build up a resistance to
pesticides
GM foods not only deprives insects of
their source of food, but also affects
the whole food chain. Animals that
depend on insects for food might
starve e.g. if all the ball worms that
feed on BT cotton die off, animals that
rely upon that insect die too

Many Australians are reluctant to eat

GM food there are no long term
results to prove its safe

higher yields
Greater ability to tolerate frosthigher yields
Higher yields- more profit

Multinational food companies will

patent GM seeds to control the price
Since farmers will depend on the
companies for seeds, they will have to
pay whatever price the companies
demand.

Analyse the accuracy of scientific information in the mass media. (17)

The data in a source is valid if:
- They have been fathered using appropriate methods
- They relate to the hypothesis or problem
A secondary source is reliable if:
- The information is not biased
- It has been written by a qualified person
- It is on a reputable site, i.e. .gov .edu
- It is current
- It refers to data and statistics from valid first-hand investigations
The information in a source is accurate if:
- The information can be substantiated in more than one reliable source
Discuss the role of mutations in the ability of species to adapt to changing environments and
the consequences for natural selection. (18)
Mutations are a change in the structure of DNA, some mutations can be beneficial to an
organism. When an environmental changes, organisms with beneficial mutations are more likely
to survive. These organisms reproduce, passing on their beneficial mutations. Over time, the
species adapts better.
Triggers for mutations:
Light
- Chemical exposure
- Radiation exposure
Define adaptations and discuss their role in species and individual survival. (19)
Adaptations: The features which enable the organisms to live in specific environment.
- If an organism is not adapted to its environment, it will die.
- Therefore, when the environment goes through physical changes, the organisms which live
there must adapt to the new conditions to survive.
- However, due to natural selection, not all species undergo adaptations.
- Adaptations can be behavioural, physiological and physical.
Define biodiversity and discuss its role in the health of an environment and the survival of life.
(20)
Biodiversity: variety and differences amongst living organisms.
- For evolution to occur there must be genetic differences amongst the members of a species
(i.e. the population).
- Biodiversity in genes are important for the survival of a species.
- A particular genetic make-up may be very successful at a certain time in Earth's history.

If the environment begins to change, however, this genetic make-up may no longer be
successful.
Genetic diversity plays a role in safeguarding a species from extinction when the
environment changes.

Discuss evidence that present day organisms have developed from different organisms in the
past. Include fossil, biogeographical, comparative embryonic, comparative anatomic and
comparative DNA evidence. (21) Develop ideas of common ancestor. (22)
Fossils A fossil is a remnant or trace of a once living organism. Usually it is the hard parts of
plants and animals that are presence e.g. wood, bones or shells. Fossils are preserved by being
covered in sediments or by falling into an environment where there is little oxygen.

Fossils are present in rocks found hundreds or thousands of years ago. Some animals that were
around during these time periods were fossilised. Through the ages of the rocks, scientists see the
changes that have occurred in different species to adapt to their environment, known as evolution.

Transitional Forms
Many fossils have been found which appear to have the characteristics of two different groups of
organisms. These are called transition fossils. The evolution from ancient reptiles to mammals is
well documented by a series of transition fossils. Two of the most famous transition fossils are
archaeopteryx, which provides evidence for the common ancestry of birds and reptiles, and the
lobe-fin fish, which indicates that amphibians may have evolved from fish.
Archaeopteryx similar to an extinct group of dinosaurs, the theropods, except it had feathers
and a wishbone
Lobe-fin fish A comparison of the skeletons of a lobe-fin fish and a primitive amphibian
reveals and extraordinary similarity. The lobe-fin fish had lungs but in the amphibian, larger ribs,
pelvis and limb bones have evolved for support on land.

Transitional forms provides evidence to scientists about the mix between two species, this mix
has occurred to support the animals for them to adapt to environmental change.

Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of
living things in relation to
geographical regions. Darwin
and Wallace used
biogeography as evidence of
evolution. They noticed that
species living in the same
area were more similar to
each other than to species
living in similar habitats far
apart. This shows that species
evolved due to the selective
pressure in their own habitats
Comparative Embryology
The different embryology supports evolution
because it shows scientists the similarities in the
species and how theyve changed. The
similarities show us that all the species may have
branched from one organism.
Homologous Structures
The anatomy of different species can be
compared to look for evidence of evolution from
a common ancestor.

Homologous structures are structures found in plants or animals that have the same origin, but
not necessarily exactly the same form or the same function.
The development of homologous structures is an example of divergent evolution which occurs
when a number of species develop from one common ancestor, becoming less and less alike over
time due to their different habitats.
The pentadactyl limbs of vertebrate
animals are examples of homologous
structures. All of these groups have limbs
with five digits (finger-like structure_
which have the same basic structural plan,
but have altered to different environments
and life-styles.

This suggests that all of these groups of animals originated from some original group of animals
(the common ancestor)
Comparative DNA
Science have found that DNA and the proteins it produces can provide evidence about evolution.
If 2 new species evolved from a common ancestor, their DNA and protein molecules slowly
change and become different. The number of differences is proportional to the time since they
separated and allow the construction of evolutionary trees.
DNA and other biochemical evidence can be used to check the accuracy of evolutional trees
already worked out from fossils or from the study of structural homologies. The biochemical
similarities between organisms can indicate to scientists that organisms could have the same
ancestor and hence, the difference species that exist today are evidence for evolution.

Outline the theory of evolution by natural selection. Outline how Charles Darwin constructed
this theory to explain his observations. (23)
NATURAL SELECTION:
- In all populations of living things there are differences (biologists call them variations)
within the offspring.
- Some offspring will be better suited to survival than others.
- When an animal is born with a slight advantage and is more likely to survive than its
brothers and sisters.
- Darwin summarised his theory of natural selection in 4 steps:
- 1. Members of a single species show variation in their characteristics. Some of this variation
is passed from parent to offspring (i.e. it is inherited).
- 2. More of each kind of organism is produced than can survive to maturity. Some members of
a species will die before they reproduce.
- 3. The surviving members of a species possess the characteristics that best enable them to
survive in their present environment. They pass these characteristics on to their offspring.
- 4. Over time, organisms become better suited to their current environment.

Describe the difficulties that the theory of evolution had in gaining acceptance in society. (24)
-

His theory started a controversy between the biblical belief that all organisms were formed at
the same time.
The church tried to shame the theory, which led to a debate between the Bishop of Oxford,
Samuel Wilberforce and the eminent biologist, Thomas Huxley.
It was known as the Monkey Debate, and after some time his theory started to be accepted.

List the factors that cause natural selection: (25)

-

competition for food & shelter

variation
struggle for existence
reproduction

Explain how the factors causing natural selection can lead to changes in a species. (26)
One example is the peppered moths of north
England. They have a short life span meaning that changes in the population can be seen in just a
few years. In the case of the peppered moths, their environment changed rapidly. Peppered moths
are born either pale coloured or nearly black. In areas covered with pale lichen the pale moths
were well camouflaged. They were suited to their environment. The black moths were quickly
eaten by birds. Only a small fraction of black moths survived to lay eggs. When pollution was at
its worst the walls of buildings were black. Then the white moths were eaten, while most of the
black moths survived to lay eggs.
Define artificial selection and give an example. (27)
-

Artificial selection (or selective breeding) describes intentional breeding for certain traits, or
combination of traits.

Artificial selection results in reduced genetic diversity because fewer individuals are chosen
for breeding. This results in inbreeding.

EXAMPLE: Early humans chose to breed dogs that were loyal, fast and good at retrieving game,
and so hunting dogs evolved to have these traits.
Describe an example of how an organism has evolved. (28)

The original birds landing on the islands from the mainland would have had some variation e.g.
in their beaks.
Those birds on each island which was most suited (best adapted or fittest) to their
environment (e.g. birds with beaks best suited to the food resources on their island) would have
survived best.
They would also have reproduced best, passing on their successful characteristics to their
offspring (because of inheritance of genes).
Thus, particular genes and characteristics would have become more common on the different
islands. Eventually, each group of finches would have become so different that they could be
regarded as separate species.
Distinguish between how Darwin & Lamarck would explain evolution. (29)
Lamarcks theory of evolution was that species learnt to change as their environment did. He did
not believe in natural selection where only certain organisms would adapt to its environment,
instead, all organisms changed. However, Darwins theory suggested that the theory of evolution
was caused by natural selection and the dying out of animals with detrimental qualities.

Describe Lamarcks theory of evolution and discuss it as an example of a theory once

considered by Science but then rejected. (30)
-

Lamarcks theory was considered to be true, however, when it was observed, it was proven
false as many species were dying out because they werent adapting to the environment.

Merely because some kind of physical change has been achieved by an organism, that's not
to say those changes can be inherited by their descendants.

Discuss evidence supporting different viewpoints. In particular, account for the differing views
supporting evolution and creationism. (31) Outline the Catholic Churchs position on
evolution-creationism. (32)
Many of the worlds religions have ideas and beliefs about the origin of the universe, including
people and animals. Usually these take the form of creation account in the sacred books of the
religions concerned.
There is a variety of interpretations of the biblical accounts of creation among Christians today.
Most believe that God brought the universe into being from nothing (ex nihlio); some believe that
is was created from matter that already existed (ex material)
Some Christians take the biblical accounts of creation literally, believing that they describe
exactly how the universe and human beings were created.
Other Christians regard these accounts as more like parables or symbolic accounts that tell (in
story form) the profound truth that God brought the universe and all that is in it into being, and
sustains his creation. These Christians might look to science to help them understand how God
did this.
For many Christians there isnt a conflict between the religious ideas about creation expressed in
Genesis and the findings of science. Many Christians have no problem in accepting the Big bang
Theory. They see the cosmologists helping them to understand how God brought the world into
being the Big band could have been the mechanism God used.