SPN21 Biology SoW 2009

SPN21 ‘O’ Level Biology SoW
NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM for the 21ST

CENTURY
SISTEM PENDIDIKAN NEGARA ABAD KE-21
BC GCE O-LEVEL
BIOLOGY 5090
SCHEME OF WORK
1
EDITORIAL ADVISORS
Mrs Tan Lian Wah

Haji Azrul Melda bin Haji Abu Bakar
Dayangku Irdawati binti Pengiran Haji Sulaiman
Mr Tan Wee Ying
Noelda Iryani binti Haji Tarip
Nuraireen binti Haji Tuneh
Dayangku Susilawati binti Pengiran Haji Aji
BIOLOGY BC GCE O-LEVEL 5090 SCHEME OF WORK OVERVIEW – 2-
2
YEAR 93
YEAR Syllabus
A Cell and Cell Processes 1 Cell Structure and Organisation

2 Diffusion and Osmosis
3 Enzymes
B Plant Nutrition 4 Plant Nutrition

6 Transport in Flowering Plants
C Animal Nutrition 5 Animal Nutrition
D Human Transport & Respiration 7 Transport in humans

8 Respiration
YEAR 104
E Coordination, Movement & 9 Excretion

Hormones 10 Homeostasis
11 Coordination and Response
12 Support, Movement and Locomotion
F Drugs, Microbes and 13 The Use and Abuse of Drugs

Biotechnology 14 Microorganisms and Biotechnology
G Organisms and the Environment 15 Relationships of Organisms with One Another and with the Environment
H Continuity of Life 16 Development of Organisms and Continuity of Life

17 Inheritance
BIOLOGY BC GCE O-LEVEL 5090 SCHEME OF WORK OVERVIEW – 3-
3
YEAR 93
YEAR Syllabus
A Cell and Cell Processes 1 Cell Structure and Organisation

2 Diffusion and Osmosis
3 Enzymes
B Plant Nutrition 4 Plant Nutrition

6 Transport in Flowering Plants
C Animal Nutrition 5 Animal Nutrition

YEAR 104
D Human Transport & Respiration 7 Transport in humans

8 Respiration
E Coordination, Movement & 9 Excretion

Hormones 10 Homeostasis
11 Coordination and Response
12 Support, Movement and Locomotion
F Drugs, Microbes and 13 The Use and Abuse of Drugs

Biotechnology 14 Microorganisms and Biotechnology
YEAR 115
G Organisms and the Environment 15 Relationships of Organisms with One Another and with the Environment
H Continuity of Life 16 Development of Organisms and Continuity of Life

17 Inheritance
Recommended Prior Knowledge:
4
Since this syllabus involves a consideration of its topics very largely from the principles, very little, if any, prior knowledge is required.
The course has been divided into 8 units, with each unit having a common thread and following a sequence close to the sequence
followed in the syllabus. The order of topics as presented gives a logical order of teaching, but teachers may wish to alter the suggested
sequence, particularly in regions where marked seasonal variations restrict the availability of specimens at certain times of the year
Recommended Resources:
Online resources:
Online resources directed specifically at the O-level examination are extremely rare. The suggested references are intended to provide
support for students (and in some cases, for teachers) following the course. Teachers should therefore check all the suggested references
before use since the information they contain may benefit from a little careful editing before or during use. All sites have been chosen
because they are thought to be relevant, helpful and interesting.
Note: references are to pages, not just to the general URL site. However, if navigation to the page fails, it may be worth re-
entering the reference, but omitting information after the final forward slash, or even after the final 2 (or 3) forward slashes. You
may then be able to follow links from the general URL site to the desired page.
Other resources:
The text books mentioned have been written to accommodate this O-level syllabus (though it is advisable to check text book content with
the syllabus before each unit, since the text may also contain some material relevant to another CIE syllabus). The three texts have been
chosen since they all carry endorsement by CIE for use with the O-level syllabus. References are given at the end of each unit, but are
relevant to all learning objectives within that topic.
Details of the text books:

Jones, G. & Jones, M. 2002. Biology International Edition for IGCSE and O-level. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Burton, I.J. 2000. The Cambridge Revision Guide GCE O-level Biology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Jones, M. 2003. O-level Biology. Karachi, Oxford University Press.
Lum, H.K. 2002. Biology, The Living Science. Longman.
Reference is also made to a further CIE-endorsed text in the Cambridge University Press ‘Professional Development for Teachers’
series:
Hayward, D. 2003. Teaching and Assessing Practical Skills in Science. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
5
TOPIC : 1 CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

Time Frame 3 weeks
:
6
Prior Knowledge:  Familiarity with the use of microscope;

 Basic principles of diagram drawing;
 Calculate magnification.
Links to:
 All topics.
cell; protoplasm; cell membrane; plasma membrane; cytoplasm; organelles; nucleus; chromatin;
chromosomes; nucleoplasm; nuclear membrane; nucleoli; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); mitochondria; ATP
Keywords: (adenosine triphosphate); vacuole; cell sap; cellulose cell wall; tonoplast; chloroplast; photosynthesis;
centrioles; specialised cells; tissues; organs; system; root hair cell; red blood cell; xylem vessels; lignin; lumen;
support; haemoglobin; surface area to volume ratio; biconcave disc shape; partially/selectively/semi-
permeable; fully permeable; transport of oxygen; absorption; conduction; metabolism.
Misconceptions:  Students should not assume that all plant cells contain chloroplast, i.e. underground storage organs e.g. onion
epidermal cells do not contain chloroplast;
 Animal cells do have small vacuoles but they are smaller in comparison to plant vacuoles;
 Xylem vessels are not living tissue – they are dead tissue;
 Unlike other body cells, red blood cells do not contain nuclei;
 Platelets are not considered as cells, they are fragments of cells;
 Magnification does not have any unit, for example, use either times 4 or 4 times, i.e. 4X or X4;
Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes

Topic 1: Cell Structure and Organisation
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Students should be able to: Students should be able to:
(a) Examine under the  Understand that cells are the building blocks of life. Inside the cell, thousands of chemical reactions
microscope an animal occur every second. It is these reactions which keep the bodies of animals and plants working. All
cell (e.g. from fresh these reactions constitute the cells’ metabolism.
liver) and a plant cell
(e.g. from Elodea, a  Prepare biological materials for examination under the microscope.
moss, onion epidermis,
or any suitable, locally  Use appropriate temporary staining techniques such as iodine or methylene blue.
available material),
using an appropriate  Calculate magnification and size of biological specimens using millimetres or centimetres as units
temporary staining correct to 1 decimal place.
techniques, such as
iodine or methylene
blue.
Experiment 1.1: Use of the microscope
(Biology: The Living Science: Practical Workbook, pp 1-4)
(b) Draw diagrams to  Identify and describe the structure of a plant cell and an animal cell, as seen under a light microscope.
represent observations
of the plant and  Draw and label diagrams of animal and plant cells.
animal cells examined
above.
(c) Experiment 1.2: Examining animal cells
Identify, from fresh (GCE O-level Biology Matters: Practical Workbook, pp 1-3)
preparations or on
diagrams or Experiment 1.3: Examining plant cells
photomicrographs, the (GCE O-level Biology Matters: Practical Workbook, pp 5-6)
cell membrane,
nucleus and cytoplasm Online resources: (Cell structure – Plant versus Animal: colourful, suitable and user friendly)
in an animal cell. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize /biology/cellprocesses/1cellfunctionsrev2.shtml
(d) Identify, from  Describe the functions of different parts of an animal and plant cell.
diagrams or Topic 1: Cell Structure and Organisation
photomicrographs, the  Construct a table of similarities and differences between plant and animal cells.
cell wall, cell
8
membrane, sap
vacuole, cytoplasm,  Understand that other than vacuole and chloroplast, there are some other important organelles
nucleus and embedded in the cytoplasm, e.g. mitochondria.
chloroplasts in a plant
cell.  Describe the function of mitochondria.
(e)
Compare the visible  Know that all cells have a cell membrane, which is partially permeable, and that any substance entering
differences in or leaving the cell must pass through this membrane.
structure of the animal
and the plant cells  Appreciate the importance of the cell membrane.
(f) examined.
 Explain that the movement of substances into and out of the cell must be controlled.
State the function of
the cell membrane in
 Know that plant cells also have a cellulose cell wall which is fully permeable.
controlling the
passage of substances
into and out of the
cell.
(g) State, in simple terms,  Mention that there are many different types of cells which differ in shape and size and are adapted to
the relationship perform specific functions.
between cell function
and cell structure for  Assess the importance of surface area to volume ratio in biology and explain how cells are adapted for
the following: absorption, i.e. root hair cells.
absorption – root hair  Explain the structure of red blood cells, root hair cells and xylem vessels and relate the structure to
cells; their function(s).
conduction and
support – xylem  Understand that xylem vessels are dead and that their walls are lignified for support.
vessels;
transport of oxygen –
 Mention that xylem vessels have no protoplasm; they are simply hollow tubes for the conduction of
red blood cells;
water and mineral ions.
 Mention that red blood cells contain the red pigment called haemoglobin and do not contain any nuclei.
9
 Explain that red blood cells are biconcave discs for certain reasons: [i] it provides a large surface area to
volume ratio for gas exchange, and [ii] it makes the cell flexible enough to pass through small
capillaries.
(h) Identify these cells  Identify root hair cells, red blood cells and xylem vessels from diagrams, photomicrographs and
from preserved preserved materials under the microscope.
material under the
microscope, from  Make a labelled drawing of a root hair cell and red blood cell.
diagrams and from
photomicrographs.
Experiment 1.4: Specialised cells
(Biology Expression: Practical workbook O-level Science (Biology), pp 21-23)
Online resources: (Cell adaptation)

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize /biology/cellprocesses/1cellfunctionsrev3.shtml
(i) Differentiate cell,  Define tissue, organ and organ system.

tissue, organ and
organ system.  Know that in both plants and animals, similar cells are often grouped together to form tissues and
tissues are often grouped together to form organs; to carry out particular functions.
 State examples of both animal and plant cells, tissues, organs and organ systems.
Online resources: (Hierarchy of structure)

Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 1 Cells

2 Mary Jones – Unit 1 Cell structure
3 Ian J Burton – Topic 1 Cell Structure and Organisation
4 Ian J Burton – Topic 2 Specialised Cells, Tissues and Organs
Extension  Describe the structure and function of other organelles such as ribosomes, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, smoothTopic
endoplasmic reticulum,
1: Cell Structure Golgi apparatus, centrioles, lysosome and mesosome.
and Organisation
10
Critical thinking:
 Compare and contrast: Describe the similarities and differences between a named plant cell and a
named animal cell.
 Summarise: Write a paragraph that explains the role of the mitochondrion as the ‘powerhouse’ of the
cell.
 Creative writing: Imagine you are a bacterium that has succeeded in invading a plant cell of a green
leaf. Write an essay to describe your tour of the plant cell.
 Designing an experiment: Design an experiment to determine the seedling with the largest surface
for the absorption of water through its root hairs. Use the following seeds for your experiment: maize,
green pea, soya bean, ground nut.
Ideas to explore:
 Project: Make a three-dimensional model of a plant cell and its parts.
 Project: Make a poster showing an animal cell. Indicate on the poster, the main function of each part
of the cell.
 Challenge: Write a report on the work of Theodore Schwann and the ‘cell theory’.
11
TOPIC : 2 DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS

Time Frame 3 weeks
:
12
Prior Knowledge:  Kinetic theory of matter;

 The terms solution, solvent and solute;
 Cell structure;
 The concept and function of a partially permeable membrane.
Links to: Syllabus Reference Sub-Topic

1.1 (f) Function of cell membrane
1.2 (g) Relationship between cell function and cell structure
4.2 (f) Intake of carbon dioxide and water by plants
5.6 (p), (q) Absorption and Assimilation
6.1 (a) Water and ion uptake
6.2 (b), (c) Transpiration and Translocation
7.1 (j), (k) Functions of blood and transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
8.3 (k) Human gas exchange
9 (a), (b) Excretion
9.2 (d) Kidney dialysis
16.2 (n) Factors affecting germination of seeds
16.3 (v) Function of placenta and umbilical cord
Keywords: diffusion; concentration gradient; osmosis; partially permeable membrane; water concentration; water
potential; hypotonic; isotonic; hypertonic; turgor; turgor pressure; turgid; plasmolysis; crenation; haemolysis;
flaccid; active transport; surface area to volume ratio; equilibrium.
Misconceptions:  Diffusion never stops – molecules are always in a state of random motion. Equilibrium is reached when the
molecules are evenly spaced out.
 Partially permeable membrane refers to the cell membrane and not the cellulose cell wall. Cellulose cell wall
is fully permeable, NOT partially permeable.
 Osmosis is simply a special case of diffusion, and NOT an entirely different process.
 Osmosis only involves the movement of water molecules.

 Haemolysis is a term only applicable
Topic 2:to the bursting
Diffusion of red blood cells, NOT any other cells.
& Osmosis
 The plant cell does NOT burst when placed in a high water potential solution because of the presence of cell
wall and animal cell may burst because it does not have a cell wall.
13
 Active transport occurs only in living cells because only living cells respire.
 Active transport DOES NOT occur in the absence of oxygen.
Learning Objective Learning Outcomes
(a) Define diffusion as the  Define the biological concept of diffusion and understand how diffusion takes place.
movement of
molecules from a  Explain the concept of concentration in gases and liquids and the tendency of molecules to move from
region of their higher where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated.
concentration to a
region of their lower  Give examples of substances which diffuse into or out of the cells.
concentration, down a
concentration  Carry out simple experiments involving the diffusion of a coloured soluble substance in water.
gradient.
 Understand that diffusion never stops, i.e. molecules in liquids and gases and even solids possess
kinetic energy and are continually moving about and the movement is at random. But if there are a
same number of them everywhere in the system so that there is no net-change anymore, this means
that equilibrium is reached.
 Show that the difference in concentration between two regions is known as the concentration or
diffusion gradient.
 Understand that the steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Experiment 2.1: Diffusion

Topic 2: Diffusion & Osmosis
Online resources:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/bitesize/standard/biology/investigatingcells/cellsanddiffusion-rev4/shtml
http://www.lit.edu/~smile/bi9508.html
14
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/cellprocesses/2diffusionandosmosisrev1.shtml
(b) Define osmosis as the  Define osmosis.

passage of water
molecules from a  Understand that osmosis is simply a special case of diffusion, and not an entirely different process.
region of their higher
concentration to a  Stress that during osmosis, ONLY water molecules move across a water potential gradient.
region of their lower
concentration, through  Know that all cells have a cell membrane which is partially permeable and that any substance entering
a partially permeable or leaving the cell must pass through this membrane.
membrane.
 Understand the concept of water potential gradient.
(c) Describe the
importance of a water  Understand the concept of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions.
potential gradient in
the uptake of water by
plants and the effects  Perform investigations of osmosis, using an artificial membrane such as Visking tubing, using living
of osmosis on plant plant cells such as potato or kangkong and interpret results from these experiments.
and animal tissues.
 Understand how animal and plant cells respond to immersion in solutions which are of different
concentration to their cytoplasm.
 Explain the term turgid, flaccid, turgor pressure, haemolysis, plasmolysis and crenation.
 Explain how plant cells become turgid when placed in a high water potential solution.
 Explain how plant cells become flaccid when placed in a low water potential solution.
 Explain how red blood cells become crenated when placed in a low water potential solution.
 Explain how red blood cells become haemolysed when placed in a high water potential solution.
 Explain that a plant cell does not burst when placed in a high water potential solution because of the
presence of the cell wall.
 Explain that an animal cell will burst due to the absence of a cell wall.
15
 Relate the difference in water potential gradient between soil and sap vacuole to the uptake of water by
plants especially root hair cells.
 State the importance of turgidity in providing mechanical support to herbaceous or non-woody plants.
 Understand that the rate of movement of a substance across a cell membrane depends on how much of
cell membrane is actually available, i.e. the greater the surface area the faster will be the rate of
diffusion of a substance for a given concentration gradient.
 Explain that some cells are specifically adapted to absorb materials, e.g. root hair cells and epithelial
cells lining the small intestine. Such cells often have long protrusions or folded cell membranes which
greatly increases surface area of the cell through which materials can be absorbed into the cell.
Experiment 2.2: Osmosis in Visking tubing

Experiment 2.3: Osmosis in plant cells

Experiment 2.4: Osmosis in plant tissue

(GCE O-level Biology Matters: Practical Workbook, pp 13-16)
Experiment 2.5: Water potential

Experiment 2.6: Surface area/volume ratio, absorption & diffusion

16
(d) Define active  Define active transport.

transport and discuss
its importance as an  Explain the need for uptake of ions even when their concentration may already be greater inside a cell
energy-consuming or an organism.
process by which
substances are  State that energy from respiration is needed for active transport.
transported against a
concentration
gradient, as in ion
uptake by root hairs
and glucose uptake by
cells in the villi.
Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 2 Diffusion, Osmosis and Active transport

2 Mary Jones – Unit 2 Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport
3 Ian J Burton – Topic 3 Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport
Extension  State the factors that affect the rate of diffusion e.g. temperature, concentration of substances inside
and outside the cell membrane, thickness of membrane, size of molecules and the distance the
molecules have to travel.
Critical thinking:
 Designing an experiment: Do you think that the rate of diffusion of potassium permanganate will
increase with a corresponding increase in temperature? Design an experiment to test your hypothesis.
 Analysing: A survivor of a shipwreck was marooned on a sand bar without food or fresh water. Would
he have a better chance of survival if he drank sea water? Discuss.
 Inferring: Explain to a patient why the saline solution used for his intravenous drip should not be
diluted. Warn him of the fatal consequences if he uses a saline drip diluted with an equal volume of
water. Do not use technical terms on the patient as he has no knowledge of biology.

Topic 2: Diffusion & Osmosis 17

Ideas to explore:
 Project: Observing osmosis and partial-permeability. To observe the effects of osmosis through a cell
membrane, take a chicken egg and record its circumference. Gently place the egg in a jar containing
white vinegar and put the lid on. After two days, remove the egg from the vinegar and record the
circumference of the egg. (a) What changes in size and shape were observed at the end of the second
day? (b) How would you account for the changes? (c) Did the contents of the egg seep out? (d) How
would you explain your observation?
 Challenge: Prepare a list of examples of diffusion and osmosis in everyday life.
 Investigate: Vegetables are kept in a special part of the refrigerator. Do they remain fresh, crispy and
firm for a longer period of time? Why?
 Research: Water desalination. There are 2 main processes used for water desalination: the distillation
technique and the membrane technique. There are 2 membrane techniques used: electrodialysis and
reverse osmosis. How does reverse osmosis separate the dissolved salts from water?
18
19
TOPIC : 3 ENZYMES
Topic 2: Diffusion & Osmosis Time Frame 2 weeks
:
Prior Knowledge:  Food tests e.g. iodine test, Benedict’s test, Biuret test;
 The seven classes of food;
 Three classes of enzymes, e.g. carbohydrase, protease, lipase;
 Kinetic Theory of particles;
 Graph plotting.

4.1 (d), (e) Photosynthesis – limiting factors, e.g. temperature
5.1 (b) Food tests
5.5 (n), (o) Chemical digestion
7.1, 9.1 (j) Blood clotting and transport of carbon dioxide
10.1 (d) Thermoregulation
14.2 (d) The use of Rennet in yoghurt & cheese production
16.2 (o) Seed germination
17.5 (t) The use of enzymes to produce human insulin
Keywords: biological catalysts; organic catalysts; inorganic catalysts; ‘Lock and Key’ hypothesis; optimum; substrates;
products; active sites; enzyme/substrate complex; catabolism; anabolism; metabolism; hydrolysis;
condensation; denaturation; inactive; solubility; control experiment.
Misconception:  Chemical reactions do take place without enzymes, but at a SLOWER rate.
 Enzymes are either denatured or destroyed; they are NOT killed.
 ‘Lock & Key’ hypothesis: enzyme is the lock, substrate is the key.
 ‘Lock & Key’ hypothesis is used to emphasise specificity of enzymes.
 At low temperatures, enzymes are inactive, NOT denatured.
20
 Different enzymes have different optimum temperature/pH depending on the organisms, for both plants and
animals.
 Amylase breaks down starch into maltose, NOT glucose.
Learning Objective Learning Outcome

Topic 3: Enzymes
(a) Define enzymes as  Understand that metabolic reactions are made up of anabolic and catabolic reactions and these
proteins that function processes are controlled by enzymes.
as biological catalysts.
 Explain what is meant by a catabolic reaction (e.g. digestion/respiration).
 Explain what is meant by an anabolic reaction (e.g. photosynthesis).
 Explain what is meant by a catalyst and understand that a biological catalyst is an organic compound.
 Understand that enzymes are protein in nature. Proteins are organic compounds.
 Understand the difference between the term organic and inorganic.
 Understand that enzymes are produced by living cells.
 List the characteristics of enzymes (sensitive to temperature and pH, substrate specific, catalysts, can
be re-used, remain unchanged at the end of the reaction, protein in nature, water-soluble).
 Understand that most enzymes are named after the substrate they act upon and end with the suffix ‘-
ase’.
 Understand that water is needed to activate organic enzymes (hydrolysis).
Online resources:
http://educ.queensu.ca/~science /main/concept/chem./c01/C01CDCG4.htm
21
Topic 3: Enzymes
http://www.biotopics.co.uk / nutrition / enzfac.html (effect of external conditions on enzyme action)

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/topic_principles.asp?loc=pr&topic id=1&subject_id=17&ebt=26&ebn=&ebs=&ebl=&elc=4
(good range of learning activities, revision materials, animations and questions)
(b) Explain enzyme action  Understand what is an active site, substrate, enzyme-substrate complex, products.
in terms of the ‘lock
and key’ hypothesis.  Understand that ‘LOCK’ is the enzyme and the ‘KEY’ is the substrate.
 Illustrate the understanding of ‘Lock & Key Hypothesis’.
 Understand that enzymes are very specific; one enzyme only works on one type of substrate.
 Understand that at the end of the reaction, product(s) is/are formed and the active site of the enzyme
can be re-used. Enzymes remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
 Examples* of enzyme controlled-reactions:

amylase maltase
starch → maltose → glucose
protease
protein → amino acids
lipase
fats → fatty acids + glycerol
*These examples will be covered in more detail in Topic 5.5 (n, o).
Online resources:
http://schools.moe.edu.sg/chijsjc/Biology/Enzyme/enzyme.htm (lock and key hypothesis)
http://gened.emc.maricopa.edu – The Online Biology Book
http://biology.arizona.edu – The Biology Project – Biochemistry
(c) Investigate and  Perform experiments on:

describe the effect of i. the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide by catalase (e.g. in liver, beef or potato);
temperature and of pH ii. the effects of amylase on starch solution at two to four different temperatures;
on enzyme activity. iii. the effect of pH on the breakdown of starch by amylase at a constant temperature.
22
 Plot and label graphs.
 Emphasise the need for control experiments as a means to compare experiments.

Topic 3: Enzymes
Experiment 3.1: Watching an enzyme in action

Experiment 3.2: Effect of temperature on enzyme activity

Experiment 3.3: Effect of pH on enzymes

Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 3 Enzymes

2 Mary Jones – Unit 3 Enzymes
3 Ian J Burton – Topic 4 Enzymes – Topic 5 Nutrition (for food tests)
Extension  Understand limiting factors that affect enzyme-controlled reactions e.g. substrate concentration and
enzyme concentration.
 Design, plan and carry out experiments.
 Understand how saprophytes employ extracellular digestion as a mode of nutrition.
Critical thinking:
 Hypothesise: Apple juice changes to brown colour very rapidly. Write a hypothesis explaining the role
of enzymes in this colour change.
 Experiment: Suggest a simple experiment to show if enzymes are present in (a) biological washing
powders, and (b) meat tenderiser.
23
Ideas to explore:
Topic 3: Enzymes
 Project: Which organ is metabolically most active? Metabolically active organs are those that contain
large quantities of enzymes such as catalase. Catalase is used by cells to remove waste products such
as hydrogen peroxides. Select 5 different types of tissues such as liver, muscle, kidney, hair and skin.
Add them to hydrogen peroxide separately. What do you observe? Describe the changes you observed
and compare your observation for different tissues. What control experiment would you use? Which is
the most active organ?
 Challenge: What advice would you give to a housewife on how to get the best result when using a (a)
biological washing powder? (b) meat tenderizer?
24
Topic 3: Enzymes
25
TOPIC : 4 PLANT NUTRITION

Time Frame 4 weeks
Topic 3: Enzymes :
Prior Knowledge:  Structure of plant cells;  Iodine test;

 Concepts of diffusion, osmosis and active transport;  Different forms of energy and the energy
 Functions of xylem; conversion;
 Basic structure of starch and sugar molecules;  The effect of temperature on enzyme action;
 Concepts of control experiment.

1.1 (a), (b), (d) Plant cells
2.1 (a) Diffusion
2.2 (b) Osmosis
2.3 (d) Active Transport
3.1 (a) Enzyme action
3.2 (c) Effects of temperature on enzyme activity
5.1 (a) Nutrients – Chemical elements that make up carbohydrates, fats and proteins
5.1 (b) Food tests
5.1 (c) Dietary importance of nutrients
6.1 (a) Water and ion uptake by root hair cells
6.2 (b) Transpiration
6.2 (d), (e), (f), (g) Functions of xylem and phloem
15.2 (c) Food chains and food webs
15.3 (f) Carbon cycle
Keywords: autotrophic; photosynthesis; destarched; chlorophyll; light energy; chemical energy; by-products; oxygen;
water; carbon dioxide; raw materials; limiting factors; lamina; petiole; midrib; branching veins; vein network;
xylem; phloem; upper epidermal cells; cuticle; mesophyll layer; palisade mesophyll cells; spongy mesophyll
cells; lower epidermal cells; stomata (stoma); guard cells; intercellular air spaces; vascular bundle; starch test;
iodine solution; glucose; starch; control experiment; variegated leaf; soda lime; sodium hydrogen carbonate;
culture solution; deficiency; mineral nutrition; magnesium; nitrate; chlorosis.
26
Misconception:  Starch formation is not photosynthesis.

 Movement of water in the xylemTopic
vessels is by
4: Plant transpiration pull not osmosis.
Nutrition
 Guard cells contain chloroplast.
 Upper epidermis and lower epidermis do not have chloroplasts.
 Stomata can also be found in the upper epidermal layers of some plants.
(a) Understand that  Understand that in autotrophic nutrition, an organism builds up the organic molecules from simple
photosynthesis is the inorganic molecules with the help of light energy.
fundamental process
by which plants  Know that plants are photoautotrophs.
manufacture
carbohydrates from  Explain that photosynthesis is a plant’s method of nutrition.
raw materials.
 Explain that the raw materials – carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water from the soil are the
(g) Understand that small molecules (raw materials) that are used to construct the larger glucose molecules.
chlorophyll traps light
energy and converts  Explain that energy is required to construct the larger molecules and is obtained as light energy.
it into chemical Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy and thus photosynthesis occurs where chlorophyll is located – in the
energy for the chloroplasts.
formation of
carbohydrates and
 Know that photosynthesis happens in the chloroplasts of green plants when energy from sunlight is
their subsequent
captured by chlorophyll, and used to combine water and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen.
storage.
 Know that some of the glucose made in photosynthesis is changed to starch and stored in the leaf and
/or are converted to sucrose to be conducted to other organs (via phloem) for storage as sucrose or as
starch.
27
(c)
State the equation (in
word or symbols) for  Write a word equation for photosynthesis.
photosynthesis.
Topic 4: Plant Nutrition
 Write a balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis. In both cases, ‘light energy’ rather than just
‘energy’ should be specified.
Online resources:
http://bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/greenplantsas organisms/0photosynthesisrev2.shtml
(good explanation of photosynthesis)
http://eduref.org/cgi-bin/printlessons.cgi/Virtual/Lessons/Sceince /Botany/BOT0046.html
(an outline of photosynthesis and transpiration)
(b) Investigate the  Perform starch tests on leaves.

necessity for
chlorophyll, light and  Explain why, in order to perform a starch test, a leaf must be boiled and treated with hot alcohol solution
carbon dioxide for before iodine solution is added. Note: It is advisable to demonstrate the steps in the starch test on a leaf
photosynthesis, using before allowing students to carry it out. If a naked flame is used for heating, STRESS the danger of using
appropriate controls. ethanol or methylated spirits and the need for precaution.
 Explain the importance of controls in scientific practice and list the variables which must be controlled.
 Make sure that at the beginning of the experiments in photosynthesis, starch is absent from the leaves.
 Know the importance of destarching or removing starch in leaves by placing the plants in darkness for
about two days.
 Know that starch formation is not photosynthesis; it is an indirect indicator to show that photosynthesis
has occurred since excess sugars produced by photosynthesis are converted to starch.
Experiment 4.1: Starch in a leaf

28

(d) Investigate and state  Be able to perform experiments to investigate the need for light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll in
the effect of varying photosynthesis using appropriate controls:
light intensity, carbon  For chlorophyll – use a plant with variegated leaves.
dioxide concentration  For light – sandwich a leaf, which is still attached to the plant, between two pieces of black paper.
and temperature on  For carbon dioxide – place the plant under a bell jar, containing a beaker of sodium hydroxide solution
the rate of to absorb carbon dioxide.
photosynthesis (e.g.
in submerged aquatic  Show oxygen gas is released by fresh water plants as it photosynthesises in bright light.
plants).
 Investigate the effect of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the
rate of photosynthesis by using a water plant submerged in a beaker of water and exposed to the altered
variable.
 Stress the importance of keeping all variables constant, other than the one being investigated.
 Note that the rate of photosynthesis is determined by measuring volumes of displaced water or counting
bubbles of oxygen released over a fixed time frame when the plant is exposed to one altered variable.
Experiment 4.2: Is light necessary for photosynthesis?

Experiment 4.3: Is CO₂ necessary for photosynthesis?

Experiment 4.4: Is chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis?

Experiment 4.5: Effect of different light intensities on the rate of photosynthesis

(e
) Understand the  Understand the meaning of limiting factors.
concept of limiting
factors.  Explain why the rate of photosynthesis levels off with increased availability of carbon dioxide or light.
29
 Understand that carbon dioxide is always an important limiting factor since atmospheric carbon dioxide
remains constant at about 0.03%.
 Explain why the rate of photosynthesis slows down with an increase in temperature beyond its optimum.
Online resource:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/greenplansasorganisms/0photosynthesisrev5.shtml
(limiting factors)
(f) Describe the intake  Explain the entry of carbon dioxide through stomata in the leaf surface by diffusion and its subsequent
of carbon dioxide and diffusion through intercellular air spaces between mesophyll cells.
water by plants.
 Understand that the surfaces of mesophyll cells are always covered by a thin film of moisture so that
carbon dioxide can dissolve in it before entering cells and diffusing into the chloroplasts.
 Explain the entry of water from the soil to be as a result of osmosis, reaching the chloroplasts via the
xylem vessels.
(i) Identify and label the  Describe the structure of a dicot leaf, including the upper and lower epidermis, palisade mesophyll cells
cuticle, cellular and and spongy mesophyll cells, vascular bundles, guard cells, cuticle, intercellular air spaces and stomata.
tissue structure of a
dicotyledonous leaf,  Identify and label the main tissues of a dicot leaf as seen in transverse section.
as seen in cross-
section under the  Understand that chloroplasts containing chlorophyll are found in all mesophyll cells and that there are
microscope, and more chloroplasts in the palisade mesophyll cells.
describe the
significance of these  Explain how large surface area and thinness of the leaf, as well as, xylem vessels, intercellular air spaces
features in terms of and stomata of a leaf help to supply raw materials for photosynthesis efficiently.
function, i.e.
distribution of  Explain how the size of stoma is controlled by the change in osmotic pressure within the guard cells.
chloroplasts –
photosynthesis;
30
stomata and  Understand why guard cells have a thicker cellulose cell wall on one side of the cells, i.e. the side around
mesophyll cells – gas the stomatal pore. Topic 4: Plant Nutrition
exchange;
vascular bundles –
transport Experiment 4.6: Internal structure of a leaf
Experiment 4.7: Distribution of Stomata in a leaf

Online resource:
http://images.botany.org/set-13/13-063v,jpg (photomicrograph of leaf TS)
(h) Explain why most  Understand that carbohydrate (glucose) manufactured by photosynthesis is the molecule which acts as
forms of life are the starting point for building other organic molecules. For example for the formation of proteins,
dependent on fats/oils, cellulose cell wall, starch and sucrose.
photosynthesis.
 State that carbohydrates, fats and proteins – important components of the diets – are manufactured by
plants. All these food substances eventually become the food of animals.
 State that photosynthesis helps to ‘purify’ the air in the sense that it removes carbon dioxide from the air
and at the same time it produces oxygen for the living organisms to carry out respiration.
 State that photosynthesis is a source of fossil fuel especially when charcoal is burnt as fuel.
(j) Understand the effect  Understand that plants must absorb mineral ions from the soil in order to make other organic molecules.
of a lack of nitrate For example, magnesium is necessary for chlorophyll manufacture and nitrates for protein manufacture.
and magnesium ions
on plant growth.  State that magnesium deficiency results in chlorosis of leaf.
 State that protein deficiency results in a stunted plant growth, lacking side shoots and leaves.
Topic 4: Plant Nutrition 31

 State that a plant without magnesium will not be able to photosynthesise and that without proteins it
would not be able to grow healthily.
 State that seedlings grown in a culture solution lacking nitrogen exhibit poor growth. Leaves are few and
pale green. Eventually, the seedlings die.
 State that seedlings grown in a culture solution lacking magnesium exhibit small yellow leaves since
chlorophyll cannot be synthesised. Instead, a yellow pigment is deposited and the plant is said to be
chlorotic.
 State the necessary precautions when setting up a culture solution experiment. For example the need
for aeration, covering the container with black paper and using only sterilised equipments.
Online resource:
http://www.biotropics.co.uk/plants/plantm.html (mineral nutrition)
Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 5 How Green Plants Feed

2 Mary Jones – Unit 4 Photosynthesis
3 Ian J Burton – Topic 6 Plant Nutrition
Extension  Conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of varying carbon dioxide concentration and
temperature on the rate of photosynthesis.
 Conduct an experiment to investigate whether nitrogen and magnesium are essential for plant growth.
Apply their knowledge gained from this section in other situations:
 Varying the conditions necessary for optimum photosynthesis in a greenhouse.
 Concepts of light (photolysis) and dark stage of photosynthesis.

32
Critical thinking:
 Making an analogy: suppose you and five friends represent the carbon atom in each of the six carbon
dioxide molecules which take part in the process of photosynthesis. Describe the physical and chemical
changes that would happen to you and your friends leading to the formation of a glucose molecule at the
end of photosynthesis.
 Creative problem solving: A farmer grows lettuces in his greenhouse and sells them to a chain of
supermarkets. Those supermarkets will only accept high quality produce, lettuce with large heads and
plenty of leaves. What advice can you give to the farmer to ensure his lettuce photosynthesise at the
maximum rate? Give your advice based on the following aspects: (a) 24-hour photosynthesis, (b)
constant temperature throughout day and night, (c) increase carbon dioxide concentration.
 Making a generalization: “Talking to plants may increase the rate of growth of green plants.” Discuss
the above statement based on your knowledge of the effect of talking on the carbon dioxide
concentration in the air around the green plant.
 Analysing data and asking questions: One of the most extraordinary and productive communities is
found in the pitch-black depths of the Pacific Ocean near the Galapagos Islands. At depths of more than
2500 metres, chemosynthetic bacteria were discovered in 1977. Here, red, hot tissues release hydrogen
sulphide making the environment hostile to all organisms. Scientists are surprised by the existence of a
whole community of animals. Green plants are absent. What questions should be considered in deciding
the energy source for a community deprived of light? How could some of these queries be answered?
Ideas to explore:
 Project: Do brown algae or other non-green plants have chlorophyll? Green plants are able to capture
solar energy because they contain an energy-capturing substance called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is
green and so plants are green too. Collect samples of plants which are non-green such as brown algae
from the seashore. Using chromatography technique, determine if chlorophyll is present.
 Challenge: Prepare a ten minute talk for a group of secondary two students on the consequences to life
on Earth if all green plants decide to produce carbohydrates just sufficient for their own use.
 Designing an experiment: Suppose you wanted to design a special guide to help students identify the
33
element or elements a plant is deficient in. What characteristics might you use? Propose a hypothesis
and design an experiment to test it.
Across different disciplines:
 Biology and Physics: The blue and red lights absorbed by chlorophyll during photosynthesis are parts
of visible light. Identify the wavelengths of visible light and find out where visible light occurs in the
electromagnetic spectrum. Visible light is the energy for life on Earth. Which parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum can destroy living cells and life itself? Are ultraviolet rays, x-rays and cosmic
rays beneficial to life/
 Biology and Chemistry: The process of photosynthesis can be represented by an equation. Based on
the equation, you can determine the number of water molecules needed to produce one molecule of
glucose. Calculate the total number of molecules of raw material needed to produce one molecule of
glucose.

34
TOPIC : 5 ANIMAL NUTRITION

35
Time Frame 4 weeks

:
Prior Knowledge:  Classes of food;

 Balanced diet;
 Enzymes;
 Food tests;
 Teeth structure and function.

1.2 (i) Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system;
2 (a), (b), (d) Diffusion, osmosis and active transport;
3 Enzymes;
7 (g), (j), (c) Causes of CHD, function of blood in transport of soluble food substances and
vitamins;
8 (a), (e) Aerobic and anaerobic respiration in the release of energy from food substances in
all living cells;
9.1 (c) Function of kidneys;
11 (j) Role of adrenaline in regulation of blood glucose concentration;
13.3 (d) Role of bacteria in yoghurt and cheese production.
Keywords: balanced diet; nutrients; monosaccharides; disaccharides; polysaccharides; reducing sugar; Benedict’s solution; glycerol;
fatty acid; lipid; phospholipid; adipose tissue; unsaturated and saturated fatty acid; cholesterol; emulsion; essential amino
acids; hormones; peptide links; kwashiorkor; constipation; scurvy; deficiency; rickets; epithelia; ascorbic acid (vitamin C);
vitamin D (calciferol); calcification; blood clotting; haemoglobin; oxyhaemoglobin; anaemia; food pyramid; calories;
metabolism; anabolism; catabolism; metabolic rate; basal metabolic rate; starvation; eating disorders; overweight; obesity;
over-consumption; marasmus; anorexia; bulimia; famine; population explosion; floods; drought; alimentary canal;
digestion; ingestion; assimilation; absorption; egestion; peristalsis; hydrolysis; salivary and pancreatic amylases; proteases;
lipases; rennin; succus entericus; bile; sodium hydrogen carbonate; bile salts; bile pigments; villus; lacteal; glycogen;
deamination; detoxification; plaque; chyme; faeces; gall bladder; pyloric sphincter; cardiac sphincter; jejunum; caecum;
trypsin; erepsin; rectum; gastric juice; pepsin; trypsinogen; enterokinase; sucrase; lactase; maltase; duodenum; appendix;
colon; anus; hydrochloric acid; lymph vessel; lacteal; iron; calcium; dietary fibre (roughage; water; incisors; canines;
premolars; molars; dentine; enamel; pulp cavity; root; neck; cusps; dental decay/caries.
Topic 5: Animal Nutrition

36
Misconceptions:  Peristalsis – movement is throughout the canal and not limited to one particular structure e.g. oesophagus.
 Egestion is not the same as excretion.
 Not all food classes provide energy – only the three main classes: carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
 The final stages of digestion still occur in the ileum.
 Absorption does occur in the stomach if the substances are small enough to pass through e.g. water, alcohol,
glucose, amino acid.
(a) List the chemical  Define nutrition.

elements which make
up carbohydrates,  Understand that green plants and animals feed differently.
fats, proteins.
 Understand that diet is the food we eat each day.
 List the elements that make up carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
 Understand that carbohydrates are divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides,
and to give examples for each category.
 Explain the term reducing sugar.
 Understand that amino acid monomers are incorporated to become polypeptides and proteins.
 Understand that fats are made up of one molecule glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids.
 Understand the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats.

37
(b) Describe tests for:  Describe the positive result for reducing sugar: Benedict’s solution turns from blue to brick red colour.
starch (iodine
solution), reducing  Describe the positive result for starch: iodine solution turns from brown to blue black colour.
sugars (Benedict’s
solution), protein  Describe the positive result for protein: Biuret solution turns from blue to purple colour.
(biuret test), and fats
(ethanol emulsion  Describe the positive result for fat: white/milky emulsion for the ethanol emulsion test.
test).
Experiment 5.1: Food Test I – reducing sugar, starch, protein

(Biology Expression: Practical Workbook O-level Science (Biology), pp 37-39)
Experiment 5.2: Food Test II – grease spot, ethanol emulsion

Experiment 5.3: What is in a banana?

Experiment 5.4: Food tests on peanut

Online resource:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms.0nutritiondigestionrev8.shtml (food tests)
(c) List the principle  Understand that animals obtain energy from carbohydrates – 1 g = 22.2 kJ – released by respiration.
sources of, and
describe the dietary  Understand that sources of carbohydrates should include individual sources from the 3 categories.
importance of
carbohydrates, fats,  Understand the dietary importance i.e. functions of carbohydrates.
proteins, vitamins (C
and D only), mineral  Understand that proteins are used for growth and repair – 1 g = 17.2 kJ.
salts (calcium and
iron only), fibre  State that amino acids can be categorised as essential amino acids and non-essential amino acids.
(roughage) and
water.
 Understand protein deficiency leads to a condition called kwashiorkor.

38
 Understand that fats store energy – 1 g = 38.5 kJ.
 Understand that dietary fibre prevents constipation.
Online resources:
http://www.usaid.gov/hum_response/crg/fssfcornmeal.htm (nutritional contents of a variety of food)
www.fao.org/wailent/faoinfo (carbohydrates in human nutrition)
www.midcoast.com.au/~wedmunds/c3-prot.htm (protein and malnutrition)
(d) Name the diseases  Describe the importance and deficiency symptoms of vitamin C (scurvy) & D (rickets).
and describe the
symptoms resulting  Describe the sources of vitamin C & D.
from deficiencies of
vitamin C (scurvy),
 Describe the importance and deficiency symptoms of calcium (rickets) & iron (anaemia).
vitamin D (rickets),
mineral salts calcium
 Describe the sources of calcium & iron.
(rickets) and iron
(anaemia).Describe
the deficiency Online resources:
symptoms of vitamins http://www.purchon.com/biology/vitamins.htm (list including vitamins C and D)
C and D and minerals
salts: calcium and
iron.
(e) Understand the  Understand balanced diet versus unbalanced diet.

concept of a balanced
diet.  Understand the healthy diet pyramid.
 Understand the composition of various foods e.g. meal taken at lunch.
Topic 5: Animal Nutrition 39

Online resources:
http://www/sambal.co.uk/diet.html (informative explanation of balanced diet)
www.nal.usda.gov:80/fnic (information about diet and nutrition)
www.webgate.net/~welchiro/choosing.html (choosing good food)
(f) Explain why diet,  Describe the factors that determine energy needs – basal metabolic rate (BMR) and physical activity.
especially energy
intake, should be  Define the term basal metabolic index (BMI) and state the formula for calculating BMI.
related to age, sex
and activity of an  Compare different energy needs for different groups of people e.g. adults, teenagers (boys and girls),
individual. pregnant women.
(g) State the effects of  Understand that starvation, constipation and obesity are a form of malnutrition.
malnutrition in
relation to: starvation,  Understand that heart disease is a consequence of malnutrition.
heart disease,
constipation and
 Differentiate between overweight and obese.
obesity.
 Understand increased risks associated with obesity.
(h) Discuss the problems  State the problems of world food supplies.
that contribute to
famine (unequal  State that famine is the extreme shortage of food.
distribution of food,
drought and flooding,  State the causes of world food supply shortage – population explosion, floods, and drought.
increasing
population).  Suggest how to overcome problems of world food supplies.
Online resources:
http://www.nationalacademies.org/wedextra/crops (consideration of world food)
Topic 5: Animal Nutrition 40

(i) Identify the main  Use diagrammatic representations to identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated
regions of the organs.
alimentary canal and
the associated
organs: mouth Online resource:
(buccal) cavity, http://bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms/0nutritiondigestionrev4.shtml (the alimentary
salivary glands, canal)
oesophagus, encarta.msn.com/find/conciso.asp?ti=05CC6000 (digestive system)
stomach, duodenum, arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu (hypertext book on the digestive system)
library.thinkquest.org/10348/home.html (Body Quest - Digestive System)
pancreas, gall
gened.emc.maricopa.edu (The Online Biology Book – Digestive System)
bladder, liver, ileum,
colon, rectum, and
anus.
(j) Describe the main  Use a table to relate the structure of the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs to
functions of these their function(s).
parts in relation to
ingestion, digestion,  Describe how an animal deals with food in terms of ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
absorption, egestion of food.
assimilation and
egestion of food.  Identify the different parts of a tooth and their functions i.e. enamel dentine, pulp cavity, nerve fibres,
. blood capillaries, gum, root, neck and cusps.
(k) Identify different  Describe the different types of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars and molars; and their functions.
types of human teeth
and describe their  Describe that mammals have 2 sets of teeth in its life.
structure and

functions.
(l) State the causes of  Understand that plaque causes tooth decay.
dental decay and
describe the proper  State what plaque consists of.
care of teeth.
 Describe the prevention of gum disease and tooth decay.
 Describe the importance of proper tooth care.
41
Online resources:
http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200088.htm (including good animation)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms/0nutritiondigestionrev6.shtml (digestion)
http://faculty.uca.edu/~jmurray/BIOL2407/lec/villi.mov (villus absorption movie - involving download)
(m Describe peristalsis.  Describe peristalsis as rhythmic contractions of muscular wall of the alimentary canal (including actions
) of the circular and longitudinal muscles).
Explain why most  Explain digestion and state reasons why food must be digested.
(n) food must be
digested.
Experiment 5.5: Why digest food?
(o) Describe: digestion in  Distinguish the differences between mechanical and physical digestion.
alimentary canal;
functions of a typical  Understand that chemical digestion incorporates enzymes for different classes of food in different parts
amylase, protease of the alimentary canal – mouth, stomach, small intestine.
and lipase, listing
substrates and end-
products.
(p) Describe the  Describe the absorption of digested food.

structure of villus
including the roles of  Describe the features of the small intestine.
capillaries and
42
lacteals.  Describe the structure of the villus and state how it is adapted for food absorption.
Online resource:
http://bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms/0nutritiondigestionrev4.shtml (absorption)
(q) Describe the  Describe the presence of microvilli on villi.

significance of villi in
increasing the Topic 5: Animal Nutrition
internal surface area.
(r) State the function of  Describe the transport of digested food.

the hepatic portal
vein as the route  Describe the assimilation of food.
taken by most of the
food absorbed from  Describe the absorption of glucose, amino acids and fats.
the small intestine.
(s) State: that large  Describe the formation of fat globule in cells of adipose tissue.
molecules are
synthesised from  State the role of liver in the metabolism of glucose and maintaining blood glucose concentration,
smaller basic units: deamination of excess amino acids, fat metabolism, bile production, iron storage, bile pigment excretion,
glycogen from plasma protein synthesis, detoxification, vitamin storage, blood reservoir, and heat energy source.
glucose, proteins
from amino acids,
lipids (fats and oils)
from glycerol and
fatty acids; the role of
the liver in the
metabolism of
glucose and amino
acids; the role of fat
as a storage
substance; that the
formation of urea and
43
the breakdown of
alcohol occur in the
liver;
Other online webmd.lycos.com/topic_summary/1605 (Anorexia nervosa)

resources: www.nutramed.com/digestion/digest.htm (Ulcers and digestive disorders)
Textbook resources: 1 Ian J Burton – Topic 5 Nutrition

2 Ian J Burton – Topic 7 Animal Nutrition
3 M & G Jones – 4 How Animals Feed
4 Mary Jones – Unit 5 Animal Nutrition – Diet
5 Mary Jones – Unit 6 Animal Nutrition – Digestion
Extension  Modes of nutrition: autotrophic, heterotrophic, and saprophytic (link to Topic: Ecology).
 Describe gum disease and tooth decay. Describe the prevention of gum disease.
Ideas to explore:
 Project: To compare the nutritional value of food choices offered by the school canteen, examine the
contents of five different types of food. Does all the food studied include all the six types of nutrients?
Make recommendations for improving the nutritional value of food sold in the canteen.
 Project: Analysing an advertisement in the newspaper. Choose an advertisement concerning a

balanced diet or other diets. List down all the claims that you can identify. For each of the unsupported
claims, explain why you think that the claim is unlikely to be true in writing your report. Use the
information to support your statements.
 Investigate: What are the health problems with much of the food served at fast food restaurants? Is it
possible to be in good health by taking all meals at the same fast food restaurant?
 Investigate: In this chapter you have learned that saliva contains an enzyme that begins the digestion
of starch. What changes does starch undergo in your mouth? To find out, place a piece of unsalted and
unsweetened biscuit cracker in your mouth for 3 minutes. How has the taste changed?
44
 Demonstration: One method used to dislodge food that is stuck in the throat is the Heimlich maneuver.
Arrange to have a trained First Aider from your school to demonstrate the procedure.
 Challenge: Through library readings, investigate research leading to the discovery of vitamins. Prepare
a time line showing important vitamins, their discoveries and dates of discoveries.
 Research: Prepare a report to be presented to your class on the presence of the appendix in our bodies.
Why is the organ present and5:yet
Topic it has
Animal no purpose? What effect would its surgical removal have on the
Nutrition
health of an individual? Would it be advisable to remove it in order to avoid the possibility if appendicitis
in the future?
 Analysing – If dietary fibre provides no nutrients to our bodies, why is it recommended as a protection
against ailments such as constipation and colon cancer?
 Analysing – Babies who have not been sufficiently burped after being breast-fed, may vomit white milk
curd which tastes sour. a) Name the compound contained in milk curd and the nutrient from which it
originates; b) Explain the chemical changes which lead to the formation of milk curd in the alimentary
canal; c) Write a chemical equation to represent the changes described in (b); d) Why does the milk curd
taste sour?
 Identifying cause and effect – Eskimos who eat mainly fish, seal oil and whale meat rather than beef
and butter, have a low incidence of heart disease. How do you explain this?
 Analysing data – In a healthy individual the blood sugar level is maintained at about 95 mg/100 cm3 of
blood. If the level exceeds 160 mg/100 cm3, glucose is excreted in the urine. A blood glucose level
below 40 mg/100 cm3 leads to convulsions and coma. Explain how the liver prevents these undesirable
effects from happening.
 Making analogy – Frozen yoghurt is often labelled as a natural health food. Is it necessarily healthier
or more natural than ice cream?
 Making analogy – Antacids are substances which are used by patients with too much acid in their
stomach. They function in the same way as sodium hydrogen carbonate in bile and pancreatic juice.
45
One compound commonly used is calcium carbonate. a) Explain the roles of sodium hydrogen carbonate
in chemical digestion; b) Which part of the alimentary canal is the target organ for the action of
antacids?; c) Write out the chemical equation to represent the action of calcium carbonate as an antacid;
d) Name the gas produced and explain how it is disposed of.
46
TOPIC : 6 TRANSPORT IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Time Frame 3 weeks
:
Prior Knowledge:  Structure and function of root hair cells and xylem;
 The concept of surface area to volume ratio;
 The concept of osmosis, diffusion and active transport.

1.2 (g) Relationship between cell function and cell structure
2.1 (a) Diffusion
2.2 (b) Osmosis
2.2 (c) Importance of water potential in the uptake of water by plants
2.3 (d) Active transport
4.2 (f) Intake of carbon dioxide and water by plants
4.2 (i) Leaf structure
Keywords: root hair cells; surface area to volume ratio; osmosis; transpiration; root pressure; capillary action; cohesive
force; adhesive force; transpiration pull; transpiration stream; mesophyll cells; intercellular air spaces;
stomata; guard cells; evaporation; potometer; xylem; lignin; phloem; sieve tubes; companion cells; sieve
plate; vascular bundle; cambium; pith; cortex; epidermis; translocation; wilting, rate of transpiration;
temperature; humidity; light intensity; wind movements.
Misconception:  Students should not think that transpiration is the loss of water from the leaf surface, but should realise that
evaporation has occurred first from the moist surfaces of the mesophyll cells within the leaf.
 Confusion between stomata and guard cells.
 Confusion between wilt and wither.
47
 Phloem conducts sucrose not glucose. Xylem carries both water and dissolved mineral ions.

Topic 6: Transport in Flowering Plants
(a) Relate the structure  Identify root hair cells, as seen under the light microscope and photomicrograph.
and functions of root
hairs to their surface  Make a labelled drawing of a root hair cell.
area and to water and
ion uptake.  State the functions of root hair cells.
 State how the structure of a root hair cell is modified for its function.
 Assess the importance of surface area to volume ratio for absorption, and uptake of water and ions by
root hair cells.
Online resources:
http://biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e05/05b.htm (root hair diagrams and photographs)
(b) State that  Define transpiration.

transpiration is the
loss of water vapour  Explain the mechanism of root pressure.
from the leaves
through the stomata.  State that root pressure is one of the ways of drawing water up a stem.
 Explain the mechanism of capillary action.
48
Experiment 6.1: Investigating transpiration in leaves and stem

Topic Practical
(GCE O-level Biology Matters: 6: Transport in Flowering
Workbook, Plants
pp111-112)
Online resource:
http://extension.oregonstate.edu/mg/botany/images/tree1.html (transpiration animation)
http://www.biologydaily.com/biology/Potometer (use of a potometer)
(e) Explain the movement  Explain the mechanism of water uptake and movement in terms of transpiration producing a pull from
of water through the above, i.e. the leaves; creating a water potential gradient in the xylem, drawing cohesive water
stem in terms of molecules up the plant.
transpiration pull.
 Explain that the evaporation of water from the mesophyll cell increases the concentration of the sap
vacuole of those cells thus drawing water up the xylem to replace the water lost.
Experiment 6.2: Comparing the transpiration rates of the upper and lower surfaces of leaves
(GCE O-level Biology Matters: Practical Workbook, pp115-116)
Experiment 6.3: Transpiration through the upper and lower surfaces of leaves
(c) Describe: how water  Explain that during transpiration, evaporation has occurred first from moist surfaces of mesophyll cells
vapour loss is related within the leaf and that water vapour then diffuses through the intercellular air spaces and out into the
to cell surfaces, air atmosphere via the stomata; down a concentration gradient.
spaces and stomata;
effects of air currents  Perform an experiment to investigate the rate of transpiration in a leafy shoot, using a simple
(wind), and the effects potometer.
of variation of
49
temperature, humidity  Explain the effect of temperature, humidity and wind strength on the rate of transpiration.
and light intensity on
transpiration rate; how  Explain that those conditions that speed up or slow down the evaporation of water also speed up or slow
wilting occurs. down the rate of transpiration.
 Explain that increased light intensity speeds up transpiration because the stomata are widely opened to
allow carbon dioxide to enter for photosynthesis.
 Explain that wilting occurs if the rate of water loss exceeds the rate of water uptake.
 Describe how wilting occurs.
 State the appearance of a wilted plant i.e. leaves and herbaceous stem droop.
Experiment 6.4: Rate of transpiration

50
(d) Investigate, using a  Perform an experiment to investigate the pathway of water in a cut stem using a suitable stain. (Stick of
suitable stain, the celery is a suitable material for this experiment. Food dye is a suitable stain that works well).
pathway of water in a
cut stem.  Make a labelled drawing of the transverse section and longitudinal section of the stem to show the
pathway of dye in the cut stem.
(f) Identify the positions
of xylem and phloem
 Make a labelled transverse section drawing of dicot roots, stems and leaves to show the positions of
tissues as seen in
xylem and phloem tissues.
transverse sections of
unthickened,
herbaceous,
 State the functions of xylem in terms of transport of water and mineral salts and providing support to
dicotyledonous roots,
the plant.
stems and leaves.
(g) State the functions of  State how the xylem vessel is adapted for its functions.
xylem and phloem.
 State the function of phloem as the tubes for translocation of manufactured food throughout the plant.
 State how the phloem is adapted for its function.

Experiment 6.5A: Investigating the pathway of water in a plant stem
(Biology Expression: Practical workbook O-level Special Express, pp 86-87)
Experiment 6.5B: Investigating the translocation of manufactured food in a plant stem

(Biology Expression: Practical workbook O-level Special Express, pp 88)
Experiment 6.6: Internal structures of a dicotyledonous stem, root and leaf

(GCE O-level Biology Matters: Practical Workbook, 101-104)
Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 7 Transport
51
2 Mary Jones – Unit 7 Transport in Flowering Plants

3 Ian J Burton – Topic 8 Transport in Flowering Plants
Extension  Conduct experiments to investigate the effects of varying the external environmental conditions for
example wind, humidity, light intensity and temperature on the rate of transpiration using a potometer.
52
TOPIC : 7 TRANSPORT IN HUMANS

Time Frame 4 weeks
:
Prior Knowledge:  Structure of the heart;

 Blood composition;
53
 Three types of blood vessels and their functions;

 Function of blood;
 Substances transported by blood;
 Heartbeat;
 Pulse;
 Blood pressure;
 Capillaries involved in absorption of nutrients;

1.2 (i) Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system;
2.1 (a) Diffusion;
3 Enzymes;
5 (g), (p), (r) Effects of malnutrition in relation to heart disease; structure of villus, including
roles of capillaries and lacteals; function of hepatic portal vein as route taken by
most of food absorbed from small intestine;
8.1 (i), (k) Aerobic respiration – effect of physical activity on rate and depth of breathing;
9 (b) Removal of carbon dioxide from lungs;
9.1 (c) Structure and function of kidneys;
9.2 (d) Dialysis machines;
10.1 (c), (d) Homeostasis and thermoregulation;
11 (i), (k) Hormone destruction in the liver; signs (increased blood glucose concentration) of
diabetes mellitus;
16 (v) Function of placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of dissolved
nutrients, gases and excretory products;
Keywords: atrium; platelets; heart; iron; arteries; erythrocytes (red blood cells; semi-lunar valve; ventricle; plasma;
biconcave; capillaries; haemoglobin; white blood cells; thrombocytes; muscles; pulmonary vein and artery; red
blood cells; fibrinogen; fibrin;Topic 7: Transport
antigen; in Humans
lymphocytes; lymphatic system; lymph; double circulation; close
circulation; systemic and pulmonary circulation; coronary arteries; coronary heart disease; venule; arteriole;
deoxygenated; renal; femoral; hepatic; hepatic portal; posterior; anterior; superior; inferior; vena cava; aorta;
leucocytes; phagocytes; phagocytosis; bicuspid; tricuspid; tissue rejection; stroke incompatibility; antibodies;
systole; diastole; blood pressure; pulse rate; recipient; donor; organ transplant; acclimatization;
54
immunosuppression; thrombus; thrombosis; atherosclerosis; arteriosclerosis; atheroma; septum; pericardium;

chordae tendinae; pacemaker; sphygmomanometer; tissue fluid; lumen; endothelium; elastic tissue; muscular
tissue; connective/fibrous tissue; oxygenated; thrombokinase; prothrombin; thrombin; fibrinogen; fibrin; angina
pectoris; stroke; oxyhaemoglobin; carboxyhaemoglobin; carbaminohaemoglobin; bicarbonate ions; lymph
nodes; immunity; immune system; engulf.
Misconception:  The difference between squeezing out of and squeezing through capillaries.
(a) Describe the  Describe the closed circulatory system.

circulatory system
as a system of tubes  Describe the unidirectional flow of blood.
with a pump and
valves to ensure
one-way flow of
blood.
Topic 7: Transport in Humans
55
(b) Describe the double  Describe the dual circulation: pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
circulation in terms
of a low pressure
circulation to the
lungs and high
pressure circulation
to the body tissues
and relate these
differences to the
different functions of
the two circuits.
(c) Name the main  Describe what happens in a heartbeat in terms of auricular / ventricular systole / diastole.
blood vessels that
carry blood to and  Name the pulmonary artery and vein, coronary artery and vein, renal artery and vein, hepatic portal vein,
from the heart, hepatic artery and vein.
lungs, liver and
kidneys.
(d) Describe the  Describe what happens in a heartbeat in terms of auricular / ventricular systole / diastole.
structure and
function of the heart Experiment 7.1: The Mammalian heart
in terms of muscular (Biology Expression: Practical Workbook O-level Science (Biology), pp 117-119)
contraction and the
working of valves. Online resources:
http://www.advocatehealth.com/system/info/library/articles/heartcare/howorks.html
http://www.columbiasurgery.org/pat/hearttx/anatomy.html
http://www.columbiasurgery.org/pat/hearttx/about.html
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/circuln/ancard.html (animation of heart)
(e) Compare the  Describe arterioles and venules.

structure and
function of arteries,  State that valves are present in veins.
veins and capillaries.
 Tabulate the differences between the three structures: include direction of blood flow, location of blood
vessels, pressure, nature of walls of vessels, function and exceptions e.g. pulmonary and umbilical
56
vessels.
(f) Investigate and state  Refer to experiment 7.3.

the effect of physical Topic 7: Transport in Humans
activity on pulse
rate. Experiment 7.3: To measure pulse rate while resting and after exercise
(g) Describe coronary  Describe CHD as a form of cardiovascular disease (CVD).

heart disease (CHD)
in terms of the  Describe formation of atherosclerosis.
occlusion of
coronary arteries  Describe the signs and symptoms of CHD: angina pectoris, leading to myocardial infarction.
and state the
possible causes  Describe exercise, stopping smoking, careful diet and behavioural patterns as preventive measures.
(diet, stress, and
smoking) and
preventative
measures.
(h) Identify red and  Refer to practical experiment 7.2.

white blood cells as
seen under the light
microscope on Experiment 7.2: Looking at blood cells
prepared slides, and (Biology Expression: Practical Workbook O-level Special Express, pp 53-56)
in diagrams and
photomicrographs. Online resources:
http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/bloodless/blood_step2.html
http://www.blood.co.uk/pages/e17compn.html#plasma (both structure and functions of blood)
http://www.usc.edu/hsc/dental/ghisto/bld/ (photomicrographs of blood cells)
(i) List the components  Visualise a centrifuged blood sample.

of blood as red blood  Describe blood: features and functions of the main components.
cells, white blood
cells, platelets, and
57
plasma.
(j) State functions of  State the functions of plasma

Topic 7: –Transport
role of albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen.
in Humans
blood: red blood
cells – haemoglobin  State the function of erythrocytes – oxyhaemoglobin formation in oxygen transport and
and oxygen carbaminohaemoglobin in carbon dioxide transport.
transport; white
blood cells –  Understand the concept of acclimatisation at high altitudes.
phagocytosis,
antibody formation  State the function of lymphocytes – phagocytosis and antibody production.
and tissue rejection;
platelets – fibrinogen  State what immunity is.
to fibrin causing
clotting; plasma –
 Understand tissue rejection – causes and ways of overcoming.
transport of blood
cells, ions, soluble
food substances,  State the function of platelets in blood clotting mechanisms.
hormones, carbon
dioxide, urea,
vitamins, and
plasma proteins.
(k) Describe the transfer  Describe how substances in the capillaries reach the cells of the body.
of materials between
capillaries and tissue  Describe lymph formation and the function of the lymphatic system.
fluid.
 Describe that lymph nodes produce lymphocytes and antibodies.
 Describe fluid exchange between tissue cells, lymph vessels and blood capillaries.
 Describe the differences between lymph, blood plasma and tissue fluid.
Online resource:
58

http://mail.stmarks.edu.hk/main/learning/resources/mafe45.html (tissue fluid animation)
Textbook resources: 1 Ian J Burton – Topic 9 Transport in Human Beings

2 M & G Jones – 7 Transport
3 Mary Jones – Unit 8 Transport in Humans
Extension  Varicose veins

 Other types of blood vessels e.g. subclavian, jugular, carotid, thoracic duct
 Blood matching and haematology
 Heparin/warfarin in blood clotting and anticoagulants
 Different types of immunity and the different types of antibodies
 Oedema formation and elephantiasis
 Haemophilia: an inherited condition
Ideas to explore:
 Project: Visit the blood bank to learn how blood typing is done.
 Project: make a colourful bulletin board poster showing the heart. You may wish to supplement the
poster with a model of the human heart made from coloured plasticine.
 Challenge: Collect information from the RIPAS Hospital or the equivalent (JPMC Gleneagles Cardiac
Centre), concerning the various cardiovascular diseases. Prepare a report for presentation to students to
discourage them from smoking tobacco.
 Challenge: Many physicians believe aerobic exercise can help reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
Prepare a report on aerobic exercise and cardiovascular disease.
 Making analogies: Use your comparing and contrasting skills to explain the following analogies: a) the
human heart is like a pump; b) the blood plasma is like an internal sea that continuously bathes our cells;
and c) the blood circulatory system is like a railroad.
59
 Designing an experiment: Suppose you have 4 samples of blood of which 2 samples were not labelled.
Only blood groups A and B have
Topic their labels
7: Transport intact. Design an experiment to find out the blood groups of
in Humans
the 2 unlabelled samples.
 Developing a hypothesis: In the peculiar condition known as haemophilia, the blood clots very slowly
and internal bleeding is especially difficult to control. Women are not ordinarily affected. If a normal
woman marries a man who is haemophiliac, all their sons will not be affected but their daughters will
transmit the condition to their sons. Why does this defect skip a generation?
Making new connections:
 Biology and Chemistry: Blood transfusions were used on large-scale in World War I. Sodium citrate was
used as a safe anticoagulant. Prompt refrigeration then made it possible to keep whole blood for 5 to 7
days. Explain the role of sodium citrate in the chemical reaction which prevents blood from clotting.
 Biology and Physics: The electrocardiograph is an instrument that amplifies and records the small
voltages produced by the beating of the heart. Why are electrodes placed on the left and right wrists
when recordings are done? Would it be more accurate to insert the electrodes into the cardiac muscles of
the heart?
 Biology and History: The leader of the Russian Revolution, Lenin, died from a degenerative disease of
the circulatory system called arteriosclerosis in 1924. Would the course of world history be any different if
laser was discovered and Lenin was given medical treatment then?
60
61
TOPIC 8 RESPIRATION
: Topic 7: Transport in Humans
Time Frame 2 weeks
:
Prior Knowledge:  Anatomy of the respiratory system;

 Composition of air.

1.2 (i) Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system
2.1 (a) Diffusion
7 (b), (c), (f,) (g), (j) Name blood vessels to and from the lungs; effect of physical activity on pulse
rate; function of plasma in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
9 (b) Describe the removal of carbon dioxide from lungs;
11 (b,) (c) Identify on diagrams of the central nervous system, the medulla and its function
13.4 (e), (f) Effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components on health: strong
association with bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer and heart disease, and the
association between smoking during pregnancy
14.2 (c), (d), (e) Food chains and webs; energy losses; pyramids of numbers and biomass
15.3 (f) Sexual reproduction in humans
15.6 (k)
16 (v) The function of placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of gases
Keywords: ATP; oxygen; energy; water; lungs; ethanol; lactic acid; muscle fatigue / cramps; cell division; active transport;
protein synthesis; aerobic respiration; anaerobic respiration; alcoholic fermentation; lactic acid fermentation;
yeast; carbon dioxide; muscle contraction; transmission of impulses; diffusion; inspiration / inhalation;
expiration / exhalation; haemoglobin; oxyhaemoglobin; carboxyhaemoglobin; carbaminohaemoglobin; external
and internal intercostal muscles; diaphragm muscle; respiratory centre; medulla oblongata; trachea; glottis;
pharynx; bronchiole; alveoli; bronchi; C-shaped cartilage; goblet cell; mucus; ciliated epithelium; oxygen debt;
bicarbonate ions; larynx; nose; pleural membrane; pleural fluid.
62
Misconception:  State that breathing is not and respiration and vice versa.
 Energy is released in the mitochondria, not made or produced; during respiration (energy cannot be created nor
destroyed).

Topic 8: Respiration
(a) Define respiration as  State that carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products.
the release of energy
from food substances
in all living cells.
(b) Define aerobic  State that carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products.
respiration as the
release of a relatively
large amount of
energy by the
breakdown of food
substances in the
presence of oxygen.
(c)  C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6O2 + 6H2O + energy
State the equation (in
words or symbols) for
 Carbohydrate + oxygen → water + carbon dioxide + energy
aerobic respiration.
(d) Name and state uses  Describe uses of energy such as protein synthesis from amino acids; build-up of protoplasm for growth;
of energy in the body impulse transmission; heartbeat; respiratory movements; active transport: absorption of some
of humans: muscle substances in small intestine; absorption of mineral salts in roots; heat production.
contraction, protein
synthesis, cell division,
active transport,
growth, the passage of
nerve impulses and
63
the maintenance of a
constant body
temperature.
(e) Define anaerobic  Understand that depending on the organism, by-products also include lactic acid, alcohol, carbon
respiration as the dioxide and energy.
release of a relatively
small amount of
energy by the Experiment 8.1: Investigating respiration
breakdown of food (Biology Expression: Practical Workbook O-level Science (Biology), pp 127-129)
substances in absence
of oxygen. Experiment 8.2: Is CO2 given off during respiration?
Experiment 8.3: To find out what gas is given off during fermentation
(Practical Biology: A Course for O-level, pp 97-98)
Online resource:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms/3respirationrev1.shtml (with links to aerobic
and anaerobic respiration)
(f) State the equation (in Understand that:

words or symbols) for  In humans: gglucose → lactic acid + energy
anaerobic respiration
in humans and yeast.  In yeast: glucose → alcohol (ethanol) + carbon dioxide + energy
(g) Describe the effect of
 Describe oxygen debt.
lactic acid production
in muscles during
 Describe muscle fatigue due to lactic acid build up.
exercise.
 Describe the oxidation of lactic acid.
(h) Investigate Know the  Tabulate the composition of inspired and expired air.
percentages of the
gases in the  Understand the differences in composition include gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
atmospheric air and water vapour and heat.
64
investigate and state

the differences
between inspired and
expired air. Experiment 8.4: Comparing the amount of carbon dioxide in inspired and expired air
(GCE O-level Biology Matters Practical Workbook, pp 135-136)
(i) Investigate and state  Refer to practical experiment 8.5.

the effect of physical
activity on the rate
and depth of Experiment 8.5: Effects of exercise on the rate and depth of breathing
breathing. (Biology: A Course to 16+. M & G Jones, p62)
Online resource:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms/2breathingrev2.shtml (with animation of
blood passing alveolus wall)
(j) Identify on diagrams  Understand the structure of the respiratory system.

and name the larynx,
trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli
and associated
capillaries.
(k)  State that the characteristics include thin epithelia, short diffusion distance, moist, large surface area
State the and good supply of oxygen (rich capillary network).
characteristics of, and
describe the role of,  Understand the importance of these characteristics.
the exchange surface
of alveoli in gas  Describe the effects of respiratory diseases on the process of gas exchange – bronchitis, emphysema,
exchange. lung cancer.
65
(l) Describe role of cilia,  Describe the sweeping action of cilia.

diaphragm, ribs and
intercostal muscles in  Describe the secretion of mucus by goblet cells.
breathing.
 Describe the contraction and relaxation of diaphragm.
 Describe the mechanisms of breathing by contraction and relaxation of external and internal intercostal
muscles.
 Understand changes in lung volume and pressure during breathing.
 Describe the movement of ribs during breathing.
Textbook resources: 1 Ian J Burton – Topic 10 Respiration

2 Mary Jones – Unit 9 Respiration
3 M & G Jones – 6 Respiration
Extension  Carbonic anhydrase.

 Lung capacities, tidal volume, vital capacity, complemental air, supplemental air, residual air.
Ideas to explore:
 Project: Invaders of the airways. Make a colourful poster showing the respiratory system. Indicate on
the poster the various common diseases caused by bacteria or virus that enter the body through the
respiratory tract. Mark those parts affected by the pathogens.
 Project: Iron Lung. Visit a hospital to learn how the iron lung aids patients to breathe.
 Challenge: Surf the internet for information on the effects of smoking on lung cancer. List down
several reasons why it is not worth dying for a cigarette.
 Challenge: Prepare a report on the dangers faced by passive smokers.
Topic 8: Respiration 66
 Project: Arrange to interview adult smokers whom you know. Survey your class for questions they
have about the topic: Reasons for Smoking. Use the questions in your interviews and report back to the
class.
 Project: Tobacco Order 2005 – Implementation.
 Compare and contrast: Describe the similarities and differences among the three levels of respiration:
external respiration, internal respiration and cellular respiration.
 Summarise: Write a paragraph that explains the gaseous exchange which takes place in the lungs and
in the tissues.
 Relate: Explain the advantages and the disadvantages of anaerobic respiration in the leg muscles of an
athlete.
 Creative writing: Imagine you are a bacterium being inhaled into the respiratory system of a young
healthy child. Write an essay to describe your journey from the time you enter the respiratory system
to the time you become entangled with the cilia and mucus.
 Designing an experiment: Devise an experiment to determine how much oxygen is used up by a

person who is actively undergoing a physical exercise. Use the following equation in your calculation.
Rate of oxygen used by the body = volume of air per breath x % oxygen used x rate of breathing per
minute
 Developing a hypothesis: The haemoglobin of a foetus binds more readily with oxygen compared to
the haemoglobin synthesised after birth. Why would foetal haemoglobin need to be different from that
of an adult?
67
Topic 8: Respiration 68
TOPIC : 9 EXCRETION
Time Frame 1 week
:
Prior Knowledge:  Definition of diffusion.

2.1 (a) Diffusion
2.2 (b) Osmosis
5.6 (s) Role of liver in metabolism of amino acids and in deamination
7.1 (c) Names of blood vessels to and from kidneys
7.1 (k), (j) Transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
8.1 (c) Aerobic respiration – production of carbon dioxide
8.3 (j), (k), (l) Human gas exchange
11 (k) Glucose in urine
16.3 (p), (v) Urethra – identify on diagrams of the male reproductive system; function of
placenta and umbilical cord in relation to excretory products
Keywords: excretion; waste products; metabolism; kidneys; cortex; medulla; renal pelvis; nephron; renal artery; renal
vein; sphincter muscles, dialysis; dialysate; radial artery; radial vein; selective reabsorption; ultrafiltration;
hydrogen carbonate ions; osmoregulation.
Misconception:  There will be a need to correct the inaccurate belief that excretion is the correct term for defaecation.
 It should be explained that excretion by sweating is largely coincidental.
 Note that ‘ureter’ and ‘urethra’ must be spelt correctly.
 Stress that it is excess water that is removed and NOT simply water.
69
Topic 9: Excretion
(a) Define excretion as the  Distinguish between excretion and egestion.

removal of toxic
materials and the  Recognise that the lungs, kidneys, liver and the skin are the excretory organs in our body.
waste products of
metabolism from
organisms.
(b) Describe the removal of  Recall that carbon dioxide is a metabolic waste product of cellular respiration.
carbon dioxide from the
lungs.  Carbon dioxide is dissolved in the plasma and is transported as hydrogen carbonate ions.
(c) Identify on diagrams  Understand that part of the blood plasma entering the kidneys is filtered out by capillaries; substances
and name the kidneys, which the body needs e.g. glucose, amino acids, water and mineral salts, are absorbed back into the
ureters, bladder, blood; unwanted substances e.g. urea, excess water and minerals salts are left to pass down the
urethra and state the ureters into the bladder.
function of each (the
function of the kidney  Understand that the bladder stores urine, which is discharged at intervals.
should be described
simply as removing  Understand that the kidneys help to keep the blood at a steady concentration by excreting excess
urea and excess salts salts and by adjusting the amount of water (osmoregulation).
and water from the
blood; details of kidney
structure and nephron Experiment 9.1: Investigating the different regions of a human kidney
are not required). (GCE O-level Biology Matters: Practical Workbook, pp145-146)
Online resource:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms/6homeostasisrev5.shtml
Topic 9: Excretion 70
(d) Describe dialysis in  Understand how a nephron works (ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption). This is important in
kidney machines as the order to understand how the kidney/dialysis machine works.
diffusion of waste
products and salts  Understand the diagram of the kidney/dialysis machine.
(urea), excess water
and excess salts (small  State that blood is drawn from the radial artery and returned to the body via the radial vein.
molecules) through a
membrane; large
 Understand the principle of a dialysis machine: a machine consisting of a long cellulose tube coiled up
molecules (e.g. Protein) in a water bath. The tubing is narrow, long and coiled to increase surface area to volume ratio. This
remain in the blood.
speeds up the rate of exchange of substances between the blood and the dialysis fluid.
 Understand that the direction of blood flow is opposite to the flow of the bathing fluid (counter current
flow). This maintains the diffusion gradient for the removal of waste products.
 Understand that osmoregulation is the regulation of the water and salt concentrations in the blood to
keep the water potential of the internal environment constant.
Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 10 Homeostasis and Excretion

2 Mary Jones – Unit 10 Excretion
3 Ian J Burton – Topic 12 Excretion
Extension  The water content of the blood is controlled by vasopressin or anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). It is
produced by the posterior pituitary gland and increases water reabsorption by the nephron.
Critical thinking:
 Summarise: Write a paragraph that briefly explains how blood pressure is involved in kidney function.
 Analyse: “Water, water everywhere and not a drop to drink!” A man adrift in the ocean with only sea
water available cannot satiate his thirst. (a) Explain why drinking sea water will not quench his thirst.
(b) Would you agree that if he drinks salt water, he would be fighting a losing battle?
 Compare: What are the differences and similarities between the artificial kidney and the natural
kidney.
71
Topic 9: Excretion
 Relate: Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using an artificial kidney machine compared to
using a kidney transplant.
 Evaluate: A man was shot in his chest resulting in severe internal haemorrhage involving major
arteries. How would this affect his urine production? Would any urine be produced?
Ideas to explore:
 Challenge: Make a survey among the patients at a dialysis centre regarding the effects of having
their blood flowing through the artificial kidney machine. Are the machines effective? What is the cost
of each treatment? How long could they survive?
 Survey: Conduct a survey among school mates to determine the number of students in your school
who have at least one member of the family who uses the artificial kidney machine. Compare your
result with the national average.
72
Topic 9: Excretion
TOPIC : 10 HOMEOSTASIS
Topic 9: Excretion
73
Time Frame 1 week

:

1.2(i) Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system. Skin is the largest organ in the
body.
3.2 (c) Effects of temperature and pH on rate of enzyme action
5.2 (c) Importance of fats
5.6 (s) The role of the liver in the metabolism of glucose and heat production, the role of
fat as a storage substance
7.1 (j) Plasma transports blood cells, ions, soluble food substances, hormones, carbon
dioxide, urea, vitamins, plasma proteins and heat
11.2 (g) Outline the functions of the sensory neurones, relay neurones and motor
neurones.
11.4 (j) State the role of the hormone adrenaline in boosting the blood glucose
concentration and give examples of situations in which they occur
11.4 (k) Describe the signs (increased blood glucose concentration and glucose in urine)
and treatment (administration of insulin) of diabetes mellitus.
Keywords: homeostasis; negative feedback; receptor; vasodilation; vasoconstriction; adipose tissue; blood capillaries; hair
follicles; sebaceous gland; dermis; epidermis; cornified layer; Malpighian layer; keratin; melanin; nerve
endings; shivering; sweating; convection; radiation; behavioural controls; insulation; overheating; overcooling;
sweat pore; sweat gland; granular layer; sweat duct; concept of negative feedback; conduction; sweat.
Misconception:  There will be a need to correct the belief that capillaries move nearer or further away from the skin surface,
and that capillaries, rather than arterioles, constrict/dilate (capillaries are not muscular).
 Note that hair erection is NOT important in humans! (When the hair erector muscles contract, the hairs on the
skin ‘stand on end’. This raises the skin around the hair producing the characteristic “goose pimples” in Man).
However, this characteristic is important to feathery/furry animals.
Topic 10: Homeostasis 74

(a) Define homeostasis as  Understand that homeostasis refers to the fact that the composition of the tissue fluid in the body is
the maintenance of a kept very steady.
constant internal
environment.  Recognise that the kidneys, liver and the lungs are important organs that play important roles in
homeostasis.
(b) Explain the concept of  Understand that the brain has over-all control of the homeostatic processes in the body, checking the
control by negative composition of blood flowing through it, ultimately sending nerve impulses or hormones to the
feedback. homeostatic organs concerned, causing them to make the necessary adjustments.
 Understand the analogy in explaining the concept of negative feedback -the operation of thermostats in
rooms or oven.
 Understand the 3 components of the negative feedback mechanism: stimulus, coordinating centre and
corrective mechanism.
(c) Identify, on a diagram  Recognise the functions of the skin; protection, sensitivity and temperature regulation.
of the skin, hairs,
sweat glands,  Understand that the skin consists of an outer layer of epidermis and an inner dermis.
temperature
receptors, blood  State that the epidermis is made up of 3 different layers namely the cornified layer, the granular layer
vessels and fatty and the Malpighian layer.
tissue.
 Understand that the epidermis is growing all the time and has an outer layer of dead cells, whereas the
dermis contains the sweat glands, hair follicles, sense organs and capillaries.
(d) Describe the  Recognise that chemical activities in the body and muscular contractions produce heat.
Topic 10: Homeostasis
75
maintenance of a
constant body  Recognise that heat is lost to the surroundings by conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation.
temperature in
humans in terms of  Understand that if the body gains or produces heat faster than it is losing it, vasodilation and sweating
insulation and the role occurs. Vasodilation is the widening of the blood vessels in the dermis which allows more warm blood to
of temperature flow near the surface of the skin and so lose more heat. The sweat glands pour sweat on to the skin
receptors in the skin, surface. When this layer of liquid evaporates it takes heat (latent heat) from the body and so cools it
sweating, shivering, down.
blood vessels near the
skin surface and the  Understand that if the body begins to lose heat faster than it can produce it, vasoconstriction and
coordinating role of shivering takes place. Vasoconstriction of the blood vessels in the skin reduces the amount of warm
the brain. blood flowing near the surface. Shivering refers to uncontrollable bursts of rapid muscular contraction
in the limbs that release heat as a result of chemical changes in the muscles.
 Understand the difference between behavioural responses (which are voluntary) and the internal body’s
responses (which are involuntary) in maintaining the temperature of the body. Examples of behavioural
responses include switching on the heater, taking hot drinks or wearing a sweater when feeling cold and
switching on the fans or the air conditioning when it gets warm.
Experiment 10.1: Simulating temperature regulation during sweating

Online resource:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms/6homeostasisrev1.shtml
Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 10 Homeostasis and Excretion

2 Mary Jones – Unit 11 Homeostasis
3 Ian J Burton – Topic 13 Homeostasis
Extension  Understand that poikilothermic animals are “cold-blooded” animals. Fishes, amphibians, reptiles and
invertebrates are unable to balance the amount of heat produced with the amount of heat lost. Hence
76
their body temperature is not constant. It varies according to the surroundings and to some degree
their activities.
 Understand that homoiothermic animals are “warm-blooded” animals. Mammals and birds are
homoiothermic animals. They can maintain a constant body temperature irrespective of the
temperature of the surrounding medium or atmosphere.
Critical thinking:
 Gathering information: Make a flowchart showing how the temperature of an oven is controlled by its
thermostat.
 Compare and contrast: Using the flowchart prepared above, describe the similarities and differences
between temperature control in an oven with that of the human body.
 Analyse: (a) Why is it incorrect to say that reptiles like lizards are unable to maintain reasonably
constant body temperatures? (b) Discuss why the terms “cold-blooded” and “poikilotherms” should be
replaced with ectoderms.
 Apply: Some people tend to develop a suntan very easily when exposed to the sun. Suggest how
melanin in the skin is associated with tanning.
 Developing a hypothesis: When wires implanted in the hypothalamus of a mammal are warmed, the
animal responds by showing the responses typical of a hot environment. It started panting, sweating
and blood vessels of the skin underwent constriction. What would you expect to observe when the
wires are chilled? Give reasons for your answer.
Interpreting ideas:
 Explain the concept of homeostasis to a friend who has not studied biology.
 Briefly explain how temperature control is achieved in the human body.
 What is the meaning of the following statement? All the vital processes, however varied they may be,
have only one purpose, that of10:
Topic keeping the conditions of life constant in the internal environment of the
Homeostasis
77
human body.
 How do poikilotherms like lizards differ from homoiotherms like humans?
 What homeostatic mechanism occurs when a person is subjected to high temperatures?
Ideas to explore:
 Challenge: Since the epidermis contains keratin making it waterproof, would the application of
expensive skin care products be beneficial? Do a market survey on some expensive creams on sale.
Make a report consisting of the brand name, price, manufacturer and claims of its usefulness. Write to
the manufacturer asking for information on their effectiveness based on scientific data. Write to the
consumer association asking for literature based on their own research on skin care products.
 Project: Research the connection between melanin and freckles among Caucasians. Suggest why
freckles are more common among Caucasians than Asians.
 Project: Use library references to explain what causes a fever. Why do white blood cells release
pyrogens during the inflammatory response to a foreign intruder?
 Project: Invite a doctor or a skin specialist to explain to students about medical problems connected to
the skin of teenagers such as pimples, acne, and oily skin.
78
TOPIC : 11 COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

Time Frame 3 weeks
Topic 10: Homeostasis :
Prior Knowledge:  7 characteristics of living things;
79
 Structure and function of nerve cells;

 Role of liver in glucose metabolism;
 Functions of blood circulatory system;
 Respiration – uses of energy released during respiration;
 A basic understanding of the behaviour of light rays as they pass through lenses would be useful, though not
essential.

1.2 (g) Specialized cells, tissues and organs
7.1 (a), (j) Circulatory system
5.6 (s) Regulation of blood glucose level
8.1 (d) The uses of energy in the body of humans
9.1 (c) Structure and functions of kidneys
10.1 (d) Coordinating role of brain in temperature regulation.
10 (b) Osmotic balance – regulation of water content in blood
16.3 (s) Hormones & menstruation
Keywords: coordination; stimulus; response; nervous system; hormonal system; peripheral nervous system; central nervous system;
spinal cord; nerves; neurones; sensory/receptor neurones; motor/effector neurones; relay/ intermediate neurones; axon;
dendrons; myelin sheath; nodes of Ranvier; electrical impulses; synapse; neurotransmitters; voluntary response;
involuntary response; sensory organs; effector organs; glands; muscles; reflex action; brain; forebrain; midbrain; hindbrain;
grey matter; white matter; hypothalamus; cerebrum; cerebellum; pituitary gland; medulla oblongata; pancreas; reflex
action; reflex arc; eyeball; eyelids; eyelashes; eyebrows; tears; tear glands; conjunctiva; cornea; sclera; radial and circular
muscles; iris; pupil; suspensory ligament; ciliary muscle; aqueous humour; vitreous humour; choroid; retina; fovea centralis
/ yellow spot; blind spot; optic nerve; rod and cone cells; accommodation; endocrine gland; hormones; target cells;
negative feedback mechanism; adrenaline; fight or flight response; motor end plate; ganglion; receptor; effector; sensitivity
/ irritability; neurilemma; pupil reflex; cell body; insulin; diabetes mellitus; adrenal glands; glucagon.

Topic 11: Coordination & Response
80
(a) State that the nervous  State why animals need to react to stimuli.
system – brain, spinal
cord and nerves,  State the sensory organs which respond to the stimuli – taste, sound, smell, touch temperature, pain.
serves to coordinate
and regulate bodily
 State that sensory organs (receptors) are connected to the brain by nerve cells or neurones.
functions.
 Distinguish between a central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Activity:
Provide a simple diagram showing the three main parts and explain that all parts of the body are served
by the nervous system.
(b) Identify on diagrams of  Label the various parts of the brain and only the beginning of the spinal cord.
the central nervous
system, the cerebrum,  State what constitutes the white and grey matters.
cerebellum, pituitary
gland and Provide a labelled diagram of the brain, showing the different regions.
hypothalamus,
medulla, spinal cord
and nerves.
Online resource:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/humansasorganisms/4nervoussystemrev1.shtml
(c) Describe the principal  State the function(s) of the different parts of the brain.
functions of the above Topic 11: Coordination & Response
structures in terms of
coordinating and Activity:
regulating bodily Ask students to do research on the functions of the different regions of the brain from textbooks or CD-
81
functions. ROM. At the end of the lesson, supply a table stating the functions of the different parts of the brain.
(g) Outline the functions of  Draw and label individual sensory neurone, motor neurone and relay neurone.
the sensory neurones,
relay neurones and  State the functions of the sensory, motor and relay neurones.
motor neurones
 Indicate the direction of the nerve impulse in each of the sensory, motor and relay neurones.
 State why neurones are myelinated.
 State the role of the node of Ranvier.
 State that an axon is a nerve fibre that transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body.
 State that a dendron / dendrite is a nerve fibre that transmits nerve impulses towards the cell body.
Activity:
Provide a labelled diagram showing how the 3 neurones are arranged in a reflex arc.
(h) Discuss the function of  Define reflex action.

the brain and spinal
cord in producing a  Differentiate spinal reflex from cranial reflex.
coordinated response
as a result of a specific
 State that messages travel from receptors to the CNS by means of electrical impulses.
stimulus (reflex
action).
 Define the term synapse.
 State that at a synapse, impulses are converted from electrical to chemical by means of a
neurotransmitter.
 Describe and label the pathway of a nerve impulse in a reflex arc.
Activity:
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All students will be familiar with the rapid withdrawal of their hand when it accidentally comes in
contact with a hot object. This reflex may be used to introduce the steps and structures involved in a
reflex arc including, in this case, the fact that the brain is merely informed and it is not involved in
controlling the reflex action.
(d) Describe the gross  Draw and label the front view of the eyes.
structure of the eye as
seen in front view and  Label the parts of the cross-section of an eye.
in horizontal section.
 State the function(s) of the different parts of the eye.
Experiment 11.1: Examining a sheep’s eye

Experiment 11.2: Examining the human eye

(e) State the principal  State that the lens can change shape.
functions of component
parts of the eye in  State the meaning of accommodation.
producing a focused
image of near and
 Explain how the lens changes its shape in relation to increased or reduced tension on the suspensory
distant objects on the
ligament and the contraction/relaxation of the ciliary muscles while viewing near/distant objects.
retina.
 Draw simple ray diagrams of light from both near and distant objects, showing how the lenses change in
each case.
(f) Describe the pupil  State the meaning of pupil reflex.

reflex in response to Topic 11: Coordination & Response
bright and dim light.  State that the eyes can adapt to different light intensities.
 Explain how the radial and circular muscles work in changing the size of the pupil.
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 State the differences between pupil reflex and accommodation.
Activity:
Working in pairs, students can observe on one another the effect of turning on a bench lamp held about
a metre from the eye (ensure that the bulb is of low- rating).
It is crucially important to make clear the distinction between ciliary and iris muscles (circular and
radial).
(i) Define a hormone as a  Define a ‘hormone’.

chemical substance,
produced by a gland,  State the difference between an endocrine and a non-endocrine gland.
carried by the blood,
which alters the
 State the main endocrine glands in a human body and the hormones that they produce.
activity of one or more
specific target organs
and is then destroyed  Define a target organ.
by the liver.
 State the fate of hormones after they have carried out their functions.
 State the differences between the hormonal and the nervous systems.
Activity:
Use OHPT to differentiate between a duct and ductless gland. Show how a ductless gland secretes its
contents directly into the bloodstream.
Provide the students with a list of common endocrine and exocrine glands in the human body.
(j) State the role of the  State the position of the adrenal glands in the body.
hormone adrenaline in
boosting the blood  State the role of adrenaline on the various target organs once it is released into the bloodstream.
glucose concentration
and give examples of
84
situations in which this  State the situations when adrenaline is released (fight/flight response).
may occur.
 State the survival value of the effects caused by adrenaline.
(k) Describe the signs  Define ‘diabetes mellitus’.

(increased blood
glucose concentration  State that a person will suffer from diabetes if the pancreas does not produce enough or any insulin to
and glucose in urine) regulate the blood glucose level.
and treatment
(administration of
 State the signs and symptoms of a person suffering from diabetes mellitus.
insulin) of diabetes
mellitus.
 State the treatments required for a person who suffers from diabetes.
Activity:
Ask pupils to produce a flow chart showing how blood glucose level is controlled.
Provide the students with a graph showing how the blood glucose level varies throughout the day. Ask
the students to explain peaks and troughs in the graph as a result of meal intake and the action of
insulin and glucagon.
Online resources:
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/animation_quizzes/animate_58.htm (pancreas function with animation)
http://www.diabetes-explained.co.uk (Sid explains diabetes – interactively)
Textbook resources: 1 Ian J Burton – Topic 14 Coordination and Response

2 M & G Jones – 9 Coordination and Response
3 Mary Jones – Unit 12 Coordination
Extension  Project – Why do most animals have two (rather than one) eyes?
 State the advantages of having stereoscopic vision.
85
 The students may carry out the blind spot experiment. Invite students to demonstrate their blind spots
by drawing two small circles about 9 cm apart and moving them towards and away from one eye with
the other closed (the spot disappears at a distance of about 30 cm).
 Explain how short-sightedness and long-sightedness happens.
 Explain how concave and convex lenses can be used to correct short-sightedness and long-sightedness.
 State what astigmatism is and the ways of treating it.
Critical thinking:
 Experiment: Some researchers think that emotions affect your ability to remember things. Devise an
experiment to test whether or not emotions affect memory. Predict the possible results of your
experiment.
 Creative writing: Write a short story about how the nervous system enables an adventurer to escape
from a dangerous situation.
 Project: Use library resources to identify a disorder associated with a particular hormone. Present your
findings as a poster.
 Health connection: Two problems associated with diabetes are insulin shock and diabetic coma. Surf
the internet for more information on these conditions.
86
TOPIC : 12 SUPPORT, MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION

Time Frame 1 weeks
Topic 11: Coordination & Response :
Prior Knowledge:  Types of muscle.
87

1 (i) Cell, tissue, organ and organ system
8 (d) Uses of energy in the body of humans – muscle contraction
11 (h) Reflex action
Keywords: support; movement; locomotion; skeleton; bone; joint; cartilage; humerus; radius; ulna; scapula; synovial joint;
ball-and-socket joint; shoulder joint; hinge joint; elbow joint; forelimb; antagonistic muscles; collagen;
elasticity; ligament; tendons; synovial fluid; synovial membrane; biceps; triceps; flexor muscle; extensor
muscle; contract; relax.
Misconception:  Muscles contract and relax to cause movement, they DO NOT expand.

Topic 12: Support, Movement & Locomotion
88
(a) Identify and  Understand that bone is made up of protein and minerals (protein such as collagen and minerals such as
describe, from calcium phosphate and magnesium salts).
diagrams,
photographs and  Label the main bones of the mammalian skeletal system.
real specimens, the
main bones of the  Understand the functions of the human skeleton.
forelimb (humerus,
radius, ulna and
scapula) of a Activity:
mammal. Examine bones (or photographs or drawing of bones) of a small mammal.
Online resource:
http://www.sambal.co.uk/elbow.html (with animation)
http://www.purchon.com/biology/muscles.htm#antagonistic
(b) Describe the type  Understand that bones are joined in different ways and that two bones joined together to allow relative
of movement movement forms a synovial joint.
permitted by the
ball and socket  State the structure and function of the parts of a synovial joint.
joint and the hinge
joint of the  State that the elbow joint and the shoulder joint are examples of synovial joints.
forelimb.
 State that the elbow joint is an example of a hinge joint and that the shoulder joint is an example of a ball-
and-socket joint.
 State the movements allowed for both joints – single plane, all planes.
(c) Describe the action  Understand that muscles work by contraction and relaxation.
of the antagonistic Topic 12: Support, Movement & Locomotion
muscles at the  Use the elbow joint as an example to see how the muscles in the arm cause movement.
hinge joint.
 Describe how the biceps and triceps work oppositely to cause movement – action of antagonistic muscles.
89
 State that biceps are flexors and triceps are extensors.
Experiment 12.1: The action of the antagonistic muscles at the hinge joint
(GCE O-level J91 P3 Q2)
Textbook 1 M & G Jones – 11 Support and Movement

resources: 2 Ian J Burton – Topic 11 Support, Movement and Locomotion
3 Mary Jones – Unit 13 Support, Movement and Locomotion
Extension  Explain the importance of a highly-developed nervous system in an organism with an internal skeleton.
 Suggest why a common sports injury in humans is a sprained or dislocated ankle.
 Explain which components of the diet play a part in bone formation (e.g. calcium, vitamin D) and which
other component of the diet play a part in bone functions (e.g. iron in red blood cell formation).
Topic 12: Support, Movement & Locomotion
90
TOPIC : 13 THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS

Time Frame 2 weeks
Topic 12: Support, Movement & Locomotion :
Prior Knowledge:  Definition of a drug;

 Describe some uses of drugs;
91
 List some commonly abused drugs;

 List signs and symptoms shown by a person addicted to drugs;
 State the consequences of drug abuse in relation to addiction to drugs, e.g. involvement in crime/AIDS;
 State the harmful effects of excessive consumption of alcohol;
 List the chemicals present in tobacco smoke;
 Harmful effects of active/passive smoking;
 State ways to refrain the public from smoking.

5 (s) Liver – the breakdown of alcohol in the liver
5 (s) Absorption of alcohol into the blood
7 (g) Coronary heart disease
8.2 (f) Respiration – alcoholic fermentation
8.3 (j,) (k), (l) Respiration –structure of the lung
14.3 (f) Microorganisms and biotechnology – production of Penicillin in fermenters
16.4 (bb) AIDS
Keywords: drugs; medicine; antibiotics; microorganisms; penicillin; physical dependence; drug tolerance; drug resistance;
drug abuse; heroin; narcotic; reaction time; tranquilisers; hallucinogens; stimulants; depressants; analgesics;
anaesthetics; withdrawal symptoms; chronic bronchitis; emphysema; lung cancer; passive smoking; cirrhosis
of the liver; tar; hydrogen cyanide; carbon monoxide; nicotine; irritants; addiction.
Misconception:  All drugs are conceived as bad drugs with the exclusion of medicinal drugs.
Topic 13: The Use and Abuse of Drugs
92
(a) Define a drug as  Define a drug as any externally administered substance that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the
any externally body.
administered
substance that  Distinguish between stimulants, depressants, analgesics, anaesthetics, tranquilisers, and hallucinogens
modifies or affects (give examples and definitions).
chemical reactions
in the body.
 State the impact of drug abuse – drug addiction and/or drug tolerance.
 State the medical, positive and negative effects of different drugs on the body (e.g. morphine/heroin).
 Define withdrawal symptoms and give examples.
Activity:
Ask students to research on the effects of stimulants, depressants, analgesics, anaesthetics, tranquilisers
and hallucinogenic drugs on the body. Assess by means of group presentations.
(b) Describe the  Define ‘antibiotics’.

medicinal use of
antibiotics for the  List examples of drugs that serve as antibiotics (penicillin, ampicillin, and tetracycline).
treatment of
bacterial infection.
 Explain the importance of finishing a course of antibiotics once prescribed, otherwise bacteria may
develop drug-resistance hence cannot be treated with the same antibiotics.
Topic 13: The Use and Abuse of Drugs 93

Activity:
Ask students to browse through the internet and create a table listing various diseases and the antibiotics
used to cure them.
(c) Describe the effects  State the meaning of ‘drug abuse’.

of the abuse of
heroin: a powerful  State that morphine is a modified version of heroin used medically as a pain-killer.
depressant,
problems of
 State that heroin is a powerful depressant.
addiction, severe
withdrawal
symptoms and  State that heroin is a common drug of abuse.
associated
problems such as  Name the source of heroin.
crime and infection,
e.g. AIDS.  List the immediate and long term effects of taking heroin.
 Explain the withdrawal symptoms associated with heroin addiction.
 State the high possibility of AIDS spreading through sharing injection of contaminated needles.
 State the social side-effects of taking heroin.
Activity:
Research – Drug abuse and the law in Brunei; gather information on the statistics involving drug addiction,
and punishment in Brunei.
Anti-Drug awareness campaign – talk by personnel from the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB).
Online resource:
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/hero.html (facts on heroin)
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(d) Describe the effects  Relate the making of alcohol to the process of anaerobic respiration.
of excessive
consumption of  State that alcohol is a powerful depressant.
alcohol: reduced
self-control,
 State that the high levels of alcohol in the blood impairs judgement and slows down reaction time.
depressant, effect
on reaction times,
damage to liver and  State the amount of alcohol that can be broken down in the liver per hour.
social implications.
 Explain the effect of alcohol on the digestive system.
 State that alcohol could lead to liver damage, known as cirrhosis of the liver.
 State the social implications associated with alcohol addiction.
Activity:
Set up a debate entitled, ‘It is ok for a drunk driver to drive’.
Online resource:
Visit the website – Alcoholic anonymous.
http://www.girlpower.gov/girlarea/bodyfx/alcohol.htm (with animation)
(e) Describe the effects  List down the substances found in cigarette smoke.
of tobacco smoke
and its major toxic  State the effects of these substances on one’s health (e.g. tar, hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide).
components
(nicotine, tar and
 List down examples of smoking-related diseases such as lung cancer, emphysema, and bronchitis.
carbon monoxide)
on health: strong
 State how chronic bronchitis and emphysema arise.
association with
bronchitis,
emphysema, lung  State that smoking during pregnancy can lead to reduced birth weight of the baby.
cancer and heart
 List the immediate and long term effects of smoking.
disease, and the
association

95
between smoking Activity:

during pregnancy Demonstration: Smoking machine.
and reduced birth
weight of the baby. Ask students to gather statistics from RIPAS hospital on deaths due to smoking-related illnesses.
Conduct an educational visit to the ‘Health Promotion Centre’ at the Ong Sum Ping Health Clinic.
(f) Recognise the fact  State what a ‘passive smoker’ means.

that many people
regard smoking as  State the health and social implication of smoking.
no longer socially
acceptable.  Explain why smoking is no longer regarded as socially acceptable.
Activity:
Involve students in anti-smoking campaigns.
State the measures taken in Brunei to prevent smoking, e.g. government tax, banning of smoking in
government buildings and aircrafts, Tobacco Order 2005.
Textbook 1 M & G Jones – 13 Health, Disease and Medicine

resources: 2 Ian J Burton – Topic 15 The Use and Abuse of Drugs
3 Mary Jones – Unit 14 The Use and Abuse of Drugs
Extension
Critical thinking:
 Predict: A student is very curious about the effects of heroin rather than the dangers of its addiction. He
plans to use the drug once or twice and then quit. Predict what will happen. Will the student succeed in
using the drug once or twice and then stop? Base your answers on your knowledge of heroin’s properties.
 Apply: Prevention is the best possible way of handling the problems of drug abuse. By selecting friends
96
and activities that will not expose you to drug use, you can reduce problems of peer pressure. Suggest
some drug-free activities which will remove the peer pressure to use drugs.
 Analyse: Lately Azim’s parents were aware that Azim would sleep for long hours at a stretch. He is very
temperamental. His nose is often red and runny. His parents found white crystals, some straws and a
small mirror in his possession. What has happened to Azim? What must he do to seek professional help?
 Explain: Smoking tobacco is legal in this country. Why would you try to persuade a friend out of
experimenting with it?
Ideas to explore:
 Projects: Anti-drug abuse campaign. Use a computer programme to make a poster that illustrates the
reasons teenagers begin using drugs. Using your poster as a sample, organise a campaign to discourage
students from drug abuse.
 Project: Career talks. Invite trained professionals from the Narcotics Control Bureau to talk on careers
associated with drug prevention and enforcement.
 Project: Profile of an alcoholic. Write a profile of a likely candidate for alcoholism. The profile should
include a description of the students’ personality, family background and disciplinary problems. (use a
fictitious name)

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TOPIC : 14 MICROORGANISMS & BIOTECHNOLOGY

Topic 13: The Use and Abuse of Drugs Time Frame 3 weeks
:
98
Prior Knowledge:  Anaerobic respiration in yeast to produce alcohol.

 Factors affecting enzyme-controlled reactions.
 Awareness of the existence of fungi, bacteria and viruses.

3.2 (c) Effect of temperature on enzyme activity
5.5 Chemical digestion
8.2 (e), (f) Anaerobic respiration, fermentation,
9 (a) Excretion
13.1 (a), (b) Antibiotics (drugs)
15.2 Food chains & Food webs
15.3 (f) Carbon cycle
15.4 (g) Nitrogen cycle
16.4 (z), (z)(bb) Sexually transmitted disease
17.5 (t) Genetic engineering
Keywords: biotechnology; decomposition; recycling; extracellular digestion; saprophytic; organic waste; single celled
protein; fermentation; fermenter; viruses; bacteria; fungi; yeast; alcohol; yoghurt; cheese; bread; antibiotic;
penicillin; decomposer; culture media; lactic acid; curd; whey; brewing; malting; dough; carbon dioxide;
alcohol; humus; compost; heaps; manure; paddles; filter; aerator; Lactobacillus; Penicillium; plasmid,
condenser; sensors (pH, O2 and temperature; stirrer; sparger; thermostat; filtration; crystallisation;
bacteriophage; RNA; DNA; protein coat / capsid; cell wall; chitinous cell wall; slime capsule; flagellum;
mycelium; sporangium; hyphae; spores; bread mould / Mucor; anaerobic respiration; nutrient broth; Rennet;
batch operation system; continuous operation system.

Topic 14: Mcroorganisms & Biotechnology
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(a) List the main  Describe the characteristics of bacteria in relation to structure, mode of feeding, reproduction, habitat,
characteristics of the shape, economic importance and pathogenic activities.
following groups:
viruses, bacteria and  Describe the characteristics of virus in relation to structure, mode of feeding, reproduction, habitat,
fungi. shape, economic importance and pathogenic activities.
 Describe the characteristics of fungus in relation to structure, mode of feeding, reproduction, habitat,
shape, economic importance and pathogenic activities.
 State some uses of bacteria e.g. decomposition.
 State the differences between viruses, fungi and bacteria.
Online resource:
http://www.prteducation.com/article.cfm?cls=1&cat=1554&articleid=2956 (information and diagrams)
(b) Outline the role of  Describe how decomposition is carried out by bacteria and fungi.
microorganisms in
decomposition.  Describe the importance of decomposition in nutrient cycling.
 State that extracellular digestion is involved during decomposition.
 State that microbes release enough energy as heat as they respire. During this process,
compost/manure releases heat, steam, smoke and/or may even catch fire.
(c) Explain the role of  State the products of fermentation of yeast.

yeast in the
production of bread  State that the yeast is a single-celled fungus.
and alcohol.
 Topic 14:
State that the energy Mcroorganisms
released by yeast&isBiotechnology
used for its growth and reproduction.
 State that yeast breaks down sugar anaerobically into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
100
 State that the production of carbon dioxide during yeast fermentation is trapped in the dough, causing it
to rise.
 State the optimum conditions necessary for alcoholic fermentation.
Experiment 14.1: Investigating how dough rises

Online resources:
http://www.csiro.au/helix/sciencemail/activities/bread.html
http://www.nedo.go.jp/english/activities/4_arukoru/arukoru_e.html
http://www.aboutscotland.co.uk/cuisine/index.html (bread making)
(d) Outline the role of  Name some products of fermented milk e.g. yoghurt and cheese.
bacteria in yoghurt
and cheese  Name the type of bacteria that is involved in the fermentation of milk e.g. Lactobacillus.
production.
 Describe the steps in the production of yoghurt.
 State that bacteria produce lactic acid, which is responsible for the souring of milk.
 Describe the steps in the production of cheese.
 State that Lactobacillus feed on lactose and convert milk into cheese.
Online resource:
http://www.food-info.net/uk/dairy/cheese-production.htm
http://www.eufic.org/gb/food/pag/food18/food184.htm
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(e) Describe the use of  State the advantages of using microorganisms as a source of high protein food.
fermenters for large-
scale production of  Define a fermenter.
antibiotics and single
cell protein.  Describe the processes involved in the large scale production of antibiotic and single-celled protein.
 Provide a labelled annotated diagram of a fermenter.
 Briefly describe the operation systems involved during fermentation (batch operation system and
continuous operation system).
Online resource:
http://www.crc.dk/flab/fermenta.htm (fermenter)
(f) Describe the role of  State that Penicillium is a fungus which makes a chemical that stops growth of bacteria.
the fungus Penicillium
in the production of  Describe how penicillin prevents bacteria from multiplying.
penicillin.
 Describe the steps in the large scale production of penicillin.
 State that penicillin is an excretory product of a fungal cell.
Online resource:
http://www.power-chemicals.com/bio/penicilium.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/microbes/prnici.html (penicillin production)
Textbook resources: 1 Ian J Burton – Topic 16 The Diversity of Organisms

2 Mary Jones – Unit 15 Microorganisms and Biotechnology
3 M & G Jones – 14 Making Use of Microorganisms
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Extension  Genetic engineering.

 Describe how fermenters are used to mass produce insulin from genetically-engineered bacteria.
Critical thinking:
 Designing and experiment: develop an experiment to test the hypothesis that the bacterial
population and the variety of bacteria in the mouth decrease after brushing your teeth.
 Making a generalisation: Do you think viruses are alive? Prepare an answer that is brief and simple
for a hawker or food handler so that he would be more health conscious. Support your view with
common examples.
 Making an analogy: Suppose you are an influenza virus which has succeeded in reaching the
bloodstream of an alveolus. Describe the physical and chemical changes that happen to you leading to
the rupture of a red blood cell.
 Organising and classifying: Imagine that you have a rock sample from Mars. You have isolated a
new organic particle with many primitive characteristics. It has an organic cell wall, cell membrane and
nucleic acid. What would you need to know before placing it in an appropriate kingdom?
 Evaluate: Yoghurt and cheese are products of microbial activities that are more resistant to spoilage
than milk from which they are made. Explain why yoghurt and cheese are more resistant to spoilage
than milk.
 Hypothesise: Explain why only pasteurised milk is used in the production of yoghurt and cheese. What
would happen if fresh milk were used in the fermentation?
 Compare and contrast: Describe the similarities and differences between the production of yoghurt
and cheese.
 Summarise: Write a brief outline to explain the role of bacteria in food production.
 Making an analogy: Suppose you are one of the monosaccharides which form starch in the barley
grain used in theTopic
brewing of beer. Describe
14: Mcroorganisms the chemical changes that happen to you from the time the
& Biotechnology
barley germinates to the time ethanol is produced.
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Ideas to explore:
 Project: Visit RIPAS hospital’s medical laboratory to learn how technicians carry out tests for
pathogens.
 Project: Design an activity to investigate the growth of microorganisms on different foods under
different conditions. Use food samples from your school canteen. Plan the procedure, including
materials and have your teacher check it before you start. Keep accurate records of your work.
 Project: Make a model of the following viruses: (a) influenza (b) AIDS (c) bacteriophage T-4 9d) TMV.
 Challenge: Make a list of household products or devices designed to kill bacteria. Interview
housewives for products designed to kill bacteria they would like to buy but are not on sale.
 Project: Survey the medical supplies in your science laboratories and the physical educations tore.
Make a list of the antibiotics available. Find out the microbes from which the antibiotics are extracted.
 Project: Set up a health bulletin board. List the pathogens killed by various antibiotics. Obtain posters
from local health organisations on the use of antibiotics. Display these posters on the bulletin board.
 Challenge: Prepare a report on the success in the use of single cell proteins as an alternative to meat
in developing countries. Find out the reasons for the reluctance of people to eat food prepared from
microbes.
 Challenge: Biotechnology is causing profound changes in society. Prepare a presentation to explain

some of the effects of biotechnology on society.
Biology and History:

 During the 1840s, the potato crop in Ireland was ruined by a fungal disease called potato blight. There
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was a widespread famine in Ireland. A million Irish died of starvation. Find out why the Irish did not
prevent the spread of the fungus Phytophthora infestans. Could the death toll be reduced if a scientific
approach to the problem was made?
Biology and Geography:
 Malaria is still a major health problem in several parts of the world. Research the climate in the parts of
the world where malaria is still rampant. Find out why environmental conditions are conducive for the
disease to remain a threat to human populations in SE Asia, Africa and America.
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TOPIC : 15 RELATIONSHIPS OF ORGANISMS WITH ONE ANOTHER AND WITH

THE ENVIRONMENT
Time Frame 4 weeks
:
Prior Knowledge:
106
 Plant nutrition;
 Respiration;
 Excretion;
 Transpiration;
 Properties of gases (carbon dioxide, nitrogen & water vapour);
 Sources and forms of energy;
 Conversion of energy.

4.1 (a), (f), (g), (h), (j) Photosynthesis
8.1 (a), (b) Anaerobic respiration
14.1 (a), (b) Microorganisms
6.2 (b), (c) Transpiration & translocation
9 (a), (b) Excretion & removal of carbon dioxide
Keywords: ecology; organism; population; community; habitat; niche; ecosystem; biosphere; producers; autotrophs;
heterotrophs; consumers; predators; decomposer; food chain; food web; non-cyclical; pyramid of number;
pyramid of biomass; carbon cycle; nitrogen cycle; parasitism; parasites; pathogen; host; vector; pollution;
conservation; biodiversity; recycling; nitrification; denitrification; non-renewable resources; eutrophication;
sewage; nitrogen fixation; prey; herbivore; carnivore; Anopheles mosquito; malaria; trophic level;
deforestation; water pollution; air pollution; insecticides; sulphur dioxide; oxides of nitrogen; acid rain;
inorganic waste; nitrogen-containing fertilisers; global warming & green house effects; biodegradable; non-
biodegradable; root nodule; leguminous; Plasmodium; decay; combustion; photosynthesis; respiration;
fossilisation; renewable resources.

Topic 15: Relationships of Organisms with One Another & with the Environment
107
(a) State that the Sun is  State that during photosynthesis light energy is trapped from the sun by the chloroplast.
the principal source
of energy input to  State that the trapped light energy is converted to chemical energy in a chloroplast.
biological systems.
Online resources:
www.pbs.org/edens (explore different ecosystems)
http://arctic.fws.gov/habitat.html (explore different ecosystems)
www.homeworkhelp.com (ecology)
www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs300/ecology.htm (ecological Interactions)
(b) Describe the non-  State that once energy is released by organisms, it is lost and can be replaced only by further input,
cyclical nature of directly or indirectly from the sun.
energy flow.
(c) Define the following  Define producers as green plants that capture light energy and make food from inorganic materials.
terms and establish
the relationship of  Define consumers as organisms that feed on other plants or animals.
each in food webs:
producer, consumer,
 Define an herbivore.
herbivore, carnivore,
decomposer, food
chain.  Define a carnivore.
 Define food chain as the transfer of energy from plants to animals and then to other animals by
successive stages of feeding.
 Form a food chain with four trophic levels in various habitats.
 Define a food web.

 Understand that s food web is made up of several inter-linked food chains.
Online resource:
108
www.marietta.edu/~biol/102/ecosystem.html
http://www.arcythech.org/java/populations/facts_foodchain.html
(d) Describe energy  State the advantages of a short food chain.

losses between
trophic levels and
infer the advantages Online resources:
of short food chains. http://www.vtaide.com/png/foodchains.htm (good interactive site)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/livingthingsenvironment/1feedingrelationshipsrev4.shtml
(e) Describe and  State that energy is lost between tropic levels in the form of heat and chemical through the processes
interpret pyramids of of respiration (exhalation), excretion, urination, defaecation and sweating.
numbers and
biomass.  Define pyramid of numbers.
 Define pyramid of biomass
 Describe the difference between the pyramid of numbers and pyramid of biomass.
 State that the pyramids of biomass provide a more accurate representation of energy relationships
between organisms in a food chain or food web than pyramids of numbers (many of which are not the
normal broad-based pyramid shape).
 State that there are various shapes of pyramid of numbers based on the number of producers involved
(either a single tree or several grasses) as well as the number of consumers involved (e.g. population
of ticks and the number of birds that feed on them).
Online resource:
http://www.geog.ouc.bc.ca/physgeog/contents/9o.html
(f) Describe and state  State that carbon dioxide is the main source of carbon for organisms in the atmosphere.
the importance of the
carbon cycle.  Define the carbon cycle.
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 Name the processes that are involved in the carbon cycle (e.g. respiration, photosynthesis, death and
decay, combustion, fossilisation, heterotrophic nutrition).
Online resource:
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CarbonCycle.html
(g) Describe the nitrogen  Define nitrogen fixation.

cycle in making
available nitrogen for  Describe the role of bacteria in nitrogen fixation.
plant and animal
protein, including the  State the role of bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants as well as those that are free living.
role of bacteria in
nitrogen fixation,  Describe the role of bacteria in decomposition.
decomposition
and nitrification
 Define nitrification.
(details of
denitrification and
the names of  Describe the role of bacteria in nitrification.
individual bacteria
are not required).  Define denitrification.
 Describe the role of bacteria in denitrification.
 State the role of lightning in the nitrogen cycle.
Online resource:
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/N/NitrogenCycle.html
(h) Understand the role  Define the term parasite.

of the mosquito as a
vector of disease.  Define the term host.
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 Define the term vector.
 State how the lifestyle of a mosquito makes it a vector for a wide variety of diseases e.g. malaria,
dengue.
Online resource:
http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/biology/mosquito/index.htm (mosquito’s role and malaria control)
(i) Describe the malaria  Stress that the mosquito is the carrier of the malarial pathogen Plasmodium.
pathogen as an
example of a parasite  State the habits of the mosquito that leads to the transmission of the malarial pathogen.
and describe the
transmission and  State the measures that are taken to control the disease both against the mosquito as well as against
control of the the pathogen when (or before) it has gained access to the body.
malarial pathogen
(details of the life
cycle of the pathogen Online resources:
are not required). www.who.int/health-topics/malaria.htm (WHO - malaria)
www.schoolscience.co.uk (the Immune System)
(j) Describe the effects  List some human activities that disturb the balance of the ecosystem.
of humans on the
ecosystem with  State that an action which affects a large area in one part of the world can have consequences in
emphasis on another.
examples of
international  State that the loss of habitats lead to extinction of species and to the loss of possible benefits from
importance (tropical those species (e.g. medicinal drugs).
rain forests, oceans Topic 15: Relationships of Organisms with One Another & with the Environment
and important  State that the action taken in one region near a river e.g. building of a dam can cause flooding and
rivers). devastation hundreds of miles away.
Online resources:
www.census.gov.ipc/www/world.html (World Population Information)
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www.unfpa.org (United Nations Population Fund)
(k) Describe the  Define deforestation.

consequences of
deforestation in  State the reasons for deforestation.
terms of its effects
on soil stability,  State how deforestation leads to soil erosion.
climate and local
human populations.
 Describe how deforestation leads to global warming.
 Define global warming/green house effects.
 State how deforestation leads to a shortage of rainfall.
 State how deforestation leads to a shift in local human population in terms of a loss of homes and
livelihoods.
Online resources:
www.greenpeace.org (Global Warming)
www.met-office.gov.uk (Global Warming)
www.whyfiles.org/080globalwarm/index.html (Global Warming)
http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/Envfacts/facts/deforestation.htm
(l) Evaluate the effects  Define pollution.

of:
water pollution by State15:
 Topic theRelationships
different forms of pollution
of Organisms with(air,
One water,
Anotherland).
& with the Environment
sewage, by inorganic
waste and by
 State how sewage leads to water pollution.
nitrogen-containing
fertilizers;
air pollution by  Define sewage.
greenhouse gases
(carbon dioxide and  List the other mains sources of water pollutants (e.g. inorganic waste and nitrogen containing
fertilisers).
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methane),
contributing to global  State the meaning of eutrophication.
warming; air
pollution by acidic  State the causes of eutrophication.
gases (sulphur
dioxide and oxides of  State the harmful effects of eutrophication on nature.
nitrogen),
contributing to acid
 State the ways of reducing eutrophication.
rain; pollution due to
insecticides. sulphur
dioxide and by oxides  State the causes of air pollution by greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide and methane), contributing
of nitrogen (acid to global warming.
rain);
pollution due to  State the harmful effects of global warming on nature.
insecticides.
 State the causes of air pollution by acidic gases (e.g. sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen),
contributing to acid rain .
Describe the formation of acid rain.
 State the harmful effects of acid rain on nature.
 State the harmful effects of insecticides on nature.
Online resources:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/livingthingsenvironment/3impactofhumansrev8.shtml
http://www.chadevans.co.uk/asite/gcse/b04/ln/t02.html
http://dorset.ceh.ac.uk/River_Ecology/River_Systems/pollution.htm (though a little complex)
(m) Discuss reasons for  Define conservation.

conservation of
species with  Explain the need for conservation.
reference to Topic 15: Relationships of Organisms with One Another & with the Environment
maintenance of  State the features of timber management (e.g. only cutting trees of a certain diameter at breast
113
biodiversity, height, re-afforestation program).

management of
fisheries and  State the features of fishing management (e.g. the quota system, mesh size of fishing nets, seasonal
management of fishing).
timber production.
(n) Discuss reasons for  Define recycling.

recycling materials,
with reference to  Define and state examples of non-renewable resources.
named examples.
 Define and state examples of renewable resources.
 List the examples of items that can be recycled (e.g. metal, paper, glass, plastic).
 State the advantages of recycling.
 State the reasons for recycling paper.
 State the reasons for recycling metal.
Online resource:
www.alcan.co.uk (recycling)
Textbook resources: 1 Ian J Burton – Topic 17 The Relationship between Organisms and the Environment; Topic 18 The Effects of Human
Activity on the Ecosystem
2 Mary Jones – Unit 16 Organisms and the Environment; Unit 17 Human Effects on Ecosystems
3 M & G Jones – 15 Living Organisms and their Environment; 16 Humans and the Environment
Extension  State the effects of CFCs on the ozone layer.

Critical thinking:
114
 Stating a hypothesis: Imagine you have found a bird without its head in your garden. You were
collecting information on food chains in your neighbourhood. You were unable to neither identify the
bird nor examine its type of beak. You decided to dissect its stomach. Only seeds were found. (a)
Given this information, form one or more hypothesis about its feeding habit. (b) Another student
managed to trap a similar bird alive. He observed the bird feeding on worms. What would this
student’s hypothesis be with regards to the bird’s feeding relationship?
 Summarise: Briefly write a paragraph that explains how smog is formed.
 Analysing process: You and your friends like the Mall Gadong across town better than the Mall Kiulap
in your neighbourhood. Going to the one you like best would benefit you. Going to the one close to
your home would provide the benefit of reducing air pollution and conserving fossil fuel. How would
you convince your friends that conservation of natural resources and care of the environment are more
important than personal benefits?
 Evaluate: What changes in attitude and values are involved when: (a) you decide to repair an old
electric kettle rather than buy a new one, (b) you decide to walk, cycle or car pool?
 Infer: If you had to decide to buy soft drinks in disposable or returnable containers, what factors would
affect your decision?
 Explain: In the United States, some states have deposit legislation. The law requires that certain kinds
of beverages be sold only in returnable containers. A deposit is charged for each container at the time
of sale. The deposit is refunded when the container is returned. Would you vote for deposit legislation
in Brunei? Explain why or why not.
Ideas to explore:
 Project: Choose a natural community near your home or school to be your ecosystem for study. You
may choose to study a forest area, a pond or a rotten log. Make a map or drawing of the ecosystem.
Observe the organisms that live in the ecosystem. Use a hand lens to study small creatures. Use
115
binoculars to study organisms you cannot get near. Use field guides to identify organisms. Visit the
ecosystem as often as you can at different times of the day for four weeks. Record your observations.
Present your findings on the food relationships among organisms.
 Project: Construct a pyramid of biomass using the following organisms. Owls, grass, grasshoppers,
snakes and frogs. Estimate the number of producers that are needed to feed the first level consumers.
Then estimate the number of first level consumers that are needed to feed the second level
consumers. Do likewise for other consumer levels. Construct a pyramid of biomass using the
organisms in the food chain. Using the pyramid of biomass, explain the food relationships in the
ecosystem. Explain in which level of the pyramid does man fit in. Why does man fit into more than
one level?
 Project: A corner of your school ground can be set up to attract bird life. Shelters can be built out of
small wooden boxes. Some birds prefer open shelters while others prefer closed ones. The feeders
can be tied to the branches of trees. Swirl a teaspoon of honey in the water to attract birds that drink
water. This project gives you an opportunity to study their food preferences, their feeding behaviour
and other seasonal behaviour.
 Challenge: Prepare a report on the need to encourage all human beings to eat more grains and
vegetables and less meat.
 Challenge: Invite a public health officer to explain the various ways used to dispose of sewage and
garbage using microorganisms.
 Guest speaker on taxidermy: Invite a taxidermist from the natural history department of the
national museum to teach and if possible to demonstrate the techniques used in preserving birds,
snakes, mammals and fish. If possible, get the speaker to bring samples of the finished exhibits.
 Project: Invite a speaker from the Forestry Department to discuss the disposal of the community’s
garbage. Ask the speaker to emphasise on the problems encountered and the solutions used to
overcome them.
 Challenge: Suppose you are still living 100 years from now. What would be your evaluation of how
Topic
people15:today
Relationships of Organisms
are managing with One Another
the environment? How & would
with the Environment
you have benefited from good management
practices?
116
 Challenge: Make a list of products that are made from recycled paper and products that are not. How
do their prices differ?
 Challenge: Describe five sources of pollution in your neighbourhood. Suggest ways to reduce to
pollution.
117
TOPIC : 16 Development of Organisms and Continuity of Life

Time Frame 6 weeks
:
Prior Knowledge:  Cell structures;

 Food test;
118
 Parts and functions of flower;

 Pollination;
 Seed dispersal;
 Germination;
 Role of enzymes;
 Menstrual cycle – fertilization, menstruation and ovulation;
 Sexually transmitted diseases, syphilis and gonorrhoea, AIDS;
 Usage of microscope and hand lens;
 Animal nutrition;
 Excretion.
Links to: Syllabus Reference Sub-topics

1.1 (a), (d), (e) Chromosomes found in nucleus and has genetic information
Specialized cells – sperms and eggs are specialised animal cells
Organisation – what is consisted in a system
Bacteria
2 (a) Diffusion
3.1 , 3.2 (a), (c) Enzymes – as biological catalysts to break down complex molecules
5.1 5.2 (b), (c), (d), (f) Special diet during pregnancy – requires more iron and calcium
7.1 (a) Circulatory system
9 (a) Definition of excretion
11.4 (i) Functions of hormones
13.1 (b), 13.2 (c), 13.3 Medicinal use of antibiotic for bacterial infections
(d) Drug abuse and transmission of AIDS
13.4 (e) Effects of alcohol and tobacco smoke during pregnancy
14.1 (a) The main characteristics of viruses, bacteria and fungi
17.2 (b), (c), (d), (g) Chromosomes and DNA
Keywords: mitosis; meiosis; vegetative reproduction / propagation; layering; grafting; cutting; bud grafting; cleft; grafting;
chromosomes; asexual reproduction; sexual reproduction; offspring; haploid; diploid; dicotyledon; sepal; petal;
Topic 16:
stigma; style; stamen; Development
carpel; of Organisms
ovary; ovule; anther;&filament;
Continuitypollen
of Life grains; pollen tube; receptacle; pedicel;
fruit; pericarp / fruit wall; seed; micropyle; hilum; cotyledons; radicle; plumule; self pollination; cross
pollination; female gamete; male gamete; nucleus; fertilisation; embryo; germination; dispersal; male
reproductive system; testis; scrotum; penis; urethra; sperm ducts / vas deferens; seminal vesicle; seminiferous
119
tubule; prostate gland; Cowper’s gland; epididymis sperm; female reproductive system; fallopian tube /
oviduct; uterus; vagina; cervix; eggs (ova; uterine lining / endometrium; oestrogen; progesterone; follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH; luteinising hormone (LH); Graafian follicle; menstrual cycle; menstruation;
ovulation; fertile and infertile phases; zygote; foetus; implantation; amniotic sac; amniotic fluid; placenta;
umbilical cord; umbilical artery; umbilical vein; breastfeeding; birth control; condom; diaphragm; intra-uterine
device (IUD; spermicide; contraceptive pill; vasectomy; tubal ligation; bacteria; virus; syphilis; Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS); Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
Misconceptions:  Environmental conditions for germination are water (not moisture), oxygen (not air) and suitable temperature
(not temperature only).
 The use of warmth as condition for germination is scientifically vague and that seeds surrounded by moisture
do not germinate – atmospheric air contains moisture.
 Do not confuse menstruation with mensuration.

Topic 16: Development of Organisms & Continuity of Life
(b) Define asexual

reproduction as the  Define reproduction as the process of producing more of one’s kind.
120
process resulting in
the production of  Define asexual reproduction.
genetically identical
offspring from one  Describe a named example of commercially important application of asexual reproduction in plants
parent and describe such as tissue culture in the production of orchids, cuttings and grafting.
one named,
commercially
important application Experiment 16.1: Examining organs of vegetative reproduction
of asexual (GCE O-level Biology Matters (practical book), pp 159-163)
reproduction in plants.
Activity:
Discuss the State Mufti’s speech at the Proceedings of the National Seminar on Science from Islamic
perspectives. (pp 9–12)
(a) Define mitosis as cell  State that when a cell divides by mitosis the cell itself splits into two identical cells, each having an
division giving rise to identical set of chromosomes and genes as the original cell.
genetically identical
cells in which the
chromosome number
is maintained and
state the role of
mitosis in growth,
repair of damaged
tissues, replacement
of worn out cells and
asexual reproduction.
121
(c) Define meiosis as a  State that a gamete is a sex cell.

State that gametes
are a result of a  State that gametes are produced by meiosis, a cell division which halves the number of chromosomes.
reduction division in
which the  State that meiosis results in the formation of haploid number (n) of chromosomes from diploid number
chromosome number (2n) of chromosomes.
(d) is halved fromorm
diploid to haploid.
State that gametes

(de) are the result of
meiois (reduction
division).  Define sexual reproduction.
Define sexual
reproduction as the
process involving the
fusion of haploid
nuclei to form a
diploid zygote and the
production of
genetically dissimilar
offspring.
(fe) Identify and draw,  Use a hand lens to observe, draw and label the structures of a named insect pollinated dicotyledonous
using a hand lens if flower e.g. hibiscus and Allamanda.
necessary, the sepals,
petals, stamens and  Use microscope to observe the pollen grains of insect pollinated flowers.
carpels of one, locally
available, named,
insect pollinated, Experiment 16.2: Structure of a flower
dicotyledonous flower, (Biology Expression: Practical workbook O-level Science (Biology), pp 143-145)
and examine the
pollen grains under a Experiment 16.3: Examining an insect- pollinated flower
light microscope. (GCE O-level Biology Matters (practical book), pp 165-168)
122
(gf) State the functions of  Use a table to outline the function(s) of sepals, petals, anthers, filaments, stigma, style, ovary and
sepals, petals, anthers ovules.
and carpels.

(hg) Use a hand lens to  Use a hand lens to observe the characteristics of a wind pollinated flower for example the grass flower
identify and describe (Ischaemum species).
the anthers and
stigmas of one, locally  Use a microscope to observe the pollen grains of wind-pollinated flowers.
available, named,
wind-pollinated flower,
and examine the Experiment 16.4: Examining a wind-pollinated flower
pollen grains under a (GCE O-level Biology Matters (practical book), pp 169-171)
light microscope.
(ih) Outline the process of  Define pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma.
pollination and
distinguish between  Define self-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma of the same flower or
self-pollination and between flowers on the same plant.
cross-pollination.
 Define cross-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma of flowers on
(ji) Compare, using fresh different plants but of the same species.
specimens, an insect-
pollinated and a wind-  State the advantages and disadvantages of self and cross-pollination.
pollinated flower.
 Use a table to compare the differences between an insect-pollinated flower and a wind-pollinated
flower.
(kj) Describe the growth of  Describe how the pollen tube grows down the style.
the pollen tube and its
entry into the ovule  State that the pollen grains contain two male gametes, the nucleus of one male gamete will fuse with
followed by the nucleus of the female gamete in the ovule to bring about fertilisation.
fertilisation
(production of  Appreciate that the other male gamete will fuse with the endosperm gamete to form the endosperm (a
endosperm and details food storage tissue).
of development are
123
not required).  Describe what happens to ovary, ovules, style, sepals, petals, stigmas, anthers and filaments, after
fertilisation.
(lk) Investigate and  Draw and label the external and internal structures of a non-endospermic seed.
describe the structure Topic 16: Development of Organisms & Continuity of Life
of a non-endospermic
seed in terms of the
embryo (radicle, Experiment 16.5: Seed structure
plumule and (Practical Biology: A course for O-level, pp 139-140)
cotyledons) and testa,
protected by the
pericarp(/fruit wall).
(ml) State that seed and  State the advantages of fruit and seed dispersal.
fruit dispersal by wind
and by animal
provides a means of Experiment 16.6: Wind-dispersed fruits and seeds
colonising new areas. (Practical Biology: A course for O-level, pp 129-130)
Experiment 16.7: Fruits and seeds dispersed by animals

(Practical Biology: A course for O-level, pp 133-136)
Experiment 16.8: Fruits dispersed by animals

Note: Emphasise the following labels: pericarp, funicle, placenta, seed, jelly-coating (if present), locule, septum,
tripartite structure e.g. banana.
Experiment 16.9: Seeds dispersed by explosive mechanism

(nm Describe the external  Describe how seeds are adapted to wind dispersal and animal dispersal.
) features of one,
locally available,  Draw and label the external feature of a wind-dispersed fruit or seed.
named example of a
wind-dispersed fruit or
124
seed and of one

named
example of an animal
dispersed fruit orand  Draw and label the external features of an animal-dispersed fruit or seed.
seed.
(on) Investigate and state  State the importance of a suitable temperature, water and oxygen for seed germination.
the environmental
conditions that affect  Conduct an experiment to investigate the effects of suitable temperature, water and oxygen on seed
the germination of germination.
seeds: suitable
temperature, water  State the function of amylase, lipase and protease in the breakdown of stored food in the cotyledon.
and oxygen. For example: starch to become maltose by using amylase; protein to amino acids by using protease;
lipids (oils) to fatty acids and glycerol by using lipase.
(po) Describe the uses of
enzymes in the
germination of seeds.
(qp) Identify on diagrams  Label the parts of the male reproductive system.
of the male
reproductive system  State the functions of the various parts of the male reproductive system.
and give the functions
of the testes, scrotum,
sperm ducts, prostate
gland, urethra and
penis.
(rq) Identify on diagrams  Label the parts of the female reproductive system.
of the female
reproductive system  State the functions of the various parts of the female reproductive system.
and give the functions
of the ovaries,
oviducts, uterus,
cervix and vagina.
125

(sr) Compare the male and  Use a table to compare the differences between a male gamete and a female gamete.
female gametes in
terms of size, numbers
and mobility.
(ts) Describe the  Describe the average 28- day menstrual cycle with reference to the specific stages occurring within the
menstrual cycle, with cycle; menstruation, ovulation, implantation, repair and thickening of the uterus lining (endometrium).
reference to the
alternation of  State the role of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), oestrogen, luteinising hormone (LH) and
menstruation and progesterone in controlling the menstrual cycle.
ovulation, the natural
variations in its length  Identify the fertile and infertile phases of the menstrual cycle.
and the fertile and
infertile phases of the
cycle.
(u)
Explain the role of
hormones in
controlling the
menstrual cycle
( including FSH, LH,
progesterone and
oestrogen).
(vt) Describe fertilisation  Identify the site of fertilisation in the female reproductive system.
and early
development of the  Define fertilisation as the fusion of the nucleus of the male gamete with the nucleus of the female
zygote simplye in gamete to form a zygote.
terms of the formation
of a ball of cells that  State that the zygote divides by mitosis to form a ball of cells (embryo) prior to implantation.
becomes implanted in
the wall of the uterus.
126
 Define implantation as the embedding of the embryo onto the uterus lining.
(wu State the function of  State the function of the amniotic sac.
) the amniotic sac and
the amniotic fluid.  State the functions of the amniotic fluid.
 Briefly describe the placenta.

 Briefly describe the umbilical cord.
(xv) Describe the function  State the function(s) of placenta.

of the placenta and
umbilical cord in  State the function(s) of umbilical cord.
relation to exchange
of dissolved nutrients,  Stress that the maternal and foetal blood do not mix.
gases and excretory
products (no
structural details are
required).
(yw Describe the special  Describe the need to increase the intake of iron, calcium, vitamin C, vitamin D, proteins and
) dietary needs of carbohydrates during pregnancy.
pregnant women.
Describe the  Compare the advantages and disadvantages of breast feeding over bottle feeding.
(zx) advantages of breast 
milk compared with
bottle milk.
(aa Describe the following  State the need for birth control in relation to spacing out birth.
y) methods of birth
control; natural,  State the methods of birth control:
chemical
127
(spermicides),  Natural methods: e.g. Rhythm or Mucus, Calendar and Temperature method.
mechanical, hormonal  Artificial methods: e.g. hormonal – contraceptive pill; mechanical –condom, intra uterine devices,
and surgical. diaphragm; surgical – tubal ligation and vasectomy; and chemical: spermicide.
(zb Explain that syphilis is  State that a sexually transmitted disease (STD) is spread solely by sexual intercourse with an infected
b) caused by a bacterium person e.g. syphilis.
that is transmitted
during sexual
intercourse.

(cca Describe the  State that syphilis is a disease caused by bacteria.
a) symptoms, signs,
effects and treatment  Describe the symptoms and signs of a person infected by syphilis.
of syphilis.
 Describe the effects of syphilis on an infected person.
 Describe the treatment for and the prevention of syphilis.
(dd Discuss the spread of  State the meaning of HIV and AIDS.
bb) human
immunodeficiency  State how HIV is spread e.g. through blood transfusion, contact with contaminated blood and by an
virus (HIV) and infected pregnant mother to her foetus / newborn.
methods by which it
may be controlled.  State how HIV may be controlled.
Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 8 Reproduction

2 Mary Jones – Unit 18 Reproduction in Plants
3 Ian J Burton – Topic 20 Reproduction
Extension  Understand how multiple births can occur (identical and fraternal twins);
 Understand the role of in vitro fertilization (IVF) in assisted fertility treatment programmes.
128
Critical thinking:
 Developing a hypothesis: During childbirth, a physician may give the mother anaesthetics which are
drugs that relieve labour pains. A local anaesthetic affects only the mother who remains conscious
throughout the delivery. A general anaesthetic enters the circulation of the mother and baby. With
this kind of anaesthetic, the baby born is sleepy and has slow respiration. Why is the baby not
unconscious just like the mother?
 Challenge: Make
Topic a poster or chart
16: Development showing& the
of Organisms gestation
Continuity periods of different animal species. Obtain
of Life
this information from your school library.
 Challenge: Obtain information about artificial insemination and superovulation in humans and farm
animals. How are sperms and eggs preserved for later use?
 Analysing process: Parthenocarpic fruits are more popular because seeds are not present. Would the
farmer encounter problems of expanding his farm since he is unable to collect seeds from
parthenocarpic fruits?
 Projects: Take a camera to the Botanic Gardens. Make a collection of pictures on flowers and fruits
you observe. Name the pictures and group the flowers according to the type of pollinating agents they
are adapted for. Classify the fruits based on the types of adaptation for dispersal. Display your
collection in the class.
 Project: Arrange to interview a doctor who is involved in research on in vitro fertilisation. Report on
the procedure with reference to why the technique is used and its success rate.
129
130
TOPIC : 17 INHERITANCE
Time Frame 4 weeks
:
Prior Knowledge:  The major part of this unit stands alone. Helpful, but not essential would be a knowledge of cell structure,
enzymes and bacteria.

1.1 (c), (d) Cell structure
11.4 (k) Hormones
14.1 (a) Microorganisms
14.3 (e) Industrial biotechnology
16.1 (a), (b), (c) Asexual reproduction
16.2 (d) Sexual reproduction in plants
16.3 (p), (q), (r), (t) Sexual reproduction in humans
Keywords: chromosomes; nucleus; gene; alleles; dominant; recessive; phenotype; genotype; DNA; F1 and F2 generation;
mutation; continuous variation; discontinuous variation; monohybrid inheritance; gametes; homozygous;
heterozygous; 3:1 and 1:1 ratios; co-dominance; natural selection; artificial selection; evolution; sex
chromosomes (XX and XY); genetic engineering; plasmids; transgenic bacteria; traits/characteristics; offspring;
homologous chromosomes; gene pool; sickle-cell anaemia; Down’s syndrome; ABO blood group; complete
dominance; observed ratios; expected ratios; genetic engineering; insulin; Punnet square; test cross;
mutagens; genetic diagram; progeny; inbreeding; outbreeding; hybrids; hybridization; vector; pure / true
breeding.
131
Misconceptions:  Genes and alleles are often used interchangeably and have the same meaning.
 Variations arise ‘in order for the organism to adapt to the environment’ as opposed to variation being a
random process which happens to leave some members at a survival advantage over other organisms in a
particular environment.
 The sex of a child is entirely determined by the man, NOT the woman.
Topic 17: Inheritance

(b) State that a  State that heredity is the transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring via chromosomes.
chromosome includes
a long molecule of  State that a characteristic is a distinct structural or functional feature of an organism e.g. tongue-rolling
DNA. is a characteristic.
(c) State that DNA is  State that chromosomes are the inheritable materials found in the nucleus of all living cells.
divided up into
sections called genes.  State that when a cell divides, its nucleus first makes an exact copy of each strand of DNA (and
therefore, also of each gene). The original passes into the nucleus of one cell, and its copy passes into
(d) Explain that genes the other. In the same way, the same genes are passed from generation to generation.
may be copied and
passed on to the next  State that each body cell of a species contains a fixed number of chromosomes in its nucleus. In
generation. humans, every body cell (except the gametes/sex cells) contains 46 chromosomes, present as 23 pairs.
 State that the 2 members of a chromosome pair are exactly alike in shape and size (except for the XY
sex chromosomes) and are known as homologous chromosomes.
 State that during sexual reproduction, characteristics determined by genes are passed from parent to
offspring (i.e. children) via the chromosomes in gametes (i.e. sex cells such as egg/ovum or sperm).
132
 State that gametes are produced by meiosis, a cell division which halves the number of chromosomes.
As such, the human sperm and egg each contains 23 chromosomes, not 46.
 State that during fertilization, a sperm unites with an ovum to produce a zygote (i.e. fertilised egg cell)
which contains 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs.
 State that the zygote then repeatedly divides by mitosis and eventually gives rise to a fully formed
offspring. Each body cell of the offspring contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. One member of each pair
comes from the father (contained in the sperm) and the other from the mother (contained in the ovum).
 State that since chromosomes Topic

bear17: Inheritance
genes, one half of the offspring’s genes are inherited from the
father and the other half is from the mother.
 State that when a cell divides by mitosis the cell itself splits into two identical cells, each having an
identical set of chromosomes and genes as the original cell.
 State that a chromosome is made up of a long molecule of DNA.
 Describe briefly the structure of a DNA molecule as a double-helix structure cross-linked by a succession
of paired molecules called bases.
 State that DNA is divided into sections called genes and that each gene comprises of its own particular
sequence of linked bases.
Experiment 17.1: Extracting DNA from living material

Online resources:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/variationandinheritance/0dnaandgenesrev5.shtml
(e) Define a gene as a  Define a gene as a section of DNA that codes for a particular characteristic.
unit of inheritance and
distinguish clearly  Define an allele as alternative forms of the same gene i.e. one gene consists of 2 alleles.
between the terms
133
gene and allele.
(f) Describe complete  State that an allele may be dominant or recessive.

dominance using the
terms dominant,  Define a dominant allele as the more ‘powerful’ allele out of a pair of alleles and that its characteristic is
recessive, phenotype usually expressed.
and genotype.
 State that a dominant allele is usually

Topic represented by the upper case/capital letter (e.g. A) when used in
17: Inheritance
a genetic diagram.
 Define a recessive allele as the ‘weaker/less dominant’ allele out of a pair of alleles and that its
characteristic is usually not expressed i.e. its characteristic is ‘masked’ by the dominant allele.
 State that a recessive allele is usually represented by the lower case/small letter (e.g. a) when used in a
genetic diagram.
 Define phenotype as the observable characteristics of an organism e.g. black hair, blue eyes, curly hair,
etc.
 Define genotype as the types of alleles possessed by an organism. A genotype may be homozygous
dominant (e.g. AA) or homozygous recessive (e.g. aa) or heterozygous (e.g. Aa).
(i) Predict the results of  State that alleles can be heterozygous or homozygous.
simple crosses with
expected ratios 3:1  Define homozygous alleles as a pair of identical alleles that control the same characteristic. They are
and 1:1, using the usually represented by 2 letters of the same size e.g. AA or aa.
terms homozygous,
heterozygous, F1
 Define heterozygous alleles as a pair of different alleles that control the same characteristic. They are
generation and F2
usually represented by 2 letters of different size e.g. Aa or Bb.
generation.
 Define monohybrid inheritance as the inheritance of one characteristic that is expressed in contrasting
forms e.g. blue eyes/brown eyes, shortness/tallness.
134
 Draw full genetic diagrams with reference to parent’s phenotype and genotype, gametes, F1 genotype
and phenotype and ratios or percentages.
 Use the Punnet square as a quick method of determining the offspring’s genotype and/or phenotype.
 State that in simple Mendelian inheritance involving one trait/characteristic, both the homozygous
dominant organism and the heterozygous organism share the same phenotype.
 Predict the results of simple crosses with expected ratios of 3:1 and 1:1.

(j) Explain why observed  State that with a small number of progeny, probabilities (i.e. expected ratios) will not match with reality
ratios often differ from Topic 17:
(i.e. observed ratios). However, Inheritance
with a large number of progeny from one cross, they are likely to be
expected ratios, more accurate.
especially when there
are small numbers of  State that alleles A and B are equally dominant (i.e. codominant) and hence they are both expressed in
progeny. people with blood group phenotype AB.
(k) Explain codominance

 State that allele O is recessive to alleles A and B and as such, blood group phenotype O could only be
by reference to the
expressed in the homozygous recessive form i.e. OO.
inheritance of the ABO
blood group
phenotypes (A, B, AB,  State that individuals with blood group phenotype A could either have genotypes AA (homozygous) or
O gene alleles IA, IB AO (heterozygous).
and IO).
 State that individuals with blood group phenotype B could either have genotypes BB (homozygous) or
BO (heterozygous).
 State that 2 parents must be heterozygous blood group A and heterozygous blood group B in order to
produce offspring which show all the 4 different blood group phenotypes.
(l) Describe the  State that the sex of a child is entirely determined by the male parent.
determination of sex
in humans (XX and XY  State that sex inheritance is the inheritance of chromosomes (i.e. either the X or Y chromosome), not
chromosomes). genes.
 State that there is usually equal chance of producing a male or female offspring because equal numbers
135
of X and Y sex chromosomes are produced in the testes.
(g) Describe mutation as  Define a mutation as a sudden change in a gene or a chromosome. An example of a gene mutation is
a change in the sickle-cell anaemia and an example of a chromosome mutation is Down’s syndrome.
structure of a gene
(sickle cell anaemia)  State that most mutations are harmful and recessive in nature; only occasionally beneficial mutations
or in the chromosome arise in nature (e.g. resistance to penicillin by bacteria).
number (47 in Down’s
syndrome instead of
 State that mutations produce variations in populations and thus provide the raw material for evolution.
46).
 State that in sickle cell anaemia, the mutated gene produces haemoglobin which is the same as the
normal haemoglobin except Topic 17: Inheritance
in one amino acid. This causes the red blood cells to become sickle-
shaped, thereby reducing the surface area for carrying oxygen.
 State that Down’s syndrome is caused by an abnormal meiotic division during ova/egg formation in
older women. The extra chromosome interferes with the normal brain and body development of the
child. Its incidence increases exponentially after age 35.
 State that the affected chromosome number in Down’s syndrome is chromosome 21. Hence Down’s
syndrome is also sometimes referred to as Trisomy-21.
 State that the rate of spontaneous mutation is usually very low. However, its rate is greatly increased
by exposure to mutagens (i.e. mutation-causing agents) such as radiations (UV light, alpha, beta and
gamma) and chemicals (mustard gas, formaldehyde and cyclamates or artificial sweetening agents).
(a) Describe the  State that variation refers to differences in characteristics shown by organisms belonging to the same
differences between population or species.
continuous and
discontinuous  State that variations which help organisms to survive in their natural environment are said to have
variation and give survival value.
examples of each.
 State that only variations which are due to inherited characteristics (i.e. genetic variations), have
survival value since they can be passed on from parents to offspring. Variations due to acquired
characteristics (as a result of environmental factors) cannot be passed on to the offspring and so have
136
no survival value.
 Define continuous variation as one which has many intermediate forms for a particular
characteristic/feature. This feature varies gradually from one extreme to another (e.g. the gradation in
height from very short to very tall).
 State that continuous variation is brought about by the combined effects of many genes (inheritable
factors), and is also affected by environmental influences, such as diet, living conditions and exercise.
 Define discontinuous variation as one which has very few or no intermediate/in-between forms i.e. there
is no gradual transition between extremes (e.g. ABO blood group, sex of the individual).
 State that discontinuous variation is brought about by the effect of one gene or a few genes. They often
Topic(sudden
arise as a result of mutations 17: Inheritance
inheritable changes in genes or chromosomes). Environmental
influences have no effect on them.
 State how variations may arise (e.g. sudden mutations, random fertilization of egg and sperm, random
assortment of chromosomes into eggs and sperms) during meiotic cell division.
Experiment 17.2: Variation in seed length I (long bean)

Experiment 17.3: Variation in seed length II (rice)

(m Describe variation and  State that variation is a random process which leaves some organisms at a survival advantage over
) state that competition other organisms in a particular environment. Organisms that survive then reproduce and hand on the
leads to differential advantage to at least some of their offspring.
survival of organisms,
and reproduction by  State that living organisms have to compete with members of their own population as well as other
those organisms best populations living in the same place for basic needs such as water, food, light, living space and mates.
fitted to the
environment.
 State that in most populations, a large number of offspring is produced. However, only a small number
survives, reaches maturity and reproduces. The individuals that survive are the ones that can compete
137
successfully among members of their own species and of other species for mutually needed resources.
These individuals have inherited certain features from both their parents in order to help them to fit in
and compete successfully in their natural environment.
 State that natural selection is the process by which the better adapted varieties of species in
populations are selected by the environment (e.g. the climatic conditions and competition for the same
environmental resources) to continue their existence.
 State that natural selection is a never-ending process in nature since environmental factors keep on
changing all the time. Only variations which have survival value and are due to inherited
characteristics are important in natural selection.
 State that natural selection results in “loss” of ‘disadvantageous’ genes from the gene pool.
 State that a gene pool is a collection of the different types of genes in a particular population.
Online resources:
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIENaturalSelection.shtml
http://encyclopedia.lockergnome.com/s/b/ArtificialSelection.shtml
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/variationandinheritance/0dnaanagenesrev4.shtml
(n) Assess the importance  Describe evolution as the sum total of adaptive changes that have taken place over a very long period
of natural selection as of time, with the development of a new species from existing ones and that these new species lead their
a possible mechanism lives differently from the species from which they evolved.
for evolution.
 State that natural selection is the mechanism by which new species arise from existing ones. Other
forces that play a part in evolution are mutation and variation.
(o) Describe the role of  State that artificial selection is Man’s way of manipulating animals and plants in the direction he wants.
artificial selection in It is a method of selection practiced by humans to produce economically important plants and animals
the production of with desirable qualities.
economically
important plants and  State the 2 methods of selective breeding: inbreeding and outbreeding.
animals.
138
 State that inbreeding is the breeding of closely related individuals in a species. Usually these
individuals carry the desirable quality/characteristic that man would like to mass produce for economic
purposes.
 Describe how inbreeding is carried out in plants i.e. select the plant that show the desirable quality,
allow the seeds from the selected plant to grow to maturity, self pollinate and produce seeds. Repeat
the process of sowing the seeds, self pollinating and production of seeds until a true/pure-breeding
stock (i.e. one that is homozygous for the selected characteristic) of the plant is obtained.
 State that unlike plants, animals cannot be self fertilised. Inbreeding is usually carried out by mating
brother and sister animals which both show the desired characteristic.
 State that outbreeding involves crossing individuals of genetically distinct populations. It produces new
and better varieties of individuals
Topic 17: (i.e. hybrids) that are healthier and more resistant to disease. This
Inheritance
process is also known as hybridization.
 State that inbreeding concentrates the gene pool in such a way that the chances of the recessive genes
being expressed through homozygosity are increased.
(p) Explain that DNA  State that the linking of amino acids to form a protein in the cells of a body is determined by DNA. The
controls the exact amino acids and their particular sequence in each different protein are controlled by one specific
production of proteins. gene.
(q) State that each gene

controls the
production of one
protein.
(r) Explain that genes  Define genetic engineering as a technique used to transfer genes from one organism into another
may be transferred organism from the same species or an organism from a different species.
between cells
(reference should be  State that a vector is required to carry the transferred gene and to mass produce proteins coded by that
made to transfer particular gene. Bacteria contain circular DNA called plasmids that can be used to ‘cut and paste’ the
between organisms of required gene.
the same or different
139
species).
(s) Explain that the gene  Explain how the gene that controls the production of human insulin can be inserted into bacterial
that controls the DNA/plasmids.
production of human
insulin can be inserted  State that any organism which acquires a foreign gene is called a transgenic organism. The bacterium
into bacterial DNA. which acquires the human insulin is a transgenic bacterium.
(t) Understand that such  State that the insulin gene can be identified and, with the aid of enzymes, isolated from the strand of
genetically engineered DNA in the nucleus of a cell from
Topic 17:aInheritance
healthy person. Enzymes are again used to attach it to the DNA of a
bacteria can be used bacterial plasmid.
to produce human
insulin on a  Briefly mention how insulin can be mass produced on a large scale using fermenters (i.e. the transgenic
commercial scale. bacteria are mixed with a nutrient broth under optimum conditions, oxygen concentration, pH and
temperature. When bacterial population has grown to its maximum, they are removed from the broth
and are burst open to release the insulin. The insulin is then extracted and purified).
(u) Discuss potential  Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering in terms of the environmental,
advantages and economic, health, religious, social and ethical implications (see notes enclosed).
dangers of genetic
engineering.
Online resource:
http://www.abpischools.org.uk/resources/poster-series/geneng/advndis.asp (advantages and disadvantages)
Extension  Understand that the double-helix DNA molecule is held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases.
 Understand that in the DNA molecule, the base Adenine pairs with Thymine, while the base Guanine
pairs with Cytosine.
 Understand that the fixed sequence of bases in each strand of the double helix allows for accurate
140
replication prior to cell division.
 Understand that the sequence of bases in each strand of the double helix is the genetic code and that
each group of 3 bases codes for an amino acid.
 Understand that during transcription, one strand of the DNA containing the gene will provide the
template for the formation of messenger RNA. The messenger RNA must be decoded and translated into
the protein molecule by the ribosomes.
 Understand that DNA controls the activities of the cell by its ability to code for various proteins.
 Understand that a ‘test-cross’ with a homozygous recessive individual will reveal whether a genotype is
homozygous dominant or heterozygous.
 Understand why sickle-cell anaemia is common in areas affected by malaria.
141
Additional notes on dangers of genetic engineering:
(A) Environmental hazards Topic 17: Inheritance
o The resulting deaths of insects that feed on GM (genetically modified) crops may result in a loss of biodiversity in the longer
term.
o Insects that feed on GM crops may adapt and develop resistance to the toxins in these crops. These insects may subsequently
develop resistance to pesticides that act in a similar way to the GM toxin.
o Herbicide resistant plants and weeds could cross-breed and create ‘superweeds’.
(B) Economic hazards
o In the case of GM seeds, the company that first engineered them has the patent (i.e. legal rights) to produce or manufacture a
product. This prevents unauthorized planting of such seeds without permission from the company. A patent also prevents
other biotechnology companies from producing the same type of GM seeds. Competition from farmers and other biotechnology
companies is thus eliminated.
o Some biotechnology companies have engineered crop plants such that these plants produce seeds that cannot germinate. This
technique is known as ‘terminator technology’. This means that farmers have to buy special seeds from these companies
every year. This poses a serious problem to poorer societies, where farmers are struggling to make a living.
(C) Health hazards
o Genetic engineering could potentially introduce allergens in food, which could cause some people to react badly to it.
o Modifying a single gene in plants could result in the alteration of some metabolic processes within the plant. This may result in
the production of toxins not usually found within these plants. The consumption of these plants or products made from these
plants by humans can pose serious health problems.
142
o Genes that code for antibiotic resistance may accidentally be incorporated into bacteria that cause diseases in humans, making
antibiotics ineffective in treating these diseases.
o Some people may deliberately create new combinations of genes which they may use in chemical and biological warfare.
(D) Social and ethical hazards
o In gene therapy, a gene inserted in the body cells may find its way into the ova or sperms. If the gene mutates, it may affect
the offspring of the patient.
o Genetic engineering may lead to class distinctions. Only individuals with sufficient financial means can afford certain gene
technologies.
(E) Religious implications
o Some religions do not approve of genetic engineering, as it

Topic 17: may not be appropriate to alter the natural genetic make-up of
Inheritance
organisms.
Additional notes on the benefits of genetic engineering:
Applications of genetic engineering Benefits to society
Low-cost production of medicines Genetic engineering of important drugs such as human insulin has drastically reduced
the cost of these medicines. With these drugs becoming more affordable, more
patients can get access to them and be treated.
Production of crops that grow in extreme Examples of such crops include:

conditions (e.g. high-salt environments)  drought-resistant crops;
 salt-tolerant crops; and
 crops that make more efficient use of nitrogen and other nutrients. This allows
farmers to grow crops even when the soil conditions are not suitable for
cultivating most crops.
Development of: The use of costly pesticides that may damage the environment is reduced. For e.g.
 crops that produce toxins that kill insect the Bt gene from a certain bacterium can be inserted into plants to produce a toxin
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pests; and that kills certain insect pests.

 pesticide-resistant crops
Development of foods designed to meet specific Improved nutritional quality of foods. For e.g. two genes from daffodil and one gene
nutritional goals from the bacterium Erwinia uredarora inserted into rice plants produce “Golden Rice”.
The rice grains have high vitamin A content.
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SPN21 ‘O’ Level Biology SoW

NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM for the 21ST

Mrs Tan Lian Wah

BIOLOGY BC GCE O-LEVEL 5090 SCHEME OF WORK OVERVIEW – 2-

A Cell and Cell Processes 1 Cell Structure and Organisation

B Plant Nutrition 4 Plant Nutrition

C Animal Nutrition 5 Animal Nutrition

D Human Transport & Respiration 7 Transport in humans

E Coordination, Movement & 9 Excretion

F Drugs, Microbes and 13 The Use and Abuse of Drugs

H Continuity of Life 16 Development of Organisms and Continuity of Life

BIOLOGY BC GCE O-LEVEL 5090 SCHEME OF WORK OVERVIEW – 3-

A Cell and Cell Processes 1 Cell Structure and Organisation

B Plant Nutrition 4 Plant Nutrition

C Animal Nutrition 5 Animal Nutrition

D Human Transport & Respiration 7 Transport in humans

E Coordination, Movement & 9 Excretion

F Drugs, Microbes and 13 The Use and Abuse of Drugs

H Continuity of Life 16 Development of Organisms and Continuity of Life

Recommended Prior Knowledge:

Details of the text books:

TOPIC : 1 CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

Prior Knowledge:  Familiarity with the use of microscope;

Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes

Students should be able to: Students should be able to:

Online resources: (Cell adaptation)

(i) Differentiate cell,  Define tissue, organ and organ system.

Online resources: (Hierarchy of structure)

Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 1 Cells

 Project: Make a three-dimensional model of a plant cell and its parts.

Topic 1: Cell Structure and Organisation

TOPIC : 2 DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS

Prior Knowledge:  Kinetic theory of matter;

Links to: Syllabus Reference Sub-Topic

 Osmosis only involves the movement of water molecules.

Learning Objective Learning Outcomes

Students should be able to: Students should be able to:

Experiment 2.1: Diffusion

(b) Define osmosis as the  Define osmosis.

Experiment 2.2: Osmosis in Visking tubing

Experiment 2.3: Osmosis in plant cells

Experiment 2.4: Osmosis in plant tissue

Experiment 2.5: Water potential

Experiment 2.6: Surface area/volume ratio, absorption & diffusion

Topic 2: Diffusion & Osmosis

(d) Define active  Define active transport.

Textbook resources: 1 M & G Jones – 2 Diffusion, Osmosis and Active transport

Topic 2: Diffusion & Osmosis 17

 Challenge: Prepare a list of examples of diffusion and osmosis in everyday life.

Topic 2: Diffusion & Osmosis

Links to: Syllabus Reference Sub-Topic

Learning Objective Learning Outcome

Students should be able to: Students should be able to:

 Explain what is meant by an anabolic reaction (e.g. photosynthesis).

 Understand the difference between the term organic and inorganic.

 Understand that enzymes are produced by living cells.

 Understand that water is needed to activate organic enzymes (hydrolysis).

http://www.biotopics.co.uk / nutrition / enzfac.html (effect of external conditions on enzyme action)

 Illustrate the understanding of ‘Lock & Key Hypothesis’.

 Examples* of enzyme controlled-reactions:

(c) Investigate and  Perform experiments on:

 Plot and label graphs.

 Emphasise the need for control experiments as a means to compare experiments.