The

Development
Theoretical

30

rras
.

Tositomo

of Contemporary
Cartography

KANAKUBO*

Abstract "The seeds of modern-day theoretical cartography sprouted in the latter

half of the nineteenth century. Since then it has passed through three developing
stages. Among them, theoretical cartography of the post-World War Two era has
several qualities that have never been seen before. The author has attempted to
relate the process of the development of contemporary theoretical cartography by
collecting literature on theoretical cartography from as many countries as possible.
Upon classifying the literature, he has analyzed the presentation, discussion, development, and consolidation of each theory. Furthermore, the author intends to explore
the directions in which the new cartography' advocated by contemporary cartography is headed.
The latter half of the nineteenth century was the period in which theoretical
cartography began to flourish. The beginning of the twentieth century to the preWar era saw the German geographic world grasp international power over cartography. It was in this time period that cartography began its fight to establish its
theoretical side as an independent science.
The post-War cartography thrived in the Fifties to the beginning of the Sixties,
and cartographic associations from all over the world were first united in the form of
the ICA. The ICA became an international forum for the presentation of theories
and the exchange of news and technological advances.
Many scholars persevered in establishing a theoretical system of cartography as
a science in the early half of the nineteen-sixties.
The cartographic communication
theory was developed, and there were attempts to link it to the information theory.
In addition there were attempts to introduce semiology, modelling theory, and cognition theory to cartography.
The Commission on Cartographic Information organized in the ICA and became
a forum for international discusson due to the aggressive efforts of chairman Ratajski.
Especially in the early half of the nineteen-seventies,
numerous cartographers
attempted to construct a model of the transmission of cartographic information.
Salichtchev who advocated the modelling theory, criticized the cartographic
communication theory formed mainly by Ratajski and Morrison.
To counter it,
Morrison pointed out faults in Salichtchev's explanation and, applying the technique
of set theory, explained the structure of cartographic communication to prove his
point. This debate sparked many analysis of the communication theory and the
epistemological theory of cartography, and the early half of the nineteen-seventies
served as period in which such debates flourished.
The ICA's Commission on Thematic Cartography was kept busy in the early
THE SCIENCE REPORTS OF THE TOHOKU UNIVERSITY,
Vol. 40 No. 1, June 1990. 1-19.
* Dr . Sc., Managing Director, The Japan Map Center, Tokyo.

7TH SERIES

(GEOGRAPHY)

T. KANAKUBO

Seventies dealing with the possibilities of the standardization

of international
thematic maps. Generally speaking, cartographers of socialist countries were quite
agreeable to the idea, while cartographers of the capitalistic countries tended to be
skeptical.
The late Seventies and early Eighties were the era in which movements to
systematize theoretical cartography became conspicuous. Although there were
many essays presented which expressed the author's own opinion with the history of
different views of a theory, there was also a trend of integrating the various theories.
In addition, geographic and cartographic societies, which until then had enjoyed a
close relationship, terminated their practice of holding international conferences in
the same place, thereafter slowly growing apart.
The amazing progress made in computer technology has also greatly influenced
cartography.
The concepts of cartogrpahy has changed, and there have been calls
for altering the definition of cartography.
The need to organize genealogically the
concepts and methodology of cartography has arisen. At the same time, preparation
for the systematization of the theoretical angle has been hastened due to the development of the new cartography.
All these advancements have made essential the
-'cooperation

of cartographers

from all countries.

Key words : theoreticalcartography,historical

r",-W.---

national

debate,

of the ICA ,inter-

Preface

It is said

that

development
especially
focus

more

was turned
in most
which

the history

upon technical

cartography,

concerned

stage,

mapmaking

century.
priority
focused

has

research

a relatively
There

in cartography

factors.

or artistic

and mapping
with

been

of mankind.

cartography.

or technological

new
are

has

Another

elements.
value

of maps.

Since
was

theoretical

cartography

then it has passed

given

to the

on surveying

technical

technology

through

sprouted
three

or practical
and military

aspects
topography

tremendous

which continues

efforts.

Theoretical
that have never

to

attention

reason

is that

of the military
research

in the latter-half

developing

followed with the development

of cartography
as a science

to establish

reasons
tended

is that

Scientific

purposes.
The pioneers of geography
cal research
system ; the establishment

struggled

always

reason

the

occurrence,

several

Still another

was often the responsibility

the military

However,

,
of

was left as an afterthought.

The seeds of modern-day

nineteenth

a science

the esthetic

surveying

therefore,

is as old as that

theoretical

One is that

more toward
more

as

involving

development.

countries,
was

of maps

of cartography
in the area

for its late

first

review,activities

new cartography

In its third stage,

itself

cartography

as an independent
of the post-World

been seen before.

There

of the

stages . In the
of mapmaking
;
to suit military
of a geographiis due to their

at the present,

cartography

Two

several

has

discipline.
War

era

has been much research

has

qualities

done on the concept

The

Development

of Contemporary

Theoretical

Cartography

of cartography, and many aggressive attempts to integrate or apply the concepts and
theories of related sciences.
The establishment
of the International
Cartographic
Association (ICA) has led to international
discussion of the theoretical problems of
cartography.
Developing new fields growing from advancements in computer technology have necessitated
the construction
of related new theories.
One problem of
contemporary theoretical cartogrpahy is that of systematically
and concretely clarifying these characteristics.
The author has attempted to relate the process of the development of contemporary theoretical

cartography

by collecting

literature

on theoretical

cartography

from

as many countries as possible. Upon classifying the literature by author and by era
in which it was written, he has analyzed the presentation, discussion, development, and
consolidation of each theory.
Furthermore, the author intends to explore the directions in which the "new cartography"
advocated by contemporary
cartography
is
headed.

Theoretical
Compared

cartography

and its genealogy

to the pre-War

era, the post-World

War Two era has seen remarkable

progress in the various fields of cartography.

The increase in map usage and the
demand for new types of maps has led to great strides in cartographic technology,
which in turn has elicited a need to educate cartographers.
It has also produced
expectations

of progress

in its establishment

areas of research.
The analyses of P.C. Muehrche
United States,

and F.J. Ormeling

as a field of science as well as in its own

(1973), A.H. Robinson and others (1976) also of the

(1972) of the Netherlands

pointed

out the research

done and progress attained in the theoretical areas, emphasizing this work even more
than recent technological breakthroughs.
In addition, E. Arnberger (1970) of Austria
divided

the development

of contemporary

cartography

into the

following

three

periods :
a) the beginning of the latter half of the nineteenth century, when, in the domain
of geography, there was much interest in topographic cartography
b) the beginning of the twentieth century to the pre-War era, when cartography
strove to establish itself as an independent
to thematic cartography
c)

the post-War

era, where cartography

field of science, and the main focus shifted

has established

itself as a field of science

in its own right.

Cartographic research in the first time period, the nineteenth century, was done
with the military in mind, and therefore it focused on surveying technology and
military

topography.

The tendency was to stress the technical and practical

over the

T. KANAKUBO

theoretical.
However,
geographers'
attention
was
influenced progress in geographical research systems.

turned toward maps which

Research in map projection,

relief representation,
map color, and construction
of various types of atlases was
abound, and efforts to institute cartography as a science continued.
In the second time period, photogrammetry
was introduced to mapmaking, and in
addition to topographic maps, attention turned toward thematic maps as well. Maps
were most highly regarded by geographers interested in regional geographic research.
Thus was born the theory

for cartographic

representation,

and there began a natural

trend toward acknowledging maps as a scholarly field. This trend was especially
conspicuous in Germany, where A. Penck, W. Koppen, M. Eckert, and A. Hettner,
among others, did much energetic research.
Eckert, in particular, wrote his great
work, "Die Kartenwissenschaft,

Forschungen

and Grundlagen

zu einer Kartographie

als Wissenschaft (I-1921, 11-1925), and also presented his thoughts on "Map Logic."
On the other hand, advances in the theoretical side of cartography was difficult in
the United States, where practicality took precedence over theory.
However, there
appeared such people as E. Raisz, who emphasized the scientific and artistic aspects of
maps, and J.K. Wright, who stressed the disposition as well as the scientific integrity
of the cartographer.
These people influenced the progress of post-War cartographic
communication theory.
To summarize, the latter half of the nineteenth

century was the period in which

theoretical cartography began to flourish. The beginning of the twentieth century to

the pre-War era saw the German geographic world grasp international
power over
cartography.
its theoretical

It was in this time period that cartography

side as an independent science.

began its fight to establish

3 Theoreticalcartography in the post-War era

Powerover the fieldof cartographywas passedfor a time from Germanyto the
UnitedStates and England,the victorsof the War. There were many enlightening
texts published; to be distinguishedis the AmericanA.H.Robinson's"The Look of
Maps"(1952)and "Elementsof Cartography"(1953). In these,he discussedthe importance of visualimpressionin cartographicdesiznand the clarityand legibilityof maps,
and made a general analysisof the process in which cartographiccommunication
theorieswere devised.
The rebuildingof a newscientificcartoy aphywas ledby the Germantheoretical
cartographyof the Fifties,whichbeganwit the definition,classification,
and systematization of technicalterms. At this sa e time, E. Imhof of Switzerlanddeclared,
"Theoreticalcartographyor scientifi cartographyis comprisedof the critical
examinationand developmentof map , their subjectmatter,their graphicforms and

712 v

(WC

I Ci

The

Development

techniques of construction,

of Contemporary

Theoretical

and the obtaining of standards

Cartography

for the map drawing" (1956).

In addition he acknowledged and stressed the esthetical value of maps.

Along with the rapid progress made in cartography
in the post-War
cartography

distinguished

itself from being merely a constituent

period,

of the large field of

geography, and produced the need to create an academy or society dealing solely with
maps.
From the nineteen-fifties to the Sixties, several scientific associations related
to cartography

were formed

throughout

the world, and various bulletins were publi-

shed as well. The International

Cartographic Association (ICA) was established in
1959 as an international
organization of cartographers.
The ICA began holding an
International Cartographic Conference about every two years, and various Commissions and Working Groups began aggressive activity.
In 1961 the first yearly bulletin,
the International Yearbook of Cartography (IYC) was published.
In Japan, the Japan
Cartographers Association (JCA) was established in 1963, the same year that their first
bulletin, "Map," was published.
Japan joined the ICA in 1964.
To sum up, post-War cartography thrived in the Fifties to the beginning

of the

Sixties, and cartographic associations from all over the world were first united in the
form of the ICA. The ICA became an international
forum for the presentation
of
theories and the exchange
epoch-making
period.

New movements

in theoretical

The first president

editor of the IYC.
che Kartographie"
aggressively

of news and technological

cartography

advances.

All in all, it was an

of the Sixties

of the ICA, E. Imhof, also served concurrently

as the chief

Presenting such papers as "Gelande and Karte" (1950), "Thematis(1962), and "Kartographische
Gelandedarstellung"
(1972), Imhof

led the cartographic

world.

He contributed

numerous

essays

on the

annotation of toponomy, relief representation,

and cartographic artistry.
One of his
special goals concerned pictorial clarity or readability in relief representation ; drawing a topographical
map based on a precise sketch, Imhof emphasized the method of
compressing details and emphasizing essential forms.
The American J.C. Sherman, who penned the first thesis in the first issue of the
IYC, analyzed

cartography

of the outset of the Sixties.

function of maps, the collection and processing

Sherman

of map resources,

wrote about the

and the necessity

of

geo-cartographic
research done in the area of cartographic representation.
He also
regarded maps as a form of communication,
and subsequently expounded the usefulness of the information

theory.

In 1962 another American,

W. Bunge, wrote "Theoret-

ical Geography," in which he classified geography as a field of science with its own
laws. He also introduced the concept of "metacartography"
and encouraged the
development

of this new form of mathematical

geography.

T. KANAKUBO

In 1966 E. Arnberger of Austria wrote a compilation of all his research , "Handbuch der Thematischen Kartographie," declaring cartography a formal science . His
disciple, Austrian I. Kretschmer, stated that this approach was not too narrow for the
consolidation of cartography, and would develop methods and rules of cartographic
representation and reproduction. J.S. Keates of England first defined the concept of
"cartographic communication" in 1964, proposing that communication through maps
be linked to information theory. That same year, A.A. Moles of France independently
presented his ideas on the relationship between information theory and the transmission of cartographic information. J. Bertin followed in 1967with "Se'rniologie graphique," which opened the way for the processing and transmission of information on
visual language.
C. Board of England presented "Maps as Models" in 1967. He stated that maps
should be "visualized not only as representational models" of the real world , but also
as conceptual models containing the essence of some generalization about reality .
Along with the presentation of his diagram of "The Map-Model Cycle ," he examined
the role of maps through use of a generalized communication system . By recognizing
that maps are a model of reality, and by using them as conceptual models leading to
a greater understanding of the real world, he theorized that maps are "assured their
central importance in geographical methodology ."
Theoretical cartography in the socialist countries, particularly in the Soviet
Union, developed independently. K.A. Salichtchev concentrated on the development
of methods of cartographic research. He placed much emphasis on the importance of
mentioning various phenomena in papers, as well as the analysis and cognition of such
phenomena. Furthermore, Salichtchev stressed the significance of acquiring new
information about and of understanding the characteristics of such phenomena , coupled with research and predictions of spatial relationships. He pointed out the
necessity of utilising maps in order for the afore mentioned activities to occur .
Salichtchev advocated the cartographic modelling theory for understanding the
essence and substance of each phenomenon, criticizing Board's modelling theory :
It proceeds from the general theory of information , leading to a faulty interpretation of a number of concepts and processes in cartography. This
produced contradictions, and in the end led to a very narrow understanding of
maps as models of reality and to an underestimation of their cognitive
possibilities....
[Board] tends to see maps ... as a repository of facts
presented as far as possible in intelligible form, if need be to the detriment of
detail and accuracy.
In summary, many scholars persevered in establishing a theoretical system of
cartography as a science in the early half of the nineteen-sixties . The cartographic
communication theory was developed, and there were attempts to link it to the

The

information
modelling

theory.
theory,

Development

In addition
and cognition

5 The Organization

of Contemporary

there
theory

of Commissions

were

Theoretical

Cartography

attempts

semiology,

to introduce

the

to cartography.

in the International

Cartographic

Association

(ICA) and their activities

Along with the presentation of his thesis, "Cartographic Information a fundamental concept and term in modern cartography,"
in which he exhibited a model
diagram

concerned

with cartographic

communication,

A. Kola triS-rof Czechoslovakia

also proposed the establishment of a "Commission on Cartographic Information" to

the ICA at the Fourth International
Cartographic Conference held in New Delhi in
1968. The proposal was accepted and a working group was formed with Kola 'any
designated as chairman and was assigned the task of defining the terms "cartographic
information" and "cartographic communication."
A "Commission on Communication
in Cartography"

was organized

in 1972 at a general meeting at the Sixth International

Cartographic Conference, held in Ottawa that year. This commission served as a

forum for international discussion of theoretical cartography.
L. Ratajski of Poland was keenly interested in the transmission process of cartographic information and presented "The Research Structure of Theoretical Cartography" in 1972, proposing the technical term "cartology" as well as exhibiting a graphic
model of cartographic
communication.
He applied the mathematical
information
theory to construct his theory,
explain the loss of information.

and tried to clarify the effects

of transmission

and

The working group of the ICA now established, cartographers

from various
countries began to show interest in cartographic communication, and there were many
lively debates taking place at the international level. Many people like C. Koeman of
the Netherlands
(1971), P.C. Muehrcke of the United States (1969, 1970), J.C. Bartholomew of England (1972), and U. Freitag (1971) and G. Hake (1973) of West Germany
discussed the communicative
function of maps and tried to make a model of the
communication
Therefore,

process.
it was during this time that the ICA's "Commission

on Cartographic

Information,"
organized in answer to a proposal made by Kola en9, became a more
animated forum for international discussion due to the aggressive efforts of chairman
Ratajski.

Especially

phers attempted

in the early half of the nineteen-seventies,

to construct

a model of the transmission

numerous

of cartographic

cartogra-

information.

T. KANAKUBO

International

debates

on cartographic

communication

criticisms

and develop-

ment
The idea that the role of maps was to communicate,
cartography

was to verify and complete

the communication

and that the objective

process, became

of

quite

popular among the members of the ICA Commission.

Presented at the Sixth International Cartographic Conference in 1972 in Canada were L. Ratajski's "The Research
Structure
of Theoretical
Cartography"
and American J.L. Morrison's
"Changing
Philosophical Technical
Aspects of Thematic
Cartography."
Salichtchev of the Soviet Union criticized these presentations :
The main tendencies in the development of contemporary
introduction of automation.......
naturally are creating

However,

K.A.

cartography the
an urge to rethink

cartography's subject and method.

It seems to me that the very successes of
automated cartography, which have stemmed partly from the application of
mathematical

information

theory

for the solution

of certain

cartographic

problems, have provided a basis for a number of scientists again advancing

views of cartography as an information-technical
discipline.
Morrison presented "A Theoretical Framework for Cartographic Generalization
with Emphasis on the Process of Symbolization"
in 1974, in which he interpreted
cartography to be a science of communication.
Using the process of cartographic
generalization as an example, he assumed that it was the sum of certain structural
changes occurring in the duration of time : simplification, classification, symbolization,
and induction.
tried to extract

Then, applying the technique of set theory to analyze the results, he

the foundation of his communication theory from it. This paper was

seen as the deductive

s comments.

extension

of his 1972 paper, and was a response to Salichtchev'

A.H. Robinson and B.B. Petchenik of the United States presented "The Map as a
Communication System" in 1975. In this paper they introduced the history of the
development of the cartographic communication theory and analyzed the relationship
between the construction
and perception of maps of the environment , using Venn
diagrams.
In addition, as future topics for discussion, they suggested among other
things the assessment of information and measurement of the quantity of information ,
and the perception of the white areas on maps.
In 1976 J.L. Morrison introduced his paper, "The Science of Cartography

and its

Essential Processes," his rebuttal of Salichtchev's criticisms as well as a report on his

advancements in cartographic communication.
He stated that cartographic communication was not a simple, one-way
map reader, but was communication
and advanced

transmission

transmission of information from cartographer to

between individual cognitive realms , an intricate

of information

dependent

upon the successful

use of lan-

The

Development

guage by the cartographic

of Contemporary

scientist,

perform map reading tasks.

In 1975 B.B. Petchenik presented

Theoretical

Cartography

who must consider the map reader's

"Cognition

in Cartography,"

abilities

which included

to
a

semantic analysis of maps. She further declared that cartographers

should become
more familiar with basic cognitive research being conducted by psychologists, and that
epistemological cartography should be the main focus of cartography.
As mentioned previously, Salichtchev, who advocated the modelling theory based
on the theory of epistemological materialistic dialectics, stated that the cartographic
communication theory formed mainly by Ratajski and Morrison came partly from the
application of mathematical
information theory, and severely criticized that it would
limit the role of cartography
to an information-technical
discipline.
To counter
Salichtchev's comments, Morrison pointed out faults in Salichtchev's explanation and,
applying the technique of set theory, explained the structure of cartographic communication to prove his point. This debate sparked many analyses of the communication
theory and the epistemological
theory of cartography,
and the early
nineteen-seventies
served as a period in which such debates flourished.

The Standardization

of thematic

The ICA's Commission

half of the

maps

on Thematic

Cartography

was organized

in 1968, con-

centrating on intensifying the expansion of international research of thematic cartography and examining the possibility of standardizing
international
thematic maps.
However, as the scope of the problems was too broad and there were discrepancies
the aims of each country, the focus of the commission
international standardization
of map symbols.

was narrowed

in

down to the

Cartographers
from numerous
countries worked on the standardization
of
thematic maps in the nineteen-seventies.
In the socialist countries, M.I. Nikishov and
A.I. Preobrazhensky
(1970) of the Soviet Union and L. Ratajski (1971) of Poland, among
others, attempted to standardize conventional signs of economic maps to be drawn in
the future. F. Joly (1971) of France stated that a distinction should be made between
the fields in which standardization
would and would not be desirable.
E. Lehmann
(1972) of East Germany accentuated that alterations in the scale of a cartographic
compilation would bring about changes in the concept of the map as well as changes
in map content and the method of cartographic
representation.
W. Witt (1972) of
West Germany declared that thematic maps should be classified into two groups based
on their function, and since each group would demand different researching methods,
they should be treated as separate entities.
And from their respective standpoints, I.
P. Zarutskaya (1966) of the Soviet Union and E. Spiess (1971) of Switzerland
the importance of the base map of a thematic map.

indicated

10

T. KANAKIJBO

The president of the ICA, A.H. Robinson (1974), analyzed the advantages and
disadvantages
of symbol standardization
of international thematic maps. He studied
two different systems, one based on the type of geographical

phenomena being mapped,

the other on the purpose for which the map is being made, and from his findings then
related the difficulties in the reformation and standardization
of international thematic
maps.
"Problems of an International
Standa
rdization of a Means of Communication
through Cartographic Symbols" was presented by E. Arnberger of Austria in 1974.
Arnberger expressed his views about such matters as the preconditions for international standardization,
the functions of symbols that should be used, and the order of
precedence of graphic elements.
Then, from the fact that there were many other
terms that should be first resolved and tht there was a need to do some basic research
on the union of experimental
international standardization.

psychology

and cartography,

he advocated

prudence

in

In "Cartographic Communication Links and a Cartographic Alphabet" (1974), K.H. Meine of West Germany expressed the need for an expansion in knowledge of the
cartographic
communication
process and the creation of an alphabet for a basic
language of maps, and the semiological application for such an alphabet .
In these ways, the ICA's Commission on Thematic Cartography was kept busy in
the early Seventies, dealing with the possibilities of the standardization
of international thematic maps. Generally speaking, cartographers
of socialist countries were
quite agreeable
skeptical.

to the idea, while cartographers

The movement

towards

the systematization

of capitalist

countries

of theoretical

After having been criticized by K.A. Salichtchev,

L. Ratajski

tended

to be

cartography
revised his theory in

1977 in "Loss and Gain of Information in Cartographic Communication."

In this paper
he not only wrote of the loss of cartographic
information in the communication
process, but also mentioned for the first time the acquisition of information.
In 1978
he wrote "The Main Characteristics
of Cartographic
Communication
as a Part of
Theoretical Cartography,"
in which he said that the ideological background which
influenced theoretical cartography of that time consisted of the information theory ,
semiology, the modelling theory, metascience, and the cognition theory.
He then gave
an overall review of these background elements and their relation to cartography .
The latter-half
of the Seventies saw a good number of papers calling for the
systematization
of theoretical cartography,
where the author would add his own
opinion to a history of different views of a theory.
For example, there were A.H.
Robinson and others' "Cartography 1950-2000" (1976), W . Witt's "Theoretische Karto-

The

graphie
Method"

Development

of Contemporary

Theoretical

11

Cartography

ein Beitrag zur Systematik,"

A.M. Berlyant's
(1977), I. Kretschmer's
"Theoretical
Cartography

"Cartographic
Research
: Positions and Tasks"

(1980), K.A. Salichtchev's commemorative

collection of essays, "A Way for Development of Cartography"
("Puti Razvitija Kartografii") (1975), and E. Arnberger's commemorative essay collection, "Beitrage zur Theoretischen
Kartographie"
(1977). L.
Guelke's compilation of major papers on theoretical cartography written after those of
M. Eckert, was published in Canada as "The Nature of Cartographic Communication"
(1977).
As geography

and cartography

are closely related,

the IGU (International

Geo-

graphical Union) and the ICA held an international conference at approximately

the
same time in the same country as affiliate associations.
However, as both groups
became more specialized and changes occurred in their relationship to each other, they
began to drift apart, and in 1980 they held their last cosponsored conference in Tokyo.
C. Board of England, as successor to L. Ratajski, became the center of ICA
Commission

activity.

He sought to compile a bibliography

of literature

on cartogra-

phic communication and complete a model of cartographic communication as the basic

framework of research.
He also completed a genealogical model (1983) of literature
on theoretical cartography, arranging the information by author, year of publication,
and language in which it was written.
K.A. Salichtchev presented "Idea and Theoretical Problems in Cartography in the
80's" (Idei i teoreticheskie
Problemi v Kartografii 80-h Godov.") in 1982. He wrote
about the developmental history of theoretical cartography, with an emphasis on the
international debates of the Seventies and the Eighties.
He placed cognitive-oriented
ideas in opposition with formalistic-oriented
ideas and placed himself at a standpoint
supporting

the former.

However,

in the chapter

entitled

"Cartographic

Communica-

tion : A Theoretical Survey" of the compilation "Graphic Communication and Design

in Contemporary
Cartography," edited by D.R.F. Taylor of Canada and published in
1983, Salichtchev
well.

professed

a view stressing

the communicative

To summarize, the late Seventies and early

movements to systematize theoretical cartography

function of maps as

Eighties was the era in which

became conspicuous.
Although

there were many essays presented which expressed the author's own opinion with the
history of different views of a theory, there was also a trend of integrating the various
theories.

In addition,

geographic

and cartographic

societies,

which until then had

enjoyed a close relationship, terminated their practice of holding international

ences in the same place, thereafter slowly growing apart.

confer-

12

T. KAN

The development

of automated

AKUBO

cartography

and its effect on theoretical

cartog-

raphy
With the advancements in computer technology, automated cartography began to
develop rapidly in the nineteen-sixties
and onwards . Major areas of research included the collection of cartographic data, map compilation , representation
of cartographic information, and the development of a mapping system.
Construction of a
cartographic database and preparations for Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
also flourished.
The value of conventional maps and automated maps were comparatively analyzed

as well.

Coupled with the development of automated cartography, cartographic works of

a new sort, contradictory to the traditional concept of maps , were born. The concepts
of a temporary map or nonmap, as opposed to the permanent map (P .D. Rife, 1970), or
a virtual map, as opposed to a real map (H. Moellering , 1976), were also born, and
therefore the need to reexamine the concept of cartography was also realized .
From the end of the Seventies on into the Eighties , a great many papers and books
on theoretical
cartography
were presented or published, and a movement toward
systematization
came to light. The ICA's Commission on Cartographic Communication edited a bibliography of literature on theoretical cartography , then disbanded.
In
its place was organized

a Working

Group on Concepts and Methodology

in Cartogra-

phy, and its successor, the Commission on Concepts in Cartography ; these groups
began to arrange systematically
various concepts and methodology .
Due to the progress in computer-assisted
cartography , new potential was discovered in cartography.
The ICA formed a new Working Group on Cartographic Definition
to reexamine cartography from a fresh standpoint, or specifically , to examine the need
to alter the definition of cartography.
This topic became the center of debate within
the ICA. Systematic organization of the theoretical angle of cartography , which is
indispensable to the development of the "new cartography ," will be the next step, and
it will require the cooperation of cartographers
from all over the world .
As related

above, the amazing

progress

made in computer

technology

has also

greatly influenced cartography.

The concept of cartography has changed, and there
have been calls for altering the definition of cartography . The need to organize
genealogically the concepts and methodology of cartography has arisen. At the same
time, preparation for the systematization
of the theoretical angle has been hastened
due to the development of the new cartography.
All these advancements
essential the cooperation of cartographers
from all countries .

have made

The

Development

of Contemporary

Theoretical

Cartography

13

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