SPEECH PRODUCTION

By fourth group

M. RANDY YULLIANSYAH PUTRA

AINI QOLBI SAPUTRI
SEPTI RIYANI
FIKRI KURNIAWAN
MIHIRGA HARUMUKTI
KURROTA AAYUNIN

SPEECH PRODUCTION
Introduction
This chapter will explain the process by which a speaker turns a mental concept
into a spoken utterance.

From Concept to Expression

Speech communication may be viewed as a chain of events linking the

speakers brain with the listeners brain.
It is assumed that a speaker have some notion, concept, or message, or that
they wish to convey but will not attempt to specify how it is represented
before being encoded into linguistics form.

Speech Errors
Such errors in production, called speech errors or slips of the tongue, occur
regularly in normal conversation.
Speakers used complete sentences 98% of which were grammatically
correct.
Dilsfluencies
Many utterances are characterized by hesitations, repetitions, false starts,
and filler word such as um, well, or you know (sometimes called filled
pauses).

34

Goldman-Eisler suggests that hesitations, sometimes called unfilled

pauses, occur roughly every five words when people describe pictures.

ISSUES IN SPEECH PRODUCTION

The Units of Speech Production

When we produce an utterance corresponding to some thought we wish to

convey, we cannot go to a mental storage unit and pull out the appropriate
stored message.
The brains finite storage capacity cannot warehouse an infinite set of
utterances. Thus we produce speech, most of which we have never said in
just that way before, by stringing together arranging, and rearranging a
limited number of stored items. Dell (1986) stated that slips of the tongue
can be seen as product of the productivity of language. A slip is an
unintended novelty.

Phonemic Segments
In anticipation errors, sound which will come later in the utterance
inappropriately appear earlier than intended. In preservation errors, a
sound produced early in the utterance reappears in an incorrect location
later in the utterance. Other error types include deleted or added phonemes
or phoneme exchange (reverse) errors as llustrated below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

a reading list =5 a leading list (C anticipation)

a phonological ru1e=$> a phonological fool (C preservation) r
brake fluid =.>blake fruid (C cluster division and C exchange
speech error'=i> peach error (C deletion)
box of flowers '=>b1ocks of flowers (C anticipation and insertion;
C cluster
division)
6. fill the fool'=> fool the pill (vowel exchange)
7. Sue weeded the garden '$sea weeded the garden (V anticipation)
8. Annotated bibliography'=> annotated bibliography (vowel
preservation).
9. Drop a bomb =>bop a dromb (consonant cluster - C exchange).
10. When you get old your spine shrinks your shrine spinks (consonant
cluster exchange)
Phonetic Features

Phonetic features (distinctive features) are the attributes that combine to

define the phonemes of a language.

The Syllable

35

The major argument in support of the syllable as a processing unit is based on the
fact that exchanged syllables seem to obey a structural law with regard to
syllable place; that is, initial segments replace initial segments, and final syllable:
exchange with final syllables.
Stress

Fromkin (1977) argues -again from speech error data -that because stress
ca disordered like other phonemic features, it should be viewed as an
independent production unit, for example: apples of the Origin =>apples
of the oRIgin.

WORD, MORPIIEME, AND PHRASE UNITS IN SPEECH PRODUCTION

Both speech errors and disfluency pattern provide information about

possible basic units used in generating sentences.

Word Selection and Placement Errors

No one would question that words are discrete units in the production
process. even if errors such as those below were rare, which they are not.
tend to turn '%'>out turn to tend out (word exchange)
I Love to dance $1 dance to love (exchange)
Really must go? I must really go ( word movement)

Lexical Search and Pausal Phenomena

Lexical search, or the process by which the individual words are retrieved
the mental dictionary, is also reflected in patterns of speech disfluency.
example, hesitations (unfilled pauses) are more likely to occur before 00
words such as nouns, verbs, and modifiers than before content words such
articles, helping verbs. Pauses are also longer before content words than
words.

Morphemes and Speech Errors

Inflectional morpheme errors
1. rules of words formation=>words of rule formation
2. we have a lot of ministers in our church =>we have a lot of churches in
minister

36

3. Id forgotten about that> Id forgot abouten that

4. cow tracks> track cows

1.
2.
3.
4.

Derivational morpheme errors

easily enough >easy enoughly
the introduction of the subjects > the introducing of the subject
theres a good likelihood >theres a good likeliness
they cant quite make it >they cant quietly make it

Grammatical Rules
Here are some examples in which grammatical rules are misapplied:
the last I knew about it =9... I knowed about it
I dont know that Id know one ifl heard it =>...that Id hear_ one if] knew
it
bunnies [s=/2/] dont eat steak =>steaks [s=/s/] dont eat bunny
an aunts (/s/) money=> moneys(/2/) aunt
he always keeps a pack '=>he always packs a keep
a watched (/t/) pot never boils '=$>a potted (/ed/) watch never boils

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Speech Production Processing Models

The Utterance Generator Model of Speech Production

The utterance generator model proposed by I-romkin ( 1971)

distinguishes six stages at which different representations of the utterance
occur.

Stage 1. A meaning to be conveyed is generated.

The model could also allow the generation of more than one message at
stage I that ould be mapped onto one or more syntactic blending- How
long does that has to~have to simmer?-or allow multirepresentations at
any of the other levels.

Stage II. The Message is Mapped onto a Syntactic Structure.

A syntactic outline of the message is created. One reason for generating

the syntactic before selecting words or stems from the lexicon is that the
syntactic structure determines the form and grammatical category of the
words that may be chosen.
37

Stage III. Intonation Contours (Sentence and Phrasal Stress) Are Generated
On The Basis of The Syntactic Representations.

Intonation must be assigned before lexical selection occurs because the

syntactically determined primary stress and intonation contours and lexical
stress are independent of one another and exist on different prosodic tiers.

Stage IV. Words Are Selected From The lexicon.

At this stage, errors may occur in which semantically or phonologically

similar words may be selected instead of the intended words.

Stage V. Phonological Specification.

At this level of representation, phonological pronunciation mles apply and

produce fully specified phonetic segments in syllables as the output.

Stage VI. Generation of The Motor Commands for Speech.

I The "model predicts that grammatical morphemes could be standard, as

well as the phonological accommodation that occurs when phrasal stress is
not disrupted when words shift or exchange position.

The Garrett Model

In this model, it is at this level that sounds in words and sentence elements
are assigned locations in the eventual surface sequence. Atthis level, form
based word substitutions occur, as well as sound exchanges, stranding
exchanges, and word and morpheme shifts. In the Garret model, the
phonologization of grammatical morphemes takes place at the level of
phonetic representation.

LeveIts Model

in this model, message generation is initiated by the conceptualization of

utterance. The output of this stage called the preverbal message, which is
fed to the formulator. The formulator is divided into two subcomponents.
The first is a grammatical encoder, which retrieves lexical item's. Levelt
distinguishes between the semantic and syntactic properties of items in the
lexicon, bundled together to form lemmas, and the phonological

38

information about the lemmas, which he believes are stored and accessed
separately (called lexemes).

The phonological encoder then takes the syntactic outline and generates a
phonological plan for the utterance, which includes its eventual intonation
and stress patterns. The articulator then executes the phonetic plan by
conveying instructions to the neuromuscular system.

Dell Model

In this model, words are organized into networks with connection between
uni based on semantic and phonological relatedness. The activation of a
concept spreads activation to those lexical items sharing semantic features
with the thought to be conveyed. Because activation is presumed to be
bidirectional, it is theoretically possible to have interactions between
semantic and phonological representations, leading to slips that share both
phonological and semantic properties with the intended output.

39

Summary

This chapter has discussed the planning units and stages that form the
bridge between a concept and its grammatical expressions. The process
involved on the speakers end of speech chain elude easy description and
explanation. One cannot go into speakers brains and examine the mental
processes and computations that are taking place when they are producing
an utterance.

In the attempt to understand this process, more and more linguists and
psycholinguists have turned to speech error and other speech disfluency
data. Deviant utterances serve as windows into the mind, showing that the
semi continuous speech signal is composed of discrete units of different
sizes and kinds, that speech is not produced simply by uttering one sound,
or syllable, or word at a time. By examining the constraints on the kinds of
errors that occur, we have been able to construct models and posit what
levels of representation and what computations can occur at each stage.

The model presented in this chapter still do not reveal all the complexities
and constraints and kinds of representations that are computed in the
course of producing even single short utterance. However, by attempting
to explain not only errorless production, but also those utterances that
contain slips of the tongue or fluency failures, they point to the question
about speech production process that are still unanswered, which is always
the first step in the quest for understanding.

Question Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

How communication happen among people?

What is speech error? mention it !
How many speech production model? Explain !
How sound was produced?
Writeall vocal organ of human !

40