SOC 361 Midterm Package

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SOC 361
Midterm Package
SBU
Fall 2014
Arjomand
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Lecture: Aug 27
History of Sociological Theory
2 textbooks
Main currents 1967 Ramon Aaron
1971/77 0 Lois from SBU
1975 Donald Levine (Professors teacher)
Sociological Tradition 66 Elizabeth
Levine
1. Different ways of thinking about sociology
2. Pluralistic
Problem of Fragmentation Modern Societies different Fragmented
Old more tightly knit
Levine Picks Fragmentation
Kant 1839 coined the term sociology Natural Phenomenon; just analyze it
^ Positivism
Levine Sociology very fragmented what do: look at the diversity/pluralism mirrors the
system of modern society in general
Instead of connection, should communication
Narrative of your existence: birthday, name
Collective memory: national collective identity
5 narratives/accounts of Sociological Theory
1. First Approach: Positivist Approach (by A. Conte) as a science. Co-occurrence, succession in
time
Oldest approach. Sociology: science of society
Sociology way people interact w/ea/other: Not in Greece (Polis) farms, slaves, etc. [not
religious + secular]
What is society: how it is different from Polis/State? It comes from Modernity. Class
social class.
Durkheim individual vs. society outside of individual
Economy becomes used a bit earlier used as political economy
Why not social economics?
Many religions & cultures are anti-individual (ex: Buddhism)
Levine pg. 16 Once society is to be approached as a natural phenomenon. Levine is
against subjective thinking think in I not good.
1: Positivist 2: Pluralist 3: Humanist
Against Subjective
Against Modernity
Against General Law
2. Second Approach?
3. Third Approach: Humanistic
Classes in social sciences always remain relevant
Must earn to possess not inherit
Aron says danger to that
4. Fourth Approach: Contextualist
Established that it isnt given like Conte thought, sociology is important in different
contexts
5. Fifth Approach: Synthetic Tried to Combine
T. Parsons, J. Halowermas
6. Dialogoreal approach
Public Sociology
7. ?
20s New Approach Pluralistic Approach
^ Peterim Sorokin 1928, 1966 Types of Sociology
Lecture: September 3
Check revision 1,2,3
Chapter 6 on Levine (on BB) then modern period of enlightenment
Social Theory ideas are relevant and changeful
Greeks first people to find purely rational basis for human sciences, explaining human society,
bases, action
Axial age Age of Transcendence people think there is a beyond-immediate reality;
something more real than present [Ex: Buddhism]
Yosfos (?) said Abrahamic religions God
Axial Breakthrough to get a dynamic society going
REASON
Studying human society & nature
Rational Method
Practical Science
Theoria theoretical sciences. Discover what is good in nature.
Human Science aim was different, human sciences were practical sciences
** Praxis, Practical Sciences, and Poesies
How Greek societies were different than today:
i.
Political Community
ii.
Reason determining truth
Practical sciences normative. Tries to see what is best.

3 branches of Knowledge for practical sciences; sciences of action
Sciences of Action Tries to determine what is best for personal action. It has 3 domains:
1) Personal Action: Observe how the individual works/thinks [Ethics/Psychology]
2) Household (Oikos): Household management. How to treat your families, servants, improves
productivity [Economics]
3) City-States (Polis): Science corresponding to politics [Political Science]
3 Domains of Practice Life
Polis: 1) Speaking/Speech 2) Household
Levine pg. 113
Aristotle
3 categories: Monarchy (as opposed to Tyranny), Aristocracy (as opposed to Oligarchy),
Democracy (as opposed to Mob Rule)
Each could be corrupted, no one form of republic
Rule of Law: Citizen both the ruler and the ruled. Why: System of govt by law and not by man
Abrahamic Religions not human reason. Greek was human reason. Conflict in philosophy.
Aristotles book first to Arabic and then other languages. Only Aristotle book that wasnt
translated: Politics (b/c of caliphate). Muslims took Plato > Aristotle
Middle Ages Aristotle taught in all universities.
17th century Thomas Hobbes. Oxford Educated. Aristotle 1629 discovery
Natural Science new emerges big rebellion Aristotle Galileo
Thomas Hobbes teaches of 2 psychological impulses:
1) Psychological Desire of Power
2) Fear of Violent Death
Rejection of Aristotle very common in 18th century in The Enlightenment/Age of Reason (mid18th century)
(copy chart)
Spirit of Laws
Moral Activity = mixture between trade + military activity
Empires creation by conquest/ Moral, non-physical aspect. Either attacked if no defenses.

Rebut warfare becomes common. Despotism
Social causes vs. Moral causes
Montesquieu
Each type of govt goes with its organization
Physical and moral causes
Comparative sociologist
As Enlightenment thinker Law = despite the differences, rule of law --? w/o laws. Human
reciprocity and human equality is a requirement. Law of societies tend to get more rational/ in
theory, dem. Even in large countries.
He belongs to one of the earliest figures **continental liberalism**
***Separation of powers first person to argue, in order to have power = checks and balances
the 3 parts of govt
* IF the law is made and administered by the same person = despotism
No difference between judiciary and enforcement of law
Rules to say for long period. Administration = day-to-day
Freedom or liberty powerful independent judiciary
Should also be [balance of social power] thought England for him was ideal
England Balance of social power. Commoners, middle class, - [if you didnt own property, then
you couldnt vote]
House of Commons, aristocracy, kind; important for growth of liberty all balanced each other
Scottish Moralists
1) Adam Smith 2) David Hume important for enlightenment 3) Adam Ferguson
Adam Smith: died 1791
David Hume: died 1793
Adam Ferguson: died 1816
Morality (sense of right and wrong) are prior to contract. Can only develop if society is advanced
considerably. Reed makes the same argument (page 215 right and wrong)
Adam Smith before Wealth of Nations
Theory of Moral Sentiment Humans are primarily moral beings bound together out of affection,
rather than selfish calculations. Need Bond of affection/admiration to hold them together.
Idea of Sympathy. What makes humans moral = sympathy Able to put yourself to some elses
position
Not in your interest to feel bad but happens naturally
Need for approval we want to be liked, not hated, it is natural. Vanity imagined effect of
other peoples admiration
The Invisible Hand (pg. 106-107) In society, everyone is publishing his/her own interest. The
rich consume very little led by the invisible hand
*2 main causes
Main Causes:
1) Physical size or population and territory
2) Moral trade vs.
a. Small (territory)
Republic
i. Trade + Commerce
b. Medium (territory)
Monarchy
i. Mixture of trade + military activity
c. Large/Empires (territory)
Despotism
i. Military
Revision Qs Part 1
Wed Discussed Qs will come on midterm
Every Wed go over what we covered
Scottish Moralists
Moralists they argue that human being are moral beings. Individual calculating and using
reason to form a society
Idea of Sympathy putting ourselves in someone elses behavior; internalize other peoples
judgment and attitude.
Need peoples approval. Vanity effect of admiration.
Admiration of others makes us feel bad and depressed
Sympathy object of attention for others/ Want to look good to them. Theory of Moral Sentiment
by Adam Smith.
Adam Ferguson criticism of Social Contract Theory. Enlightenment Era
Scottish Moralists Hobbes and Rousseau were wrong. Man in nature could not have known
what the contract was. People need to have sense of right and wrong before it. Social Contact
special form of explicit contract between 2+ individuals.
(?) If Social Contract Theory Social Sophistication developed. Society has to develop already.
*Society has to be created first. It develops with the theory of right and wrong. If the contract
proves right and wrong, only form of society. Hand in hand (?)
Rejected individualism of rationalization. Not entirely individual.
Smith Founder of Political Economy
Considered people following their individual interest, they market people to go there selfishly.
Food to feed themselves, little bit of money, rational, calculating, doing best with the invisible
hand. Greedy people want money so they produce more to maximize for themselves and
happiness of the whole. Amount produced is bad to others by adjusting the price. Basically
market today is selfish in their own self interests.
3 Great Orders of Society (Smith)
1) Land of Aristocracy
2) Wage Laborers and Merchants
3) Manufacturers
Because the annual product of the economy is divided into 3 kinds of income:
1) Rent of Land (land lords charging rent) before charged for agricultural lands
2) Wage Laborers & Merchants worked with others to produce. Their course of income: labor
(no consumption)
3) Manufacturers (newest industrial revolution) Income: profit of STOCK anything invested
Pg. 199 Invisible Hand also applies to these 3 Great Societies. Importance to Public Happiness
by 2 (of 3) of the Greatest Orders with the least importance to serve the public 1 & 3 no
intervention for the public.
Which group does he like best? Neither had the knowledge or foresight
Interest of these 3 great orders of Societies are of harmony.
Lecture: October 1
Hagel
Thought all reforms were rationalization of society and very progressive

In his philosophy of history, he puts progress in folding of reasoning and history, reason comes
more and more applied in different institutions. Because in his country (Prussia), the state
happened to be bringing progress and change into society.
He thought that state was most rational organization in human life, he put Civil Society behind it,
because it is the organization of less rational
Hagel:
State
1) Most rational org of universal interest
2) Bureaucracy
Civil Society
1) Less rational form (but still rational) of the org of particular interest
2) Civil associations
von Stein:
State as civil society
Impressed by Hagel, so he said that state should be what Hagel said it should do, it should
promote the general interest of everyones interest in society freedom of an individual
If state did that, we wouldnt have the conflict wrote the book right before 1848 revolution
which prove him right, if state did what people were to do then there would be no revolution
Principle of individual freedom, he gives it a different
Development of personality
Principle of the state
Consequence
Reform modernization through state. Turns Hagels idea into an actual program. If it is, then it
rationalizes society through reform. Followers in Austria became known as social reformers.
When the constitution and its structure exists without regard to the individual wellbeing (when
the state exists only for its own state and to maintain the bureaucracy the state and the upper
class in power) fails to come about because freedom and development of personality doesnt
happen
State is dead when it is taken over by civil society
CIVIL SOCIETY
(Class interest)
Social dependence
Consequence: class antagonism/class struggle which leads to revolution
Marx:
Complete revolutionary
Said Hagel had some ideas but you have to reverse Hagel. He mistook everything
Ideology/propaganda the idea of the state promoting the particular interest is part of the
ideology it is the ideology of the ruling class that have taken over the state and want to make
use of power but it is not doing anything, just following the interests of the ruling class.
Instead of Bureaucracy of promoting the general interest of mankind

STATE Only way society can progress is indeed through revolution, the final revolution would
be of working class (Proletariat) of all social classes. Proletariat (where he gets the term: lowest
rank of Plebeians b/c they didnt have property, b/c they dont have property then they dont
have interests). If you have property, then you are only interested in promoting your own class
interest vs. those who dont have property.
Lecture: October 6
Young Marx vs. Hagel
Marx 1818 before 1848 revolution, when he was in his mid-20s; one of the young Hegelians
Marx took basic work from Hagel. Marx went for socialism which were at that point, not practical
and were coming from Utopian ideas.
French socialism and British traditions of political economy.
3rd element
British tradition predominant tradition: utilitarianism
Political Economy of Adam Smith whose idea of market mechanism and invisible hand
Marx there will be constant exploitation. Proletariat would stay as that unless the regime would
be overthrown.
Aron, pages 154-155
Relation of Production
o For Marx, the relation of production (that he said are independent of ppls will) are what
produce social classes.
o If youre an owner of a factory, your common interest are with other capitalists:
maximize profits and keep wages at minimum thats what creates conflict with you
and your employee. Same with feudal lord and tenants. Relationship: antagonistic.
o
Mode of Production
o 1) Primitive communication
o 2) Ancient based society
o 3) Feudalism
o 4) Capitalism
Transition from Feudal to the Capitalist Mode of Production
o 5) Advance Communication
(Economic) Infrastructure
o Superstructure: Political, Legal, Cultural (forms of consciousness)
o ^ + Economic Infrastructure = Mode of Production
What is Marxs idea with the dynamics of social change and how does social change come
about? Consists of development or the mode of production which produces the change.
Handicraft carpenter usually dont hire and fire people, they just take 1 or 2 apprentices
Marx says that gradually out of the system, the city economy changes more and more whereas
the countryside economy stays static and agrarian. In the cities, the mode of production begins
to change.
Disagrees with harmony of interests interests of different social classes which depend on
economic position and source of income is always a hoax (?) structural class of interests
opposing interests.
Means of production uses and becomes CAPITAL the capital changes the Relations of
Production, and so the classes that develop in the cities is Bourgeoisie. Proletariat/working class
o Gradual concentration into the means of production comes into the hands of a few
manufacturers
Lecture: October 8
Karl Marx (1818-83) Historical Materialism
Mode of Production material life is determined by the way we produce it. According to him,
evolution of mode of production
Mode of Production:
Feudalism
Feudal Aristocracy
Peasants/Serfs
Capitalism
(upper class) Capitalist bourgeoisie
Proletariat working class
Class in/for itself
Class in itself: like Adam Smith, all the people in the same mode of production former class
class in itself. Some classes are passive and others are active and have a historic mission. If a
class puts up with the position.
Communist Manifesto: begins dramatically all the history of mankind is history of class
struggle.
Marx 1789 slowly out of manufacturing. That becomes fully grown and mature and at this
point, the evolution of the mode of production becomes sudden through revolution and action of
one class.
Marxs theory of the evolution of mode of production is propelled by technology and through
concentration into fewer ends. This gradual technological change in mode of production (such
as property ownership) has to reach a peak and reach revolutionary class action and struggle of
a rising class.
Next revolution will be proletarian revolution and will be next class; theyre ready to take over.
What they need is consciousness raising. Goal in life consciousness raising for the working
class (trade unions, syndicates, etc.)
Capitalist bourgeoisie (question on exam)
Next mode of production would be Communism
How social change comes in 2 levels: economic system changes mode of production. New
class emerges as a result of this mode of production which becomes conflict of interest and
established a new one (which needs a super structure) Marx communism was a new basis for
this super structure of owner of industry.
Lecture: October 13
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Only 2 years younger than Marx
Fame went up and down, when he died he was very famous, reasons for fame: when he was
younger, a family friend of his (Charles Darwin) wrote Origins of Species in 1858; that important
event helped spencer.
Darwin biology at large, his followers called social Darwinists
Took social Darwinist theory and applied to society
Thought of society as an organism
Head king, all other members were limbs and should cooperate society = 1 unit
Spencer: society is like an organism but there is a big difference between society and bio
organism society: there is no collective censorial (no brain) all individuals, organism:
consciousness is concentrated in the brain. Society is an organism by analogy but no brain or
single head, no collective censorial, diffused among all units
Biological evolution vs. Social evolution
Society increase in the size of society. As society gets bigger, it gets more complex.
Social Evolution: increase in differentiation of society, in structure
In a simple society, tribe, the tribal chief is both military leader and religious leader, as king and
priest.
Church and King then becomes separated, then becomes specialization of function
Medic and priest become different healing vs. prayer
3rd important matter: When parts are not differentiated, they can perform each others functions,
but with increased differentiation, they can do so very imperfectly and they become mutually
interdependent (church and king need each other)
Whole thing looks like a social system although he calls it an organism.
Social evolution more precise
Militant society
Military activity
Compulsory cooperation
Synthetic philosophy
Industrial Society
Peaceful
Voluntary
Main interest theory of social change. Spencer evolution. Marx change in production.
Change in dynamics
Lecture: October 22
Ferdinand Tonnies
Sir Henry Maine he was a colonial administrator in India. He was also scholar of ancient
Indian law. Wrote Patient Law. In it he wrote if you look at Indian ancient law, the basis of it is all
based on status or relations of different people according to their status. Status is male/female.
How much male/female children should get. All these things have to do with status of people.
From Status to Contract
Gemeinshaft and Gesellshaft
In reading: community and (modern) society
Gemeinshaft:
1) Old
2) Natural will
a. People organized social life spontaneously/naturally; community was old form of
society. Dominated by religion, family, religious groups, intimate relations between
people, bound together my belief and language; predominantly rural and village like.
3) Deep permanent ties because its natural
4) Personal, primordial (primary)
5) Living organism
6) Common will, concord
7) Common property
8) Bounded (5 and 8 both have moral boundaries)
Gesellshaft:
1) New
2) Rational will
a. New form of life, highly individualistic, careers, less family/more profession, company
and enterprises.
b. Gesellshaft means society.
3) Shallow, superficial
4) impersonal, secondary
5) Modern society is the opposite, result of contract, therefore it is mechanical and artificial. Same
way as corporation is a person in legal terms.
6) Individual wills and diversity
7) Private property
8) Boundless
Lecture: October 27
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
1893 wrote his own book
Disagreed on two points, more important one to see today. Modern society is artificial.
Traditional society is good. He was upbeat about modern society, that old society that left
behind some major problems and were better off living in modern society. One is
primitive/traditional society, the other is modern society. Main how modern society came
about.
First book of modern society was called division of labor in society; he thought that is what
gives birth to modern society. In that society, the division of labor not only happens in economy
but generally. It is the division of labor that gives rise to modern society.
2 sources of social life:
1) Conscience (something moral; but it also means consciousness, the way we know things and
understand it)
2) Collective
Unlike Comte, Durkheim was interested in division of labor as it was a feature of modern
society. Because of division of labor, different people in society become interdependent on each
other. No single person or association is self-sufficient.
Law is a manifestation of collective consciousness having different moral values. Something
observable and concrete in the world. Laws of primitive society and laws of modern society.
2 types of law differentiating collectiveness and solidarity
What is a criminal act, what is a crime? Crime is something that shocks the collective culture.
Criminal law really punishes norms of collective consciousness, forced by society and
consciousness of society. People who share those values hate those other values, when
violated they react and punish those who break/violate them. He thought this type of penal law
is typical of older types of societies and must indicate strong collective consciousness.
I.
Law:
1) Repressive
2) Restitute law (restores the damage done by one person to another.
Contract and commercial laws are most important aspects of it in that if you
break your contract, damages against you)
II.
Solidarity
III.
Basis of
1) Mechanical
1) Likeness
IV.
Soc. Structure
1) Segmental
Restitute law comes into being with division of labor.

Organic society as a whole becomes capable of growth and movement. Inverse ratio between
mechanical solidarity and individual personality.
Individualism becomes a key value in modern collective consciousness. Chooses the term
organic for solidarity.

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nerdy-notes.

Reason determining truth

Practical sciences normative. Tries to see what is best.

Empires creation by conquest/ Moral, non-physical aspect. Either attacked if no defenses.

Thought all reforms were rationalization of society and very progressive

Instead of Bureaucracy of promoting the general interest of mankind

Restitute law comes into being with division of labor.

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