Theme1 General Physics

Measure Instrument
- Vernier calipers + micrometer screw gauge
Pendulum one oscillation

***even in a vacuum, T of different l is not the same

Speed: the distance moved per unit time

Velocity: the change in displacement per unit time

Displacement: distance in a specific direction

Acceleration: the change in velocity with time

Addition formula
(

Air resistance: a frictional force

1. Apply on only moving objects
2. Air resistance when Speed surface area density of air

Force: a push or pull that one object exerts on another

Scalar: only magnitude
1|Physic

Vector: direction + magnitude

***For an object with constant velocity or zero acceleration, the
resultant force/net force is zero
st

Newtons 1 law
Every object will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless a resultant force acts on it to change its state
nd

Newtons 2 law
When a resultant force acts on an object of constant mass, the object
will accelerate and move in the direction of the resultant force. The
product of the mass and acceleration of the object is equal to the
resultant force.

rd

Newtons 3 law
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction, and these
forces act on mutually opposite bodies.

Mass: a measure of the amount of matter or substance in a body

Weight: a force due to gravity
Gravitational field: the region surrounding the Earth where gravity is
experienced
Gravitational field strength: the gravitational force acting per unit
mass on an object

Inertia: the reluctance of the object to change its state of rest or

motion
***Inertia depends on only the mass of the object
Density: mass per unit volume

2|Physic

Moment: the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
pivot to the line of action of the force

***Taking moments to the pivot, sum of anti-clockwise moment = sum of

clockwise moment
Principle of Moments
When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moment about a
pivot is equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moment of the same pivot
Centre of Gravity: the point through which its whole weight appears to
act for any orientation of the object
*** A plumb line is used to find CG
Stability: the ability of an object to return to its original object
after it has been tiled slightly
Stable, Unstable and Neutral equilibrium (CG remains at the same level

when it is tiled slightly)

***Low CG and wide base to increase stability

Energy: the capacity to do work

Kinetic Energy: the energy possessed by a body due to its virtual of
motion

Gravitational Potential Energy: the energy possessed by a body due to

virtual of its position

Principle of Conservation of Energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed in any process. It can be
converted from one form to another or transferred from one body to
another, but the total amount remains constant
3|Physic

Work: the product of the force and the distance moved by the object in
the direction of the force
(1J=1Nm)
Power: the rate of woke done
(1W=1J/s)

Pressure: the force acting per unit area

,
*** Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure

Theme2 Thermal Physics

Temperature: how hot or cold an object is
Heat: the amount of energy that is being transferred from a hotter to a
colder region

Thermocouple electromotive force ( )

Factors affecting range, sensitivity and responsiveness

4|Physic

State
s
l
g

Arrangement
Closely packed in a regular
pattern
Closely packed in a disorderly
manner
spread far apart in a disorderly
manner

Movement
Vibrate about their fixed
position
Sliding over each other
Move rapidly at random

Brownian motion: the random, continuous and uneven movement of particles

suspended in a fluid
Boyles Law: pressure is inversely related to volume when the other
factors are constant

Overall formula

Key concepts
When the container is heated up (temperature increases); the particles
gain more kinetic energy and move faster randomly, the rate of collision
between the particles and the inner wall is more frequent, the total
force exerted to the inner wall increases, the pressure increases
When the volume is decreased; the space between the particles is
smaller, the number of molecules presented per unit volume increases,
the rate of collision between the particles and the inner wall
increases, the total force exerted to the inner wall increases, the
pressure increases

5|Physic

Conduction: the process of thermal energy transfer without any flow of

the material medium
- Particle vibration; metal and non-metal
- Free electron diffusion; only metal
Convection: the transfer of thermal energy by mean of currents in a
fluid
Radiation: the continual emission of infrared waves from the surface of
all bodies, transmitted without the aid of a medium
***Dull, black surfaces are better emitters of infrared radiation than
shiny, white surfaces

Internal energy: The total kinetic and potential energy associated with
the motions and relative positions of the molecules of an object
Heat capacity(C): the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a body by 1K (or 1C)
Specific heat capacity(c): the amount of thermal energy required to
raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1K (or 1C)

Melting: the process of the change of solid state to liquid state

P

b.p.

***increase pressure increase the melting point of water

Latent heat: the energy released or absorbed during a change of state
Latent heat of fusion: the amount of thermal energy required to change a
body from solid to liquid state, or vice versa, without a change in
temperature
Specific latent heat of fusion: the amount of thermal energy required to
change 1 kg of solid to liquid, or vice versa, without a change in
temperature
6|Physic

Latent heat of vaporisation: the amount of thermal energy required to

change a body from liquid to vapour, or vice versa, without a change in
temperature
Specific latent heat of vaporisation: the amount of thermal energy
required to change 1 kg of liquid to vapour state, or vice versa,
without a change in temperature
,
Boiling: the process of the change of liquid state to gaseous state at a
fixed and constant temperature
Boiling
1. Occurs at a fixed temperature
2. Quick process
3. Takes place throughout the
liquid

Evaporation
1. Occurs at any temperature
2. Slow process
3. Takes place only at the liquid
surface
4. No bubbles are formed in the
4. Bubbles are formed in the liquid
liquid
5. Thermal energy supplied by an
5. Thermal energy supplied by the
energy source
surroundings

Theme3 Light, Waves and Sound

Luminous and non-luminous object
Number of imaged formed always round down

Refraction: Bending effect of light as it passes from one optical

material to another

Refractive index Snells Law

7|Physic

***light travels from lesser density to higher density

Critical angle: the angle of incidence in the optically denser medium
for which the angle of refraction in the less dense medium is 90
Total internal reflection takes place only when
1. A ray of light travels from an optically denser to a less dense
medium
2. The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium is greater than
the critical angle
Optical fibres
_ can carry a much higher volume of information over long distances than
the electrical wires
_ lighter, thinner and cheaper for manufacture
_ high quality transmission of information over long distances with
negligible loss
Laws of Reflection1
1. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
2. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie on the same plane
Lens

Periodic motion: motion repeated at regular intervals

***the source of any wave is a vibration or oscillation
***waves move/propagate through the medium
***In waves, energy is transferred without the medium being transferred
8|Physic

Types of wave motion

1. Longitudinal waves: waves that travel in a direction parallel to the
direction of the vibration

2. Transverse waves: waves that travel in a direction perpendicular to

the direction of the vibration

Crests: the highest points of a transverse wave

Troughs: the lowest points of a transverse wave
***Compressions & rarefactions in longitudinal waves
Phase: any two points that move in the same direction, have the same
speed and same displacement from the rest position
Wavelength (): the shortest between two points that are in phase
Amplitude (A): the maximum displacement from the rest
Period (T): the time taken for one point on the wave to complete one
oscillation
Frequency (): the number of complete waves produced per second

Wave speed (v)

9|Physic

Wave front: an imaginary line on a wave that joins all points that are
in the same phase
Refraction of waves
*** v & decrease from deep to shallow water
Reflection of waves
- i = r
- f, , v are the same

Electromagnetic waves low f, high to high f, low

; Radio waves microwaves infrared visible light* ultraviolet
X-rays gamma rays
***red blue
Properties of Electromagnetic waves
1. They are transverse waves. They are electric (horizontal) and
magnetic (vertical) fields that oscillate at 90 to each other

2. They transfer energy from one place to another

10 | P h y s i c

3. They can travel through vacuum, do not require any medium

8

4. Their speed in vacuum is 3.010 m/s

5.

6. They obey the laws of reflection and refraction

7. They carry no electric charge
8. Their do not change when travel from one medium to another. Their
depend only on the source of the wave. Their v and change.
Ionisation: the process of ion formation
Ionising radiation: the rejection of one or more electrons from an atom
or molecule to produce a fragment with a net positive charge
Effects of ionising radiation
1. Molecular level: irradiation of human tissues, damage to proteins,
nucleic acid
2. Sub-cellular level: damage Chromosomes (DNA)
3. A pregnant woman: an abnormal pattern of cell division, leading to
cancers such as leukaemia
4. Organism level: premature aging and shortening of lifespan

***Sound is longitudinal wave

***Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium
***the series of compressions and rarefactions produced by the shifting
of air layers
Compressions slightly higher pressure than the surrounding air
pressure
Rarefactions slightly lower pressure than the surrounding air
pressure
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Wavelength of the sound (): the distance between two consecutive

compressions or rarefactions
Amplitude of the sound (A): the maximum pressure change
Medium of transmission of sound
5 =V liquid
gas 15 =V solid
V solid > V liquid > V
V
V

gas

gas

, T=temperature

Reflection of sound
Echo: the repetition of the clap
***an echo is formed when a sound is reflected off hard, flat surfaces
Range of audibility: the range of frequencies which a person can hear
***human ears 20 Hz-20,000 Hz
Ultrasound: sound with frequencies above the upper limit of the human
range of audibility (above 20,000 Hz)
Infrasound: sound with frequencies below the lower limit of the human
range of audibility (above 20 Hz)
Pitch a music note or sound as high or low

Loudness: the volume of a sound related to the amplitude of a sound

Theme4 Electricity and Magnetism

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Electrostatics: the study of static electric charges

***same charges repel (repulsive force)
***different charges attract (attractive force)
The amount of charge an e-/P+ has is 1.610-19 C
-19
6.2510 electrons = 1 C
Electrical insulators: materials where electrons are not free to move
about
***they are charged by friction
Electrical conductors: materials that allow electrons to move freely
within them
***they are charged by induction
Induction: the process of charging a conductor without any contact with
the charging body
Induction 2 metals
1. Two conductors (metal spheres) on insulating stands are placed
touching each other
2. A negative charged rod is brought near sphere A. This causes the
electrons in the metal spheres to be replied to the far end of sphere B.
Sphere A can be seen to have excess positive charges, while sphere B has
excess positive charges.
3. Without removing the rod, separate spheres A and B.
4. Remove the charged rod. Spheres A and B now have equal amounts of
opposite charges. Spheres A and B have been charged by induction.

Induction 1 metal
13 | P h y s i c

1. Bring a positively charged glass rod near the metal conductor on an

insulating stand. The free electrons in the metal will be drawn towards
the side nearer the positively charged glass rod.
2. Without removing the glass rod, earth the positively charged side of
the metal conductor by touching in with your hand. The human body is a
relatively good conductor and will allow electrons to flow into the
conductor from the ground. This will neutralize the positive on this
side of the conductor.
3. With the glass rod still in place, remove your hand from the
conductor. This will stop the earthing process.
4. Remove the glass rod. The negative charges will be redistributed on
the surface of the conductor. The conductor is now negatively charged.
Electric force: a force experienced by charges
An electric field: a region where an electric charge experiences an
electric force

Electric lines of force: imaginary lines, showing the path a positive

charge would take if it was free to move.
The direction of the field: the direction of the force on a small
positive charge
***The strength of an electric field is indicated by how close the filed
lines are to each other
14 | P h y s i c

An electric current is caused by a flow of electrons

Electron flow: movement of electrons from the negatively charged end to
the positively charged end
Convectional current flow: the assumption that an electric current
consist of positive charges flowing from the positively charged end to
the negatively charged end

An electric current (I): a measure of the rate of flow of electric

charge (Q) through a given cross section of a conductor

An electric circuit: a complete or close path through which charge can

flow from one terminal of an electrical source to the other terminal
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of an electrical energy source: the
work done by the source in driving a unit charge round a complete
circuit

Cells in series
The combined e.m.f. in increased because electric charges gain
electrical energy from each cell when they pass through them.
Cells in parallel

15 | P h y s i c

The energy required to move electric charges through the load will be
contributed equally by each cell. Thus, each cell only needs to provide
half the energy to move the charges through the circuit.
Potential difference (p.d.) between two points in an electric circuit :
the amount of electrical energy converted to other forms of energy when
one coulomb of positive charge passes between the two points
Resistance: a property of the material that restricts the movement of
free electrons in the material
The resistance (R) of a component: the ratio of the potential difference
(V) across it to the current (I) flowing through it

A resistor: a conductor in a circuit that has a known value of

resistance
Ohms Law
The current passing through a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the
physical conditions are constant
***ohmic conductors conductors that obey Ohms Law
*** I-V graph: a straight line passes through the origin
Non-ohmic conductors I-V graph is not a straight line (
constant)
Ex; Filament lamp, thermistor, semiconductor diode

is not a

16 | P h y s i c

Resistivity ()

Series Circuits

When similar resistors are connected in series, the combined

resistance is larger than the individual resistance of a single
resistor. As a result, this cause the current in the circuit to be
smaller if the e.m.f. supplied in the same.

In a series circuit, the sum of the potential across each component is

equal to the difference across the whole circuit

The combined resistance of resistors in series is the sum of all the

resistances.
Parallel Circuits

17 | P h y s i c

In a parallel circuit, the sum of the individual currents in each of

the parallel branches is equal to the main current flowing into and out
of the parallel branches.

***Bulbs connected in parallel will glow more brightly than when

connected in series
***Another advantage of connecting bulbs in parallel is that when one of
the light bulbs blows, the other light bulb will continue to glow

there is still a complete circuit through the other parallel branch for
the current to flow

***When one of the bulbs in series blows, the entire circuit will be

open and the other bulb will not light up

Potential Divider: A circuit with resistors arranged in series

18 | P h y s i c

Transducers: electric or electronic devices that convert energy from one

form to another they respond to physical quantities such as

temperature and light

Input transducers convert non-electrical energy to electrical energy
Output transducers convert electrical energy to non-electrical energy
Ex; Thermistors, Light-dependent resistor (LDR)
Thermistors

Light-dependent resistor (LDR)

Electric heating
_ Usually made up of nichrome wire; because of its high resistivity and
ability to withstand high temperature;
_ As it has high resistivity, the electric current is decreased and
hence the temperature cannot reach the m.p. and b.p.
_ Thermal energy is generated when an electric current passes through
the heating element

19 | P h y s i c

Electric lighting filament & fluorescent lamp

Filament lamp
_ Filament is made of a tungsten coil; tungsten has high resistivity and
m.p. (3400C)
_ Filament is thin (small cross-sectional area A)
*** l A R I temperature cannot reach the m.p.
_ contains Argon and Nitrogen to prevent the tungsten to burnt
Fluorescent lamp
_ more efficient than filament lamps (3000 hours vs 1000 hours)
_ use less energy than filament lamps
_ light produced when passing electric charges between two electrodes
_the mercury vapour contained in the glass tube emits ultraviolet light
with invisible light which is converted to visible light by fluorescent
powder coated on the inner wall

Filament
Fluorescent

Advantages
Give cosy and relaxed
atmoshere
Energy efficient

Disadvantages
10% light
90% heat
Costly & toxic

Electric motors
_ work on the principles of the magnetic effects of a current
_ electric energy rotational kinetic energy
Power: the rate of woke done or energy converted

Dangers of Electricity
Damage insulation
_ electrical insulation crack and break; exposing the conducting wires
inside
_ cause severe electric shock if it is touched
Overheating of cables
_ an unusually large current flows through the conducting wires
20 | P h y s i c

_ the higher resistance of thinner wires will produce more thermal heat
that will damage the insulation and may cause a fire
***thin wires are used for appliances that need less power and vice
versa

Damp conditions
_ as our human body can only withstand a current of about 50mA, the
large current will electrocute the person
_ R of human body is low; R I ***
Safe use of electricity at home
_ electricity is supplied by a cable containing 2 wires live wire (L)
and neutral wire (N)
live wire (L) 240V
neutral wire (N) 0V
These 2 wires are connected to a main fuse box, an electricity meter and
a consumer unit.
The consumer unit: the distribution point for the households
electricity supply. consists of a main switch and circuit breakers
1. Circuit breakers: safety devices that can switch off the electrical
supply in a circuit when there is an overflow of current
1.1 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB): when the current exceeds the
current values labeled, the circuit breaker will trip.
1.2 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB): detects the small current
leakages from the live wire to the earth wire. When this happens, the
current in the live wire will be greater than the neutral wire, causing
the ELCB to trip.
2. Fuses: safety devices included in an electrical circuit to prevent
excessive current flow
_ same function as the MCB

21 | P h y s i c

_ A fuse consists of a short thin piece of wire which becomes hot and
melts when the current flowing through it is greater than its rated
value.
a. Fuses should have a current rating just slightly higher than the
current an electrical appliance will use under normal
b. A fuse should be connected to the live wire so that the appliance
will not become charged after the fuse has melted due to the over flow
of current
c. Before you charge a fuse, always switch off the mains power supply
3. Switches
_ they break or complete an electrical circuit
If the switch id fitted onto the neutral wire, the appliance will be
live even though the switch is off. Anybody who touches the
metal casing the appliance would experience an electric shock.
wrong
_ Switches must be fitted onto the live wire so that switching off dis
connects the high voltage from an appliance correct
4. Plugs and sockets

_ a cartridge fuse protects the appliance from excessive current flow

5. Earthing
_ earth wire (E) green & yellow
_ live wire (L) brown
_ neutral wire (N) blue
22 | P h y s i c

The earth wire: a low-resistance wire which usually connected to the

metal casing of the appliance
If there is a fault the live wire touches the metal casing of the
appliance the user could get an electric shock.
_ the earth wire connected to the metal casing diverts the large current
due to the electrical fault to the ground
6. Double insulation
_ a safety feature which provides 2 levels of insulation in an
electrical appliance that can substitute the earth wire
6.1. The electric cable is insulated from the internal components of the
appliance
6.2. The internal components are also insulated from the external casing

Magnetite: a naturally occurring iron oxide mineral

Magnetic/ferromagnetic materials: the materials that are attracted by a
natural magnet
A permanent magnet: a material that retains its magnetism for a long
time
Properties of magnets
1. The poles are where the magnetic effects are the strongest.
2. When we suspend a bar magnet freely, the north-seeking pole will
point to the North Pole and the south-seeking pole will point to the
South Pole.
3. Law of magnetism
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract
Repulsion: the only test to confirm that an object is a magnet
Magnetic Induction: the process where ferromagnetic materials become
magnetised when they are near or in contact with a permanent magnet
23 | P h y s i c

Theory of magnetism
If we take a bar magnet and cut it into three smaller pieces, we will
notice that every piece becomes a magnet itself with an N pole and an S
ploe.
A magnetic domain: a group of atomic magnets pointing in the same
direction
***In a permanent bar the magnetic domains point in the same
direction

***In an unmagnetised bar the magnetic domains point in random

direction; the magnetic effects of the atomic magnets cancel out so
there is no resultant magnetic effect

Phenomena
1. Magnetic saturation
Every magnet has a maximum strength when all the magnetic domains are
pointing in the same direction the magnet is magnetically saturated
2. Demagnetisation of magnets
Demagnetisation: the process of removing magnetism from a magnet
Ex; heating, hammering
They cause the atoms of the magnet to vibrate vigorously, mixing up
the directions of the magnetic domains.
3. Storage of magnets using soft iron keepers
24 | P h y s i c

If we store magnets side by side, the magnets become weaker after some
time as free poles near the ends of the magnet will repel one
another. The magnetic domains will be altered, weakening the magnets.
We store bar magnets in pairs by using soft iron keepers across the
ends of the bar magnets. The poles of the atomic magnets are in closed
loops with on free poles to weaken the magnetic domains.
Ways of making magnets
1. Stroking method
***precaution is that the stroking magnet must br lifted sufficiently
high above the steel bar between successive stroke.
2. Electrical method using a direct current
When an electric current flows through the solenoid, it produces a
strong magnetic field which magnetizes the steel bar.
***The poles of the magnet is determined by the right-hand grip rule

Ways to demagnetising magnets

1. Heating
The atoms of the magnet vibrate vigorously when heated, causing the
magnetic domains to lose their alignment.
2. Hammering
25 | P h y s i c

Hammering alters the alignment of the magnetic domains, causing the

magnet to lose its magnetism.
3. Electrical method using an alternating current
An alternating current is an electric current which varies its
direction many times per second. The magnet is then slowly withdrawn in
the East-West direction with the alternating current still flowing in
the solenoid.
A magnetic field: a region in which a magnetic object, placed within the
influence of the field, experiences a magnetic force
Magnetic field lines: invisible lines of force which we assume are
emerging from the North Pole and entering the South pole of the magnet
_ Magnetic field lines do not cross or intersect one another
_ the field lines drawn closer together represent strong magnetic fields
_ the field lines drawn further apart together represent weak magnetic
fields

***the point between two N poles is the neutral point

The earths magnetic field
A large imaginary magnet within the earth is believed to be caused by
convection currents inside the earths molten outer core
The imaginary S pole is at the geographic north pole
The imaginary N pole is at the geographic south pole
Magnetic shielding: a method of creating a region or space that is free
of magnetic fields by means of a closed loop of soft magnetic materials
_ use thin sheets of soft magnetic materials; they work by diverting the
magnetic fields

26 | P h y s i c

Magnetic field lines tend to pass through magnetic materials easily.

Iron soft magnetic material
_ gain and lose magnetism easily; strong induced magnet
_ induced magnetism occurs instantaneously either induced by another
magnet, or by a solenoid conducting electricity
_ loses its induced magnetism when the inducing magnet is removed
_ a temporary magnet; does not retain its magnetism
Steel hard magnetic material
_ difficult to gain and lose magnetism; weak induced magnet
_ induced magnetism occurs slowly
_ does not lose its induced magnetism easily once steel is magnetised
_ a permanent magnet; retain its magnetism

A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.

***using right-hand grip rule to find the direction of the magnetic
field around the wire
***the magnetic field of a long, straight current-carrying wire is
stronger when it is closer to the wire or when a large current flows
through the wire

27 | P h y s i c

To increase the magnetic field strength at the centre of the flat coil
1. increase the current
2. increase the number of turns of the coil

To increase the magnetic field strength in a solenoid

1. increase the current
2. increase the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid
3. place a soft iron core within the solenoid; the soft iron core
concentrates the magnetic field lines, thereby increasing the magnetic
field strength
Uses of electromagnets
Circuit breaker

28 | P h y s i c

_ When the current in a circuit increases, the strength of the

electromagnet will increase in accordance; this will pull the soft iron
armature towards the electromagnet.
_ As a result, the spring pulls apart the contact and disconnects the
circuit immediately, and the current stop to flow.
_ We can reconnect the circuit by using the reset button. The reset
button can be pushed to bring the contact back to its original position
to reconnect the circuit.
Motor effect
The force on the current-carrying conductor in a magnet field acts
perpendicular to both the direction of the current and the direction of
the magnetic field.
The force is reversed when we reverse the direction of the current or
magnetic field.
Flemings Left-Hand Rule

_ Thumb motion
_ Forefinger field
_ Second finger current
Combined magnetic field when the wire is placed between the poles of the
magnet

29 | P h y s i c

_ the combined field lines acting in the same direction gives a stronger
field than the combined field lines acting in the different direction
force
Forces between two parallel current-carrying wires
Currents in opposing directions cause repulsion. Currents in similar
directions cause attraction.

To increase the turning effect on the wire coil in a magnetic field

1. increase the number of turns on the wire coil
2. increase the current in the coil lower the resistance / increase
the voltage supply
3. insert a soft iron core into the coil to concentrate the magnetic
field lines
4. use stronger permanent magnet
The D.C. motor

_ electrical energy mechanical energy

30 | P h y s i c

Components
1. Rectangular coil connected in series to a battery and rheostat
2. Permanent magnets
3. Split-ring commutator
4. two carbon brushes

Split-ring commutator
; to reverse the direction of the current in the loop (coil every half a
revolution) whenever the commutator changes contact from one brush to
the other
Carbon brushes
; to conduct current to flow into and out of the coil

Electromagnetic induction: the phenomenon of inducing on electromotive

force (e.m.f.) in a circuit due to a changing magnetic field
The magnitude of this induced e.m.f. depends on;
1. the number of turns in the solenoid
2. the strength of the magnet
3. the speed inserting the magnet or withdrawing from the solenoid
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction
The e.m.f. induced in a conductor is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic lines of force linking the circuit.
31 | P h y s i c

Lenzs law
The direction of the induced e.m.f., and hence the induced current in
a circuit, is always such that its magnetic effect opposes the motion or
change producing it.
***There is no e.m.f. generated when bar magnet is stationary
An A.C. generator: a device that uses the principle of electromagnetic
induction to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy

Alternation current generators (A.C. current)

_ the slip rings ensures that the direction of the induced current
flowing in the external circuit changes every half revolution

The induced e.m.f. is maximum when the coil in parallel to the

magnetic lines of force. The coil experiences the greastest changes in
magnetic field.

32 | P h y s i c

The induced e.m.f. is zero when the coil in perpendicular to the

magnetic lines of force as the coil is not cutting through the magnetic
field lines. The coil experiences no changes in magnetic field.
To increase the induced e.m.f.
1. increase the numbers of turns on the coil
2. increase the frequency of rotation of the coil
3. use stronger permanent magnets
4. insert a soft iron core into the coil to concentrate the magnetic
field lines
The fixed coil A.C. generator is preferred over the simple A.C.
generator
1. Carbon brushes wear and tear easily
2. The connection with the slip ring becomes loose when the carbon brush
is eroded increase the resistance at the connecting point lesser
current is generated as it causes unnecessary thermal energy
3. The fixed coil A.C. generator design is more compact and space-saving
A transformer: a device that changes a high alternating voltage (at low
current) to a low alternating voltage (at high current), and vice versa
_ coil A induces e.m.f. in coil B, using A.C. current
_ this e.m.f. in turn drives an induced current to flow in coil B

Function of a transformer
1. Electrical power transmission
2. Regulating voltages for proper operation of electrical appliances
A closed-core transformer
33 | P h y s i c

_ the lamination of the soft iron core reduces heat loss due to induced
eddy currents
A step-up transformer Vs > Vp
A step-down transformer Vs < Vp

***100% efficiency

Causes of power loss

1. heat loss due to the resistance of the coils
2. leakage of magnetic field lines between the primary and secondary
coils
3. heat loss due to eddy currents induced in the iron core
4. hysteresis loss caused by the flipping of magnetic dipoles in the
iron core due to A.C.
Reduce heat loss due to resistance
1. use thicker cables
2. reduce the current I, using a step-up transformer

***Power can be transmitted more efficiently at higher voltages and

lower currents
Converting A.C. to D.C. diodes
The diode: a semiconductor device that allows a current to flow easily
in one direction only

34 | P h y s i c

Rectification: the conversion of A.C. into D.C.

Half-wave rectification

Full-wave rectification a bridge rectifier

35 | P h y s i c

Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope C.R.O.

_ The electron gun emits a beam of electrons (thermonic emission) a

cathode ray
_ The fluorescent screen is coated with Zinc sulphide
_ the Y-plates vary the vertical position
_ the Y-plates sweep the electron beam horizontally
Y-gain
_ amplifies the Y-deflection so that the small input voltages are
amplified before they are applied to the Y-plates

Time-base
_ controls the speed, at which the electron beam sweeps across the
screen horizontally from left to right by the X-plates
_ sawtooth voltage applied to the X-plates

36 | P h y s i c

Physics Formula
Topic
2.1: Kinematics

Formula

SI unit

Distance
Time
Displacement
s
;v
Velocity
Time
t
Diff. in Velocity
Acceleration
Time
Speed

Distance (m)
Time (sec)

Final unit
m/s

Displacement (m)
Time (sec)

m/s

Velocity (m/s)
Time (sec)

m/s

Force (N)
Mass (kg)
Acceleration (m/s2)
Mass (kg)
g = 10 N/kg
Mass (g/kg)
Volume (cm3/m3)

Newton (N)

Condition: Used only when acceleration is

constant.
2.2 Dynamics
2.3 Mass Weight
Density

2.4 Turning Effect

of Forces
2.5 Pressure

Resultant Force Mass Acceleration

F ma
W mg

m
(Density) ;.
V
Moments Fd

Newton
metre (Nm)

Liquids: Pressure h g

h (m): Depth of Liquid

(kg/m3): Density of liquid
g: 10N/kg
P (Pa): Pressure
V (m3): Volume

N/m2 , Pa

F (N): Force
d (Perpendicular dist): m
m (kg): Mass
v (m/s): Velocity

m (kg): Mass
g: 10N/kg
h (m): Height
Energy change /Work done(J)
Time (s)

Theta: Unknown temperature

X0: ice point, X100: Steam pt

Q(heat energy) C

C: Heat capacity

Q mc

m: mass
c: Specific Heat Capacity
l f : Latent heat of fusion

lv : Latent heat of vapourisation

f: Frequency
t (sec): Time

Hz

Gases (when temp. is constant)

P1V1 P2V2
W (Work Done) Fd

1
K.E. Kinetic Energy mv2
2
P.E. Potential Energy mgh
X P Power
3.1 Principles of
Thermometry
3.2 Thermal
Properties of
Matter

4.2: Light

W or Energy change
Time

X X0
(For Celsius scale only)
X100 X0

Q ml f
4.1: General Wave
Properties

g/cm or
kg/m3

Force (N)
Perpendicular Distance (m)
Note: Perpendicular Distance is not always the length of the rod.
Force (N)
Force F

Solids: Pressure
Area (m2)

Area

2.6 Energy, Work,

power

Newton (N)

Q mlv
1
f
T
v f

N/m2 , Pa

NA

J/s, W
(watt)
C

v (m/s): Velocity
m/s
(m): Wavelength
f(1/t): Frequency
n = refractive index (ratio)
NA. Ratio.
Snells Law:
o
i/r
(
):
angle
of
sin i
n
incidence/refraction
sin r
*Set calculator in degree mode.
Condition: The angle of incidence must be in the less dense medium; angle r must be in the
denser medium.

4.2: Light

5.1: Current
Electricity

Ht of image
Real depth
c

n
v Apparent depth Ht of object
c sin 1 n
Q
I
t

W
Q

W
Q

Ohms Law: V IR
Condition: Only for ohmic conductors.

R
5.2: Practical
Electricity

l
A

5.3:
Electromagnetic
Induction

Vs N s I p

Vp N p I s

NA. Ratio.

I: Current (A)
Q: Charge (Columb)
t: Time (sec)
: E.m.f. (Volts V)
W: Work done/energy of circuit (J)
Q: Charge (Columb)
V: Potential Diff. (V)
W: Work done/energy across
circuit component
Q: Amount of charge
R: Resistance ( )

Coloumb,
C

m)

V, J/C

V, J/C

L: Length
A: Cross-sectional Area

E VIt I 2 RT
P VI I 2 R

c (m/s): Speed of light in vaccum

(3x108 m/s)
v (m/s): Speed of light in medium.
c (o): Critical angle.

V 2t
R

V2
R

J
W