35

Chapter 35. Fertigation and Nutrient Management

by Brian Boman and Thomas Obreza

Fertigation is the application of liquid fertilizer

through an irrigation system. Microirrigation and
fertigation offer the potential for precise control of
nutrients and water, which are the main growercontrolled inputs to plant growth. A major benefit
of fertigation is that it provides greater flexibility
and control of applied nutrients than conventional
broadcast applications. Fertilizers are applied when
needed and in small doses, so water-soluble nutrients are less subject to leaching by excess rainfall
or overirrigation.
Care must be exercised to avoid emitter plugging
problems resulting from reactions of the fertilizer
with the irrigation water. The fertilizer source must
be water-soluble. Chemical reactions between fertilizer materials can result in the formation of precipitates, which can plug the irrigation system. The
uniformity of the fertilizer application depends on
the uniformity of the water application. Therefore,
high water application uniformity is very important
for fertigation.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen (N) is the plant nutrient most often injected as fertilizer into microirrigation systems.
One of the major benefits of small, frequent nitrogen applications is a potential reduction in leaching
of nitrate into the groundwater. Only small
amounts of N are applied at any one time; therefore, excess nitrate is not present to be leached in
the event of heavy rainfall. Nitrogen can be applied
using a number of different compounds, but urea
and ammonium nitrate are the most desirable
sources because they have a low plugging risk. Anhydrous or aqua ammonia are not recommended
for use in microirrigation systems because they
will increase the pH of the irrigation water. Consequently, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus may
precipitate in the line and increase the plugging

potential. Ammonium sulfate and calcium nitrate

can be dissolved in water, but they also may cause
plugging problems. If calcium or magnesium levels
are high in the irrigation water, ammonium phosphate may cause precipitates to form, which can
plug emitters. Nitrogen can contribute to microbial
growth if it is applied continuously and remains in
the irrigation line after the system has been shut
off.
Nitrogen movement in the soil depends on the type
of nitrogen fertilizer. The ammonium cation is less
mobile in the soil than nitrate. The depth of movement depends on the cation exchange capacity
(CEC) of the soil, and the rate of fertilizer application. Application of ammonium fertilizer to the soil
surface may result in loss to the atmosphere by ammonium volatilization, especially if soil pH is
greater than 7. Most ammonium will be transformed biologically to nitrate within two to three
weeks at soil temperatures in the 75 to 90 F
range. Nitrate will move with the irrigation water
to the wetted front. Thus, with subsequent irrigations, nitrate may be leached beyond the root zone
or may be pushed to the periphery of the wetted
soil volume and only part of the root zone will
have access to it. Urea is very soluble in irrigation
water, and it is not adsorbed by soil. Thus, it will
move deeper below the soil surface than ammonium, but will not leach as easily as nitrate. A balance between ammonium and nitrate in the nitrogen fertilizer is usually recommended.
Some water sources (such as recycled wastewater)
may contain a significant amount of nitrate. This
nitrogen should be taken into account when determining tree fertilizer requirements. The nitrogen
added to the crop due to nitrate in the irrigation
source water can be determined as follows:

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35

N = Cn x In x Di

Eq. 35-1

where,
N = nitrogen (lb/ac),
Cn = a constant for unit conversion (0.226)
In = NO3-N concentration in the irrigation
water (mg/L)
Di = depth of irrigation water applied (inches).
Example:
Determine the nitrogen supplied by the irrigation water if 14 inches of water are applied
annually and the NO3-N concentration is
10 mg/L.
N = 0.226 x 10 x 14 = 32 lb N/ac
Nitrogen Cycle
Compounds containing nitrogen are of great importance in the life processes of all plants and animals.
The chemistry of nitrogen is complex because of
the numerous oxidation states that it can assume,
and because of the fact that changes in the oxidation state can be brought about by living
organisms.
Because of environmental concerns, nitrate (NO3-)
is of particular interest. It is very mobile and easily
transported by water. In surface water systems,
NO3- is a nutrient source and can contribute to the
overproduction of algae or other aquatic life, resulting in eutrophication of surface water bodies.
Nitrate in groundwater is of even greater concern
because groundwater is the principal domestic
water because in many areas. The EPA has established a drinking water maximum concentration
level (MCL) of 10 mg/L as N in NO3-, which is
equivalent to 45 mg/L NO3-. Nitrogen is a very
complex nutrient and it exists in the environment
in many forms. It is continually transformed due to
biological and chemical influences. Nitrogen can
be divided into two categories:
1. Organic N contains carbon in the compound
and exists in plant residues, animal waste, biosolids, septic effluent, and food processing
waste.

416

2. Inorganic N contains no carbon in the compound and exists as ammonium (NH4+), nitrite
(NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), and nitrogen gas (N2).
Understanding the behavior of N in the soil is essential for good fertilizer management. Many N
sources are available for use in supplying N to
crops. In addition to inorganic (commercial) fertilizer N, animal manures and waste products are significant sources of organic N. Nitrogen fixation by
legume crops can also supply significant amounts
of N.
Sources of NO3- are both man-made and natural.
The principal man-made sources of nitrate are
commercial fertilizer, and septic and sewage systems. The ultimate source of N used by plants is N2
gas, which constitutes 78% of the earths atmosphere. Nitrogen gas is converted to plant-available
N by one of the following methods:
Fixation by microorganisms that live symbiotically on the roots of legumes (also certain
nonlegumes)
Fixation by free-living or nonsymbiotic soil
microorganisms
Fixation as oxides of N by atmospheric electrical
discharges
Fixation by the manufacture of synthetic N
fertilizer (Haber-Bosch process).
The virtually unlimited supply of nitrogen in the
atmosphere is in dynamic equilibrium with the
various fixed forms in the soil-plant-water system.
The N cycle can be divided into N inputs and outputs (Fig. 35-1). Understanding this process can influence how nitrogen is managed to minimize its
negative effects on the environment, while maximizing the beneficial value of N for plant growth.
Animals and higher plants are incapable of utilizing nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. The nitrogen cycle with inputs, outputs, and cycling is
complex. N derived from plant and animal residues
and from the atmosphere through electric,

35

combustion, and industrial processes is added to

the soil. N in these residues is mobilized as ammonium (NH4+) by soil organisms as an end product
of decomposition. Plant roots absorb a portion of
the NH4+, but much of the NH4+ is converted to nitrate (NO3- ) by nitrifying bacteria, in a process
called nitrification. The NO3- is taken up by plant
roots and is used to produce the protein in crops
that are eaten by humans and fed to livestock. NO3is lost to groundwater or surface water as a result
of downward movement of percolated water
through the soil. NO3- is also converted by denitrifying bacteria into N2 and nitrogen oxides that escape into the atmosphere. The major processes of
the nitrogen cycle (Fig. 35-1) are: Nmineralization, nitrification, NO3- mobility, denitrification, and volitilization.
N-mineralization
The conversion of organic N to NH4+ is called mineralization. Mineralization occurs through the activity of heterotrophic microorganisms, which are
organisms that require organic carbon compounds
(organic matter) for their energy source. The NH4+
produced by mineralization is subject to several
fates:
Converted to NO2- and then to NO3- by the process of nitrification
Absorbed directly by higher plants
Utilized by heterotrophic organisms to further
decompose organic residues
Fixed in a biologically unavailable form in the
lattices of certain clay minerals
Released to the atmosphere as N2
The quantity of N mineralized during the growing
season can be estimated. Soil organic matter contains about 5% N by weight; during a single growing season, 1% to 4% of the organic N is mineralized to inorganic N.
Example:
If a soil contained 3% organic matter (OM) in
the top 6 inches and 2% mineralization occurred, calculate the N made available

Figure 35-1. The citrus nitrogen cycle.

(lb/acre). (Assume an acre of soil 6 inches

deep weighs 2 million lb). 2,000,000 lb x 3%
OM x 2% mineralization x 5% N = 60 lb N
N-immobilization
The conversion of inorganic N (NH4+ and NO-2) to
organic N is termed immobilization, and is basically the reverse of N mineralization. If decomposing OM contains low N relative to C, the microorganisms will immobilize NH4+ or NO3- in the soil.
Since soil organisms need N in a C:N ratio of
about 8:1 or less, they will utilize inorganic N.
They are very effective at competing with plants
for available N. Thus, N fertilizer is often applied
to compensate for N immobilization. After the decomposition of the low residuals, the N in the microorganisms is mineralized back to NH4+.
Nitrification
The biological conversion of NH4+ to NO3- is called
nitrification. This is a two-step process in which
NH4+ first changes to NO2-, then to NO3-. This process is performed by autotrophic bacteria that obtain their energy from the oxidation of N, and their
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35

C from CO2. Nitrate leaching from field soil must

be carefully controlled because of the serious impact that it can have on the environment. Since
NO3- is very mobile and subject to leaching in the
soil, understanding the factors that affect nitrification will provide insight into best management
practices to minimize nitrate losses by leaching.
Factors that affect nitrification in the soil are:
Supply of NH4+: If conditions do not favor mineralization of NH4+ from organic matter, nitrification does not occur. (If organic residue with a
high C:N ratio is plowed into the soil before
planting, microorganisms will tie up available N
while trying to decompose the residue.)
Population of nitrifying organisms: Soils differ in
their ability to nitrify NH4+, even under similar
conditions of temperature, moisture, and level of
added NH4+. One factor that may be responsible
for this is the variation in the number of nitrifying
organisms present.
Soil pH: Nitrification takes place over a wide
range of pH (4.5 to 10) conditions, but the optimum is thought to be about 8.5. The nitrifying
bacteria also need an adequate supply of Ca.
Thus, liming of low pH soil helps nitrification influence by both driving the soil pH closer to optimum, and also by providing more available Ca
for the activity of the nitrifying organisms.
Soil aeration: Aerobic nitrobacteria will not produce NO3- in the absence of O2.
Soil moisture: Nitrobacterial activity is sensitive
to soil moisture. Nitrification is greatest under
moist (but not saturated) soil conditions.
Temperature: Nitrification increases between 40
and 95 F. Activity decreases at temperatures
over 95 F.
-

NO3 mobility
The nitrate anion is very soluble in water, so leaching is a major cause of N loss from soils in humid
climates or under irrigated conditions. Under irrigated conditions, the factors that most affect nitrate
leaching from irrigation are:
418

timing of irrigation;
duration of irrigation;
uniformity of irrigation;
the amount of NO3- available for leaching.

Denitrification
Crop removal and leaching constitute the major N
losses from the soil; however, under certain conditions, inorganic N ions can be converted to gases
and lost to the atmosphere. When soil becomes
waterlogged, O2 is excluded and anaerobic decomposition takes place. Some anaerobic organisms
have the ability to obtain their O2 from sulfate and
nitrate, with the accompanying release of N, and
N2. This is a common occurrence under Florida
flatwoods growing conditions.
Volatilization
Volatilization is the loss of N from the soil to the
atmosphere. Ammonia volatization can be significant, especially from calcareous (pH>7) soils under
warm conditions.
Ammonium Process
The major source of nitrogen in synthetic fertilizers
is ammonia, and it is produced by the Haber-Bosh
process. Purified nitrogen gas (N2) reacts with hydrogen gas (H2) at high temperature and pressure to
form ammonia:
N2 + 3H2

heat/pressure

= 2NH3

Ammonia is the starting point from which nearly

all other nitrogen fertilizers are made (Table 35-1).
It contains 82% nitrogen and is the cheapest source
of nitrogen compared to other nitrogen materials. It
is used extensively in many areas of the U.S., either as anhydrous ammonia or aqua ammonia,
accounting for nearly half of the total nitrogen fertilizer consumed. Ammonia is used in the U.S. primarily as a direct-application material. A directapplication material is a fertilizer material that is
purchased as the pure material, rather than as a
blend with other fertilizer materials in mixed
fertilizers.
Losses of nitrogen from direct application of anhydrous ammonia to soils can be severe, particularly

35

Table 35-1. Synthetic nitrogen fertilizer materials that are derived from ammonia.
Reaction

Material Grade

NH3 + 2O2 HNO3 + H2O

Nitric acid

NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3

2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium sulfate

33.5-0-0
20.5-0-0

NH3 + H3PO4 NH4H2PO4

NH3 + H3PO4 (NH4)2HPO4

Monoammonium phosphate
Diammonium phosphate

11-48-0
18-46-0

2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O

Urea

45-0-0

when applied to sandy soils. Application of anhydrous ammonia to sandy soils in Florida is not recommended because of excessive volatilization
losses.
Urea and ammonium nitrate are mixed together
with water and are often sold as a solution fertilizer
containing up to 32% nitrogen. This material is
quite stable and can be applied with relatively inexpensive, nonpressurized equipment. Nitrogen solutions are quite popular for direct applications to
soil and are a major source of nitrogen for liquid
fertilizer.
Nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) is very mobile in soil and
will move freely in irrigation and rain water. Since
water percolates through sandy soils quite rapidly,
application of large quantities of nitrate-nitrogen
may increase nitrogen losses because of potential
leaching.
Ammonium-nitrogen (NH4-N) is adsorbed on cation exchange sites within the soil, and is retained,
to some extent, against leaching. However, it is
rapidly converted to nitrate-nitrogen by soil microorganisms and may be leached readily in this form.
Nitrate-nitrogen is also lost rapidly from flooded
soils because as soon as the oxygen in the soil is
depleted, certain microorganisms can immediately
begin to utilize the oxygen present in nitratenitrogen. This process, called denitrification, converts nitrate-nitrogen back into nitrogen gas (N2),
which escapes to the atmosphere and is unavailable
to plants. Recovery of fertilizer nitrogen by crops
rarely exceeds 70% and often is less than 50%.

Commercial
N-P2O5-K2O

Other chemical processes can occur to cause nitrogen losses from soil. For example, ammonium
sources of nitrogen should never be surfaceapplied to soils recently limed or containing free
calcium carbonate. In the alkaline pH environment
surrounding the lime, ammonium will revert to ammonia gas and escape into the atmosphere:
NH4 + OH-

NH3 + H2O

The application of urea directly to the soil surface

should also be avoided. Urea is quickly broken
down into ammonia and carbon dioxide by the enzyme urease, which is normally abundant in cultivated soils:
NH2 + CO

urase
H2O

NH3 + CO2

It is always a good idea to mix urea thoroughly

with the soil to minimize gaseous losses of nitrogen. All nitrogen fertilizers containing ammonium
nitrogen leave an acid residue in soil as a result of
the nitrification process:
2NH4+ + 4O2

2NO3- + 4H+ + 2H2O

The use of high rates of nitrogen on sandy soils

low in calcium needs careful attention. These soils
are poorly buffered against changes in pH caused
by the acidity released during nitrification. Florida
has many soils in agricultural production that are
sandy, low in organic matter (the principle component that aids in buffering) and contain less than
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35

Table 35-2. Pounds of lime required to neutralize the acidity produced by one pound of nitrogen when
applied as a particular fertilizer.
Material

N (%)

Lb of lime
per lb N

Ammonium sulfate
Urea
Ammonium nitrate
Anhydrous ammonia
Nitrogen solutions

20.5
45.0
33.5
82.0
21-31

5.35
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.08

200 pounds of calcium per acre. These soils tend to

be only mildly acid initially, but should be monitored carefully when large amounts of ammoniumnitrogen fertilizer are being applied (Table 35-2).
Ammonium sulfate is by far the most acid-forming
source of nitrogen. This is because all the nitrogen
is present as ammonium-nitrogen. Ammonium nitrate requires much less lime per pound of nitrogen
since only half of the nitrogen is present as ammonium. If ammonium sulfate is used instead of ammonium nitrate, more than twice as much lime is
needed to neutralize the acidity produced. The initial reactions involving urea and anhydrous ammonia in soil are quite basic, which tends to neutralize, to some extent, the acidity produced during
subsequent nitrification.
Fertilizer Solubility
Several dry fertilizer products (Table 35-3) used
for making fertilizer solutions are marketed with or
without a protective conditioner. Whenever possible, the solution grade form of these products
should be purchased to avoid having to deal with
the conditioners and the potential plugging problems they can cause. Most dry-solid fertilizers are
manufactured with a coating (commonly clay, diatomaceous earth, or hydrated silica) to keep the
moisture from being absorbed by the fertilizer pellets. To avoid having these materials create plugging problems, it is best to prepare a small amount
of the mix to observe what happens to the coating.
If the coating settles to the bottom of the container,
the clear transparent liquid can be taken from the
top portion without disturbing the bottom
sediment. If a scum forms on the surface, condi420

tioners may need to be added to facilitate the removal of the conditioner by skimming.
When urea, ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate, and
potassium nitrate are dissolved, heat is absorbed
from the water, and a very cold solution results.
Consequently, it may not be possible to dissolve as
much fertilizer as needed to achieve the desired
concentration. Oftentimes, it is necessary to let the
mixture stand for several hours and warm to a temperature that will allow all the mixture to dissolve.
Before injecting fertilizer solutions, a jar test
should be conducted to determine the clogging potential of the solution. Some of the fertilizer solution should be mixed with irrigation water in a jar
to determine if any precipitate or milkiness occurs
within one to two hours. If cloudiness does occur,
there is a chance that injection of the chemical will
cause line or emitter plugging. If different fertilizer
solutions are to be injected simultaneously into the
irrigation system, they all should be mixed in the
jar. The jar test should be conducted at about the
same dilution rate that is used in the irrigation
system.
Nitrogen
Urea, ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate are very soluble in water. These nitrogen fertilizer materials
are readily available on the market and are used extensively in the preparation of single nutrient or
multinutrient fertilizer solutions.
Phosphorus
Commercial fertilizers contain the guaranteed
percentage of P2O5 on the label as water-soluble

35

Table 35-3. Solubility rates for various fertilizer materials used to prepare fertigation solutions (adapted
from California Fertilizer Association, 1980).

Nitrogen Fertilizers
Ammonium Nitrate
Ammonium Polysulfide
Ammonium Sulfate
Ammonium Thiosulfate
Calcium Nitrate
Urea
Urea Sulfuric Acid
Urea Ammonium Nitrate
Phosphate Fertilizers
Ammonium Phosphate
Ammonium Polyphosphate
Ammonium Polyphosphate
Phosphoric Acid, green
Phosphoric Acid, white
Potash Fertilizer
Potassium Chloride
Potassium Nitrate
Potassium Sulfate
Potassium Thiosulfate
Monopotassium Sulfate
Micronutrients
Borax
Boric Acid
Solubor
Copper Sulfate (acidified)
Cupric Chloride (acidified)
Gypsum
Iron Sulfate (acidified)
Magnesium Sulfate
Manganese Sulfate (acidified)
Ammonium Molybdate
Sodium Molybdate
Zinc Sulfate
Zinc Chelate
Manganese Chelate
Iron Chelate
Copper Chelate
Sulfuric Acid

Temp
F

Grade

Form

34-0-0
20-0-0
21-0-0
12-0-0
15.5-0-0
46-0-0
28-0-0
32-0-0

NH4NO3
NH4Sx
(NH4)2SO4
(NH4)2S2O3
Ca(NO3)2
CO(NH2)2
CO(NH2)2 9H2SO4
CO(NH2)2 NH4NO3

8-24-0
10-34-0
16-37-0
0-52-0
0-54-0

NH4H2PO4
(NH4)5P3 O10 & others
(NH4)7P5O16 & others
H3PO4
H3PO4

0-0-60
13-0-44
0-0-50
0-0-25-17S
0-52-34

KCl
KNO3
K2SO4
K2S2O3
KH2PO4

68
32
77

11 % B
17.5% B
20% B
25% Cu

N2B4O7 10H2O
H3BO3
Na2B8O13 4H2O
CuSO4 5H2O
CuC12
CaSO4 2H2O
FeSO4 7H2O
MgSO4 7H2O
MnSO4 4H2O
(NH4)6Mo7O24 4H2O
Na2MoO4
ZnSO4 7H20
DTPA & EDTA
DTPA & EDTA
DTPA & EDDHA
DTPA & EDTA
H2SO4

32
86
86
32
32

23% Ca
20% Fe
9.67% Mg
27% Mn
54% Mo
39% Mo
36% Zn
5% -14% Zn
5% -12% Mn
4% -14% Fe
5% -14% Cu
95%

32
32
62

Solubility Solubility
gm/100 ml
lb/gal

18.3
high
70.6
v. high
121.2
100.0
high
high

9.87
high
5.89
v. high
10.11
8.34
high
high

moderate
high
high
45.7
45.7

moderate
high
high
high
high

34.7
13.3
12

2.89
1.10
1.00
12.5
2.75

150
33

68
32
44.3
68

2.10
6.35
22
31.6
71
0.241
15.65
71
105.3
43
96.5
v. Sol.
v. Sol.
v. Sol.
v. Sol.
v. high

0.17
0.53
1.84
2.63
5.93
0.02
1.31
5.93
8.79
3.59
3.70
8.05
v. Sol.
v. Sol.
v. Sol.
v. Sol.
v. high

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and citrate-soluble phosphate. Phosphorus is not

very mobile in many soils and is much less likely
than nitrogen to be lost when applied conventionally. Plants generally need phosphorus early in
their life cycle, so it is important that this element,
if deficient in the soil, be applied during or before
planting. If the plant shows phosphorus deficiency
symptoms during the growing season, injection of
phosphorus into the irrigation water allows for later
stage correction.
Phosphorus fertilizer injection may cause emitter
plugging. Solid precipitation in the line occurs
most often due to interaction between the fertilizer
and the irrigation water. Most dry phosphorus fertilizers (including ammonium phosphate and superphosphates) cannot be injected into irrigation water
because they have low solubility. Monoammonium
phosphate (MAP), diammonium phosphate (DAP),
monobasic potassium phosphate, phosphoric acid,
urea phosphate, liquid ammonium polyphosphate,
and long chain linear polyphosphates are watersoluble. However, they can still have precipitation
problems when injected into water with high calcium concentration. Problems occur when the
polyphosphate injection rates are too low to offset
the buffering effects of the calcium and magnesium
concentrations in the irrigation water.
The application of ammonium polyphosphate fertilizers to water that is high in calcium will almost
always result in the formation of precipitants that
can plug the emitters. These precipitants are very
stable and not easily dissolved. Phosphorus and
calcium, when in solution together, may form diand tricalcium phosphates, which are relatively insoluble compounds. Similarly, phosphorus and
magnesium can form magnesium phosphates that
are also insoluble and plug emitters. Of considerable concern in South Florida is the formation of
iron phosphates, which are very stable. Given the
high levels of calcium, iron, and bicarbonate in
Florida irrigation water, phosphorus should not be
injected unless significant precautions are taken.
Phosphoric acid is sometimes injected into microirrigation systems. It not only provides phosphorus,
422

but also lowers the pH of the water, which can prevent the precipitation problems previously mentioned. This practice will be effective as long as the
pH of the fertilizer-irrigation water mixture remains low. As the pH rises due to dilution, phosphates precipitate. One approach that is sometimes
successful is to supplement the phosphoric acid injections with sulfuric or urea sulfuric acid to ensure
that the irrigation water pH will remain low (pH <
4.0). Continuous use of phosphoric acid at levels in
excess of 25 mg/L, however, can produce zinc deficiencies. Phosphoric acid injection will be effective only as long as the pH of the fertigated water
remains very low. Combined Ca and Mg should remain below 50 ppm and bicarbonate should remain
less than 150 ppm.
Potassium
Potassium fertilizers are all water-soluble, and injection of K through microirrigation systems has
been very successful. The problem most often associated with potassium injection is that solid precipitants form in the mixing tank when potassium
is mixed with other fertilizers. The potassium
sources most often used in microirrigation systems
are potassium chloride (KCl) and potassium nitrate
(KNO3). Potassium phosphates should not be injected into microirrigation systems. Potassium sulfate is not very soluble and may not dissolve in the
irrigation water. Potassium thiosulfate (KTS) is
compatible with urea and ammonium polyphosphate solutions. However, it should not be mixed
with acids or acidified fertilizers. When KTS is
blended with urea ammonium nitrate solutions, a
jar test is recommended before mixing large quantities. Under certain mixing proportions, particularly when an insufficient amount of water is used
in the mix, potassium in KTS can combine with nitrates in the mix to form potassium nitrate crystals.
If this happens, adding more water and/or heating
the solution should bring the crystals back into
solution.
Calcium
Fertilizers containing calcium should be flushed
from all tanks, pumps, filters, and tubing prior to

35

injecting any phosphorus, urea ammonium nitrate,

or urea sulfuric fertilizer. The irrigation lines must
be flushed to remove all incompatible fertilizer
products before a calcium-containing fertilizer solution is injected. Calcium should not be injected
with any sulfate form of fertilizer. It combines to
create insoluble gypsum.

nitrogen content basis. The combination of urea

and ammonium nitrate contains the highest concentration of nitrogen of all the nitrogen solution
products. When urea ammonium nitrate solutions
are combined with calcium nitrate, a thick, milkywhite insoluble precipitate forms, presenting a serious potential plugging problem.

Micronutrients
Several metal micronutrient forms are relatively insoluble, and therefore not used for fertigation purposes. These include the carbonate, oxide, or hydroxide forms of zinc, manganese, copper, and
iron. These relatively inexpensive materials can be
broadcast and incorporated into the soil. However,
they constitute a long-term source of micronutrients and will supply only a low level of nutrients for many years.

Calcium Nitrate (15.5-0-0-19 Ca)

Ca(NO3)2: This fertilizer is high in nitrate-nitrogen
(14.5%) with 1% ammonium-nitrogen and supplies
calcium. The product can be combined with ammonium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, potassium nitrate, and muriate of potash. It should not be combined with any products containing phosphates,
sulfates or thiosulfates.

The sulfate form of copper, iron, manganese, and

zinc is the most common and usually the least expensive source of micronutrients. These metal sulfates are water-soluble and are easily injected.
However, using these materials for fertigation is
not very successful in alleviating a micronutrient
deficiency, because the metal ion has a strong electrical charge (2+) and becomes attracted to the cation exchange sites of clay and organic matter particles, where it tends to reside near the soil surface.
Consequently, the micronutrient usually does not
reach the major plant root zone. If the soil pH is
high, manganese, iron, and copper are changed into
unavailable forms, and little or no benefit will be
obtained from their use. If the metal sulfate solutions are acidified, however, the availability of the
micronutrient can be prolonged in the soil.
Common Fertigation Materials
Ammonium Nitrate Solution (20-0-0)
NH4NO3 is ammonium nitrate fertilizer dissolved
in water with a density of 10.5 pounds per gallon.
It is the most widely used nitrogen source used for
Florida citrus.
Urea Ammonium Nitrate Solution (32-0-0)
(NH2)2CONH4NO3: Urea ammonium nitrate
solution is manufactured by combining urea (46%
N) and ammonium nitrate (35% N) on an equal

Ammonium Thiosulfate (12-0-0-26)

(NH4)2S2O3 is used as both a fertilizer and as an
acidulating agent. When applied to the soil,
Thiobacillus bacteria oxidize the free sulfur to sulfuric acid. The acid then dissolves lime in the soil
and forms gypsum. The gypsum helps to maintain
a good, well-granulated, aerated, and porous soil
structure. Ammonium thiosulfate is ideal for treatment of calcareous (high lime) soils. It is compatible with neutral or alkaline phosphate liquid fertilizers and nitrogen fertilizers. Ammonium thiosulfate can be applied in liquid mixes or by
itself.
Ammonium thiosulfate should not be mixed with
acidic compounds because it will decompose into
elemental sulfur and ammonium sulfate at pH < 6.
Application to neutral and acidic soils (without free
lime) may result in a pronounced drop in soil pH
over several weeks. The extent of the pH drop in
these types of soils depends upon the total amount
of this fertilizer applied, the cation exchange
capacity of the soil, and the buffering capacity of
the soil. The higher the clay content and the higher
the lime content of the soil (i.e., the larger the
buffering capacity), the slower the pH will drop
with the same fertilizer application.
Phosphoric Acid (0-54-0)
H3PO4 has a density of approximately 14.1 pounds
per gallon. The acid is a syrupy liquid that requires
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storage in stainless steel (No. 316) tanks. Phosphoric acid can be used in many formulations of
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium mixes. Phosphoric acid should never be mixed with any calcium fertilizer. It will form insoluble calcium phosphate, which can plug irrigation lines.
Potassium Chloride (0-0-62)
Potassium chloride (KCl) is generally the least expensive source of potassium and is the most popular K fertilizer applied through fertigation. It may
not be desirable for use on citrus if irrigation water
contains high salinity levels.
Potassium Nitrate (13-0-46)
Potassium nitrate (KNO3) is expensive, but the
consumer benefits from both the nitrogen and the
potassium in the product. It is an excellent choice
of potassium fertilizer for areas where irrigation
water salinity problems are present. It is less
soluble than potassium chloride but more soluble
than potassium sulfate.
Potassium Sulfate (0-0-52)
K2SO4 can be an alternative to KCl in high-salinity
areas and provides a source of sulfur. It is fairly
popular for fertigation. It is less soluble than potassium chloride and potassium nitrate.
Potassium Thiosulfate (0-0-25-17 and 0-0-22-23)
K2S2O3 (KTS) is marketed in two grades and is a
neutral to basic, chloride-free, clear liquid solution.
This product can be blended with other fertilizers,
but KTS blends should not be acidified below pH
6.0. The proper mixing sequence for KTS is: water,
pesticide, KTS and/or other fertilizer. Always perform a jar test before injecting blends. Potassium
thiosulfate provides not only potassium, but the
thiosulfate is oxidized by Thiobacillus bacteria to
produce sulfuric acid. This acid reacts with calcium carbonate in the soil, which releases
additional calcium for the plant. Thus, potassium
thiosulfate use on calcareous soils not only supplies potassium and sulfur but aids in increasing
the availability of calcium to plants.
Sulfuric Acid
H2SO4 is not a fertilizer and thus, has a grade of
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0-0-0. It has a density of approximately 15.3

pounds per gallon when concentrated. Sulfuric acid
is a clear liquid when pure; however, much of the
agricultural material may have a brown to black
color. It has no odor and pours as an oily liquid. It
is injected into high bicarbonate water to control
the pH by reducing it to about pH 6.5 to 7.0. It is
sometimes injected directly into calcareous soils
(high lime) where the reaction produces gypsum.
Sulfuric acid should not be injected with calcium
fertilizers because calcium sulfate (gypsum) will
form and create a creamy suspension very much
like cottage cheese, which can easily plug the lines.
O.S.H.A. requirements for safe handling preclude
fertilizer dealers from storing sulfuric acid on the
premises; therefore, it is difficult to find a source of
sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is extremely corrosive
and must be handled with proper equipment and
clothing. Never combine urea and sulfuric acid in
the field.
Urea Solid (46-0-0) and Urea Solution (23-0-0)
CO(NH2)2 (Urea) is sold as 46-0-0 dry fertilizer or
as a liquid 23-0-0 urea solution. Commercial urea
contains about 2.25% biuret, a byproduct that
forms only during the manufacturing process. It
can inhibit plant growth or damage plants. Urea
with less than 0.25% biuret content should be used
for foliar applications. Urea should never be mixed
with sulfuric acid.
Urea Sulfuric Acid
Urea sulfuric acid (CO(NH2)2 H2SO4) is an acidic
fertilizer that combines urea and sulfuric acid. By
combining the two materials into one product,
many disadvantages of using these materials individually are eliminated. The sulfuric acid decreases
the potential ammonia volatilization losses from
the soil surface and ammonia damage in the root
zone that can occur with the use of urea alone.
Urea sulfuric acid is safer to use than sulfuric acid
alone. Urea sulfuric acid is well suited for fertigation and can be used for other purposes such as:
acidifying the irrigation water (reducing plugging
potential from carbonates and bicarbonates); using
maintenance injections to keep lines and emitters

35

water-soluble can be estimated by the average velocity of the irrigation water. The travel time from
the injection point to the last emitter can be calculated by summing the travel times for each pipe
segment. For a pipe segment, travel time can be determined as follows:

clear of calcium carbonate deposits; cleaning irrigation lines once they have been plugged; and
acidifying the soil.
Corrosion
Fertilizers and other injected chemicals can be corrosive to irrigation equipment. Table 36-4 lists the
relative corrosion of six metals immersed in eight
different fertilizer solutions for four days.

T = D/V

Eq. 35-3

where,

Injection Time
To determine the time required to fertigate and
flush the system, the time for water to travel from
the injection point to the furthest emitter must be
known. The travel time for a chemical that is

T = time of travel (minutes)

D = distance or length of pipe (ft)
V = velocity (ft/min)

Table 35-4. Relative corrosion of various metals (adapted from Martin, 1953). Solutions were made by
dissolving 100 lb of material in 100 gallons of water. Metals were immersed for 4 days. Ratings:
0 = none, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = considerable, 4 = severe.

Ammonium Ammonium Urea Phosphoric Diammonium 17-0-17 mix

Phosphate
Acid
Nitrate
(NH4)2SO4 +
Sulfate
DAP + K2SO4

Calcium
Nitrate

Sodium

Galvanized
Iron

Sheet
Aluminum

Stainless
Steel

PhosphoBronze

Yellow
Brass

Solution
pH

5.6

8.6

5.9

5.0

7.6

0.4

Kind of
Metal

Nitrate

7.3

Observations:
Ammonium nitrate, phosphoric acid, and ammonium sulfate are very corrosive.
Brass and bronze are corroded by phosphate, especially if ammonium is present.
Copper is very corrosive to aluminum, even in small doses.
While 316-grade stainless is corrosion resistant, other grades of stainless may corrode.
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Table 35-5. General acid compatibility of component materials.

Material
Buna-N
Ceramic/Graphite
EPDM
Hypalon
Leather
Neopreme
Teflon
Viton
Aluminum
PVC
Brass
Polypropylene
303 stainless
316 stainless
Galvanized

Occasional

Continual

No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No

If recommended only for occasional use, components should be rinsed and neutralized with soda
after use.
Example:
Determine the travel time from the injection
point to the manifold based on average velocity, given 1000 ft of 6-inch ID pipe with a flow
rate of 500 gpm.
V = (500 gpm/7.48 gal/ft3)/((0.5 /ft)2 x 3.14/4)
V = 344 ft/min
T = D/V = (1000 ft / 344 ft/min) = 2.9 min.
The travel time for a lateral of uniform diameter
with evenly spaced emitters that have equal discharge rates can be estimated as follows:
T = t x (0.577 + Ln(N))

Eq. 35-4

where,
T = travel time for entire lateral (minutes)
t = travel time between the last two emitters
(minutes)
N = total number of emitters on the lateral
Ln = natural logarithm

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The value of t is determined by:

t = A x S/q

Eq. 35-5

where,
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe (ft2)
S = emitter spacing (ft)
q = emitter discharge (ft3/min)
Example:
Determine the travel time based on average
velocity for: emitter flow = 1.0 gph, lateral diameter = 0.632 inch, emitter spacing = 3 ft,
and lateral length = 630 ft.
Dia = 0.632 in. x 1 ft/12 in. = 0.0526
A = 0.0526 ft2 x 3.14 1/4 = 0.00218 ft2
S = 3 ft
q = 1.0 gal/hr x 1 ft3/7.48 gal x 1 hr/60min
= 0.00222 ft3/min
t = AS/q = 0.00218 ft2 x 1 ft / 0.00222 ft3/min
= 2.95 minutes
T = 2.95 [0.577 + Ln (630)] = 21 minutes
The above procedure can be applied to the submain
if it has equally spaced lateral outlets. However,
the manifold is often tapered (nonuniform diameter), and in that case, a step-by-step analysis must
be performed. Total travel time is the sum of the all
the segment travel times for the entire pipe system
from the injection point to the last emitter, which
would typically include the mainline, submain,
manifold, and lateral line.
Travel time calculations are based on average velocity of water in the pipeline. Actually, velocity is
higher at the center of the pipe than near the pipe
wall. So, to ensure complete flushing, the flush
time should be twice the calculated travel time.
For an existing irrigation system, chemical travel
time can be easily measured in the field by injecting a dye, acid, or fertilizer salt. If a fertilizer is
used, a simple electrical conductivity (EC) meter
can detect when the fertilizer has arrived at the

35

farthest outlet of the irrigation system. Sampling

should be continuous until the chemical arrives,
which will be indicated by an increase in the EC of
the water. Similarly, a pH meter (or pH strips) may
be used if the injected material is an acid.
Fertilizer Concerns
Growers should only inject water-soluble fertilizers
or fertilizer suspensions that are compatible with
their irrigation system and crop production system.
Because they are potentially corrosive, fertilizers
should be flushed from the irrigation system after
each application. Fertilizer solutions should always
be injected before (upstream of) the filters in
microirrigation systems. The compatibility of fertilizer solutions with the irrigation water and with
any other chemicals being injected should be tested
to avoid the formation of chemical precipitates in
the irrigation system.
Care must be taken to ensure that injected materials do not react with dissolved solids in the irrigation water in such a way as to form precipitates or
deposits in the irrigation system. The chemicals
must be soluble and remain in solution throughout
the operating conditions of the irrigation system.
The fertilizers selected to be injected into the irrigation water need to be entirely soluble in water
and should not react with salts or chemicals in the
water. Most nitrogen sources cause few clogging
problems. The exceptions are anhydrous ammonia,
aqua ammonia, and ammonium phosphate, which
increase the pH of the water and cause precipitates
with calcium and magnesium to form. Application
of most forms of phosphorous through the system
can result in extensive clogging. However, phosphoric acid can be safely injected in most waters
because it acidifies the solution to a point where
precipitation is prevented. All of the common potassium fertilizers are readily soluble and present
no clogging problems. Fertilizers can be highly

corrosive and are a potential health hazard to skin

and eyes. Therefore, all system components, including pumps, injection devices, lines, filters, and
tanks, should be inspected prior to use. There
should be a routine monitoring program of the
fertigation process with particular emphasis on the
start-up and shutdown periods. Injection rates and
times should be calibrated and rechecked frequently to ensure proper operation of the system.
Leaks, runoff, excess applications, and application
to areas with open water should be prevented. All
system components should be flushed with clean
water following each use.
When injecting fertilizers, the salinity of the irrigation water with the fertilizer in it should be
checked. Heavy dosages of fertilizers can cause
leaf burn, even if relatively low-salinity water is
used. It is generally preferable to inject small dosages of fertilizer frequently rather than making
fewer applications at a high rate.
It is essential that proper and legal backflow prevention devices be used in the irrigation system to
prevent fertilizers from being back-siphoned into
the water supply. The injection device itself should
have a screen and check valve. It is recommended
that injection take place upstream from filters so
that any contaminants or precipitates can be filtered out.
Fertigation rates and times should be calibrated for
each area that is fertigated. The flushing time needs
to be at least as long as the travel time in the system from the injection point to the furthest emitter.
In many microirrigation systems, this time is often
20 to 30 minutes. Fertilizer injections need to be at
least this amount of time, and flush times need to
exceed this travel time so that nutrients will not remain in the lateral tubing and promote algal
growth.

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