I. INTRODUCTION
ROTECTION of an important transmission line is most
frequently performed using phase-and ground distance
relaying techniques. Distance relays effectively measures the
impedance between the relay location and the fault. If the
resistance of the fault is low, the impedance is proportional
to the distance from the relay to the fault. A distance relay is
designed to only operate for faults occurring between the relay
location and the selected reach point and remain stable for all
faults outside this region or zone [1].
In developing distance relay equations, the fault under consideration is assumed to be an ideal (i.e., zero resistance) [2][8].
In reality, the fault resistance will be between two high-voltage
conductors, whereas for ground faults, the fault path may consist of an electrical arc between the high-voltage conductor and
a grounded object. The fault resistance introduces an error in the
fault distance estimate and, hence, may create unreliable operation of a distance relay [9].
The impedance seen by the relay is not proportional to the
distance between the relay and the fault in general, because of
presence of resistance at the fault location.
Some techniques for arcing faults detection and fault distance
estimation are introduced in [10] and [11]. The techniques are
based on the voltage and current at one terminal in the time domain. The overhead line parameters and arc voltage amplitude
during the fault are given. The techniques have optimal application in the medium voltage networks and symmetrical faults.
Manuscript received May 25, 2005; revised October 30, 2005. Paper no.
TPWRD-00309-2005.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty
of Engineering, Helwan University, Helwan, Cairo 11421, Egypt (e-mail:
mmmeissa@yahoo.com).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2006.874621
1831
(2)
where
has been substituted for the sum
has been substituted for the sum
The impedance to the fault is given as
and
.
(3)
So the uncompensated fault impedance is
(4)
is a source of error in distance relays,
so the actual fault impedance is
(5)
In the same manner and for a three-line-to-ground fault
and symmetrical component circuit, the uncompensated fault
impedance for the distance relays is
(6)
is a source of error in distance relays, so
the actual fault impedance is
(7)
This paper aims to introduce compensated fault impedance
for (5) and (7) based on fault resistance calculation from the
active power and current measurements.
Fig. 4. Symmetrical component circuit for a line-to-ground fault (A
0G fault).
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(24)
Hence, (21) can be described as
(25)
(26)
Also, from the single-phase solution, the total power quantities equal
From (25) and (26), the real part of the fault resistance is given
as
(27)
(19)
From (19), it can be concluded that the total power in the fault
and
);
resistance equals the power in phase (
(Fig. 3).
So
(28)
(20)
and
are the power in the fault resistance from the
where
two sources for phase . So (20) can be expressed as
(21)
With minimal load flow at the time of the fault [18] and the
electromotive-force (emf) constant at the sending and receiving
and
), the current contribution
at the receiving
ends (
at the sending end.
end is almost in phase with the current
Thus, the phase relationship between the fault currents (
and
) and the voltages (
and
) can be described by
(
) and (
).
From the above explanation, it can be concluded that the reis
lation between the total power at the receiving end
directly proportional with a factor of the total power at the
sending end
. So
(22)
where is defined as the distribution factor of the generated
power at the receiving end with respect to the generated power
at the sending end.
Consequently, the contribution power to the fault from the
receiving end is also a factor of the contribution power to the
fault from the receiving end. So
(23)
and
(29)
Equations (28) and (29) are the compensated fault impedance
calculation for the single and three earth faults, respectively.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
The power system used for testing the proposed new method
is a part of a 500-kV power system shown in Fig. 5. The system
includes two generating stations. A distance relay is located at
buses and as shown in Fig. 5. The voltage and current signals are the inputs to the relays, and 300 km is the line length.
The results described on the R-X diagram (transient impedance
trajectory). The relay is set to protect 90% of the line. It forms
the first zone of the relay, corresponding to a maximum reach
of about 0.486 p.u., and has an arcing reverse of about 150%
[21][23]. The arcing reverse is the resistive allowance of the
trip area as a ratio of the inductive reactance. The reach of the
second zone is set at 120% of line-1. The power system is modeled and different symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults with
solid and fault resistance are simulated using the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP).
The voltage and current signals are measured at the relay locations using a sampling frequency of 5000 Hz. The results obtained from the tests are given here. The uncompensated and
compensated fault impedances given in (4) and (28) have been
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described as the single-phase earth faults while the uncompensated and compensated fault impedances given in (6) and (29),
respectively, have been described as the three-phase earth faults.
The performance of the proposed technique was evaluated for
different types of internal and external faults, source impedance,
and fault resistance. Results showed faults are taken with a fault
resistance ranging from 0 to 300 .
The value of compensated and uncompensated fault impedances seen by the phase to ground relay element is depicted
in Figs. 69. It is observed that if the compensated fault
impedance is used, the relay of fault is located exactly in its
proper zone. Whereas, if the uncompensated impedance is used
the fault impedance is misoperated and located out of its zone
or inaccurately located in its zone.
Figs. 10 and 11 show the fault trajectory for the 3L-G fault
(internal and external) protected zone. As seen in the figures, the
compensated fault impedance is properly identified as the zone
of fault and, thus, avoids misoperation in case of 3L-G faults
through high fault resistances.
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fault impedance compensation based on fault resistance calculation. The problem of under reach in ground distance relays is
solved. The investigation showed that the fault resistance detection could reach 300 . The results showed that the relay operates correctly for faults simulated within the first, second, and
third zones. The suggested technique gives the solutions for the
symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults. Fault impedance is accurately calculated; this will improve the relay selectivity. The
techniques can be used for medium and long lines.
Fig. 11. Fault impedance trajectory for 3L-G fault with fault resistance
200
at 370 km from relay-S (external fault at F 4).
The suggested technique gives the solutions for the symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults with solid and fault resistances.
The presented technique does not depend on the line lengths,
so it can be applied on the long lines. The fault conditions such
as a dc component, sampling frequency, and point on wave do
not have an effect only on the relay performance. Moreover,
the compensated fault impedance accurately measures the
impedance between the relay location and the fault point. So,
the protective system will be very selective. These improve the
technique convergence properties.
V. CONCLUSION
The main objective of the paper is to find out the limitation of
the ground distance relay and the effect on the operating zone
of high fault resistance. This paper introduces a new method of
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