Formative Research

Analyzing the Situation, Organization

and Public

Formative Research Process 1

Avoid shooting in the dark
Preliminary work of communication
planning:

Gather information
Analyze the situation
Understanding context/ relevance
Making wise decisions

To keep in mind
Information obtained helps planning
Professional judgment (experience
and expertise) remains the strongest
resource

Ways to conduct research

Casual research be a detective

Recollect what is already know

Brainstorm or interview clients, colleagues and
other individuals with experience and expertise

Secondary research

Look for existing information (organization files,

library search, similar cases in the Internet,
etc.)

Primary research

When time permits, conduct applied research

techniques (surveys, focus groups, and content
analysis)

Analyzing the situation

Crisis vs opportunity, how can an
organization make choices to
overcome
Lead to a common understanding of
the issue before adequately
addressed
Develop options in responding to the
situation

Issues Management vs Crisis

Management
Issues Management
A process to anticipate emerging issues and
respond to them before they get out of
hand
Involves potential change
Approach: benchmarking
Crisis Management
A process to deal with out of control issues
Involves getting out of a situation
Approach: reactive

Strategic approach to crisis

management

Principle
Principle
Principle
Principle
Principle
Principle

of
of
of
of
of
of

existing relations
media as ally
reputational priorities
quick response
full disclosure
one voice

Ethical aspects to consider

Deontological
Rooted in a standard or moral code

Teleological
Impact that actions have on people
Produces good consequences

Ethical relativism
Reflect particular social norms

Basic planning questions

What is the situation facing the
organization?
What is the background of the
situation?
What is the significance or
importance of the situation?

Expanded planning situation

Existing information
Background on the issue
Consequences of the situation
Resolution of the situation
Research program
What is the basis and accuracy of existing
information?
How appropriate to conduct addtl research?
What information needs to be obtained?

Analyzing the Organization

Visibility

Performance
Niche
Structure

Public
Perceptions

Internal
environment
Internal
impediments

Reputation

Supporters

External
environment

Competition
Opposition

External
impediments

Analyzing the Organization

Internal environment

Performance: quality of goods and services,

viability of causes and ideas it espouses
Niche: specialty, function/role it differs
Structure: review of purpose or mission of the
organization, role within the organization
Internal impediments: obstacles or limitations
within the organization

Public perception

Visibility: the extent to which the organization is

known
Reputation: how people evaluate the information
they have

Analyzing the Organization

External environment
Supporters
People/groups who currently or at least potentially are
likely to help the organization
Competition
Organization(s) that provide(s) similar goods/services

Opposition
Organization/group that is fighting/against the organization

External impediments
Social, political or economic factors interfering with the
organizations ability to address the situation

Basic planning questions

What is the quality of your
organizations performance
What communication resources,
including budget, are available?
How supportive is the organization of
public relations activity?

Expanded planning situation

Existing Information
Performance
Structure
Internal impediments
Research program
What is the basis and accuracy of existing
information?
How appropriate to conduct addtl
research?
What information needs to be obtained?

Analyzing the Public

Public
a group of people that shares a common interest vis-vis an organization
Publics
Not selected, must be dealt with
Homogeneous, similar in interests and characteristics
Exist because of the interaction and interdependency
with an organization or face a common issue
Markets
Chosen, shared interest and common values
Have characteristics that help the organizations
bottom line
Audiences
People who pay attention to a particular medium of
communication and receive messages through it

Characteristics of a Public
A public is distinguishable
A public is homogeneous
A public is important to your
organization
A public is large enough to matter
A public is reachable

Categories of publics
Current

Potential

Financers

Customers

Personnel

Producers

Shadow
Constituents

Suppliers
Secondary
Customers

Publics
Opinion
leaders

Competitors

Opponents

Limiters

Hostile
Forces

Media

Allies

Enablers Regulators

Key Publics, Intercessory Publics

and Opinion Leaders
Key Publics
Identified as specific publics that are most
important to the communication
program/campaign

Intercessory Publics
Publics that serve as an influential bridge
between an organization and its public

Opinion Leaders
Independent. Has the respect and confidence
from the public, generate word-of-mouth
support

Analyzing Key Publics

Stages of development:

Non public: does not share issues with the

organization, no consequences exist
Latent public: shares an issue with the
organization, but does not recognize the
situation or its potential
Apathetic public: faces an issue, know it, and
simply doesnt care
Aware public: recognizes it shares an issue
and perceives the consequences as being
relevant, but not recognized to discuss and act
on the issue
Active public: discusses and acts on the shared
issue

Analyzing Key Publics

Public relations situation

Asses the public wants, needs, interest and

expectations related to the issue

Organization

Consider relationship of the public to the organization

Communication
Study the publics communication habit & channels

Demographics

Find out relevant information about the public

Personality preferences

Consider psychological and temperament of the public

Basic planning questions

Who are the major publics for your
organization?
Who are the key publics for this
situation?
Who are the intercessory publics or
major opinion leaders?

Expanded planning situation

Existing Information
Customers
Producers
Enablers
Limiters
Intercessory Publics and Opinion Leaders
Research program
What is the basis and accuracy of existing
information?
How appropriate to conduct addtl research?
What information needs to be obtained?

Understanding the Psychology

of Audiences
Audience response to information depends on:
Beliefs
Act as filters between individuals and their
environments, screens out stimuli
Attitudes
Predispositions to respond, in positive or
negative, to an object situation
Values
The extent to which the audience accepts the
message of a communicator

Beliefs structured in layers

Type A requires 100% consensus
Basic truths about physical reality, social reality
and the nature of self

Type B
Resistant to persuasion efforts
Positive likes, self confidence, etc
Negative dislikes, lack confidence, etc

Ego-centered, but not necessarily supported

Beliefs structured in layers

Type C
Authority beliefs to deal with facts of
physical and social reality that have
alternative explanations

Type D
Emanate from the authority figures, but
may not affect other beliefs

Type E
Respond more readily to attempts at
persuasion, than do more central beliefs

Beliefs what areas to focus?

Type A&B are difficult to change
Type C&D are easier to change
because not everyone shares the
same believe
Type E beliefs are associated often
with psychological central beliefs
Testimonials = Type E beliefs link to
Type C authority concept to achieve
change

Attitudes
Balance & imbalance
Congruity & incongruity
Consonance & dissonance
In communication, people would tend to
find somewhere in between two
positions

Values
The Rokeach Value Survey: enduring beliefs that
specific modes of conduct (instrumental values) or
end state of existence (terminal values) are
personally or socially preferable to opposite or
converse modes of conduct or end of state existence:
(compiled 1962 1990)

Achievement

Activity

Collectivism

Competence

Competitiveness
Conformity

Culture

Democracy

Dominance
Efficiency
Equality
Family
Freedom
Generosity
Idealism
Imagination

Independence
Individualism
Intelligence
Materialism
Morality
Optimism
Patriotism
Peace

Progress
Rationality
Responsibi
lity
Sociality
Work
ethics