ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I Shobhit Bansal Standard XII of science

section, St. Marys Inter College, Etawah is genuinely
thankful to my teachers Mrs. Sarita Anil & Mr. Edwin T.J.
for their help and guidance which I received for the
completion of my Project
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A PRIMARY CELL
I am also thankful to our Principal, my colleagues &
parents who have always given me their support directly or
indirectly, which was of immense help towards the
completion of this project.

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project entitled
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A PRIMARY CELL is an original
work done by me during the year 2005-2006 under the
guidance & supervision of Mrs. Sarita Anil & Mr. Edwin
T.J..

Signature of Guide:

Shobhit Bansal

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the investigatory project
entitled Internal Resistance of a Primary Cell is an Original
work done by Shobhit Bansal during 2005-2006 under our
supervision & guidance.

Place: St. Marys Inter College

Mrs. Sarita Anil
Mr. Edwin T.J.
Date:
College Seal

INDEX
Title

1. Introduction
a)Electrochemical cells
2. Primary Cell
a)Simple Voltaic Cell
b)Daniel Cell
c)Leclaanche Cell
d)Dry Cell
3. Secondary Cells
a)Lead accumulator
b)Edison Alkali Cell
4. Button Cell
5. Advantages of Secondary
Cell over a Primary Cell
6. Disadvantages of Secondary Cell
7. Internal Resistance of Cell
8. Emf of a Cell
9. Experimental Details
10. Conclusion
11. Bibliography

Page No.

INTRODUCTION
In present scenario human life depends upon the new
invented technologies that will bring ease to our life. One such
important discovery was made in 18th century and that was the
discovery of the power of chemicals i.e. electrochemical cells.
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
A cell is a chemical electrical transducer, i.e. a device
which converts chemical energy into electric energy. A
simple cell is composed of positive and negative electrode.
When cell is connected across the load of electric device,
the potential drop takes place and device functions. This cell has
provided us a mobile source of electricity. Cells are of two types :
1) Primary cell via Leclaanche cell, Daniel cell, Simple Voltaic
cell and dry cell etc. and
2) Secondary cell like Lead acid accumulator, Edison cell, etc.

PRIMARY CELL
It is an electrochemical cell which once used cant be put
to use again by passing electric current.
Primary cell was accidentally discovered by an Italian
professor Luigi Galvani. He observed that when the nerves of a
freshly dissected frog was connected through copper and iron wire
the leg jerked violently. He concluded that it was due to animal
electricity in frogs leg.
Later Alessandro Volta modified his discovery and
developed Simple voltaic cell.

SIMPLE VOLTAIC CELL

ConstructionIn simple voltaic cell dilute sulphuric acid work as
electrolyte. And copper and zinc rod act as electrode of which
copper rod is positive pole and zinc rod is negative pole.
Action
The dilute sulphuric acid dissociates as represented below:
H2SO4
2H+
+ SO42Zinc rod forms Zn2+ as
Zn
Zn2+ +
2eAs reaction proceeds concentration of Zn 2+ ion increases.
H+ ions drift to the copper rod. On reaching the rod it takes an
electron & thus copper rod starts to acquire the +ve charge due to
this potential difference set up between copper and zinc rod, the
maximum emf developed in voltaic cell is 1.08 V.

DANIEL CELL

It was developed by Daniel in the year 1936.

Construction
It consists of copper vessel containing CuSO 4 solution
which acts as anode. A porous pot containing 10% dil. H 2SO4 and
amalgamated zinc rod (cathode) is placed in the copper vessel and
is partly immersed in the CuSO4 solution. The porous pot prevents
the mixing of electrolyte and passage of H+ ions. A perforated
shelf containing CuSO4 crystal is placed at top to maintain the
concentration of CuSO4.
Working:
In the porous pot, zinc sulphate
Zn
H2SO4
Zn2+ + SO42Zn
+ H2SO4

is formed. The reactions are

Zn2+ + 2e2H+ + SO42ZnSO4
ZnSO4 + 2H+ + 2e-

The formation of ZnSO4 on the porous pot does not affect

the working of cell. On diffusing out porous pot H ions react with
copper sulphate solution.
2H+ + CuSO4

H2SO4 + Cu2+

As the Cu2+ ions deposit on the copper vessel it acquire

positive charge. Due to the development of this potential
difference, it starts to give an emf of 1.1 V.

LECLAANCHE CELL

Leclaanche cell was invented by George De Leclaanche

in the year 1965.
Construction Leclaanche cell consists of a glass vessel containing a
strong solution of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) as an electrolyte.
Negative pole is an amalgamated zinc rod dipped in NH 4Cl
solution. Carbon rod acts as positive pole of the cell. Carbon rod
is placed inside a porous pot, the pot is filled with manganese
dioxide (MnO2) and charcoal powder. Manganese dioxide is used
as depolarizer, use of charcoal makes MnO 2 conducting and
thus decrease internal resistance of cell.
Working
Electrolyte (NH4Cl) dissociates into NH4+ and Cl- ions.
Zn2+ ion goes into NH4Cl solution from zinc rod. For each
Zn2+ ion so produced 2e-s are left in zinc rod. So zinc becomes
negative pole of cell. Inside the vessel, Zn 2+ combine with Cl- to
form ZnCl2
Reaction
2NH4Cl
Zn
Zn2+ + 2ClZn + 2NH4Cl

2NH3 + 2Cl- + 2H+

Zn2+ + 2eZnCl2
2NH3 + ZnCl2 + 2H+ + 2e-

The hydrogen ions diffuse through porous pot and interact with
manganese dioxide as:
2H+ + 2MnO2

Mn2O3

DRY CELL

+ H2O

It is a portable form of Leclaanche cell.

ConstructionIn a dry cell a moist paste of ammonium chloride
containing zinc chloride is used as an electrolyte. Zinc chloride
being highly hydroscopic, it is added to ammonium chloride in
order to keep it moistened. The paste of NH4Cl and ZnCl2 is
contained in a small cylindrical zinc vessel, which acts as the
negative pole of the cell. A carbon rod fitted with a brass cap is
placed in the middle of the zinc vessel. It acts as the positive pole
of the cell. The carbon rod is surrounded by a closely packed
mixture of MnO2 and charcoal powder in a muslin bag while the
MnO2 acts as depolariser, the charcoal powder reduces the internal
resistance of the cell by making MnO2 conducting. The zinc
container and its contents are sealed at the top with pitch or shell.
ActionA dry cell is only a modification of wet Leclaanche cell.
Therefore, the action of a dry cell as regards the chemical reactions
takes place are same as in the case of Leclaanche cell.
The dry cells are manufactured in different sizes and shapes to suit
particular needs. Irrespective of the size of the cell, the emf of the
cell is nearly 1.5 V. Its internal resistance may vary from 0.1 to
10 . Further an electric current of about 0.25A can be
continuously drawn from a dry cell.

SECONDARY CELLS
A secondary cell is one in which chemical energy is
converted into electrical energy but they do so only when they are
charged by passing current through them by some source.
They are also called accumulators or storage cells. They are of two
types1.Lead acid cell or lead accumulator
2.Edison alkali cell

LEAD ACCUMULATOR
It is the most common type of storage battery used in
automobiles. It was invented by French physicist, Gaston Plante in
the year 1859.
ConstructionIt consists of a hard rubber, glass or celluloid container
containing dilute sulphuric acid as electrolyte. Each electrode
consists of a set of alternate parallel mesh type perforated plates
made of lead. The set of plates to be made of the positive plate is
filled with part of lead dioxide(PbO 2)while the set of plates to be
made the negative plates is filled with a part of spongy lead (Pb).
The emf of each of a fully charged lead accumulator is
2.05V and a lead accumulator of such six cells produces an emf of
usually 12V.The specific gravity of the electrolyte in a fully
charged lead accumulator is 1.28.

DischargingWhen the cell is connected to an external load circuit, it such

current in the circuit and starts discharging . The dilute sulphuric
acid dissociates into H+ and SO42- ions.
H2SO4

2H+ + SO42-

At the negative plate:

Pb + SO42- + 2e-

PbSO4

At the positive plate:

PbO2 + 2H+ + 2ePbO+H2O
PbO +H2SO4
PbSO4 +H2O
+
PbO2 +H2SO4 +2H + 2ePbSO4 + 2H2O
Charging In order to charge a lead accumulator, it is connected to a
battery charger capable of supplying emf greater than that of the
lead accumulator. While charging an accumulator,a high series
resistance is included in the circuit. The battery charger make H +
ions to move towards negative plate and SO ions towards the
positive plate.
At the negative plate:
PbSO4 + 2H+ +2ePb + H2SO4
At the positve plate:
PbSO4 + SO42- - 2ePbO2 + 2SO3
2SO3 + 2H2O
2H2SO4
2PbSO4 + 2H2O + SO4 - 2ePbO 2+2H2SO4
Therefore, during the charging process, PbSO4 atboth
lectrodes is connected back into spongy lead (Pb) at negative plate
and PbO2 at positive plate.

EDISON ALKALI CELL

It is also called nickel-iron (Ni-Fe) cell.

ConstructionIts positive plate consists of a number of tubes of

perforated steel ribbon bound specially & held together by steel
rings. The tubes are nickel plated. The active material consists of
Ni(OH)4 & flakes of metallic nickel are packed into the nickel
plated steel tubes in alternative layers.
The negative plate is made from finely perforated nickelled
steel strips, stamped into pockets. The pockets are filled with
powdered iron oxide.
WORKINGThe chemical changes during charging and discharging
can be represented by the following reversible reaction:
Ni(OH)4 + KOH +Fe

Ni(OH)2 + KOH + Fe(OH)2

The emf of the fully charged cell is 1.45V & it falls to

1.2V on discharge.

BUTTON CELL
The button cells are usually pallet type flat in construction
& look like a button in shape. All types of button cells are basically
primary cells. In a zinc-air button cell, zinc acts as negative
electrode, while air as the positive electrode. It contains potassium
hydroxide as the electrolyte. A layer of polytetrafluoroethane
(PTFE) allows air into the cell. It provides an emf of 1.4V. A few
other types of button cells are :1.Nickel-cadmium button cell
2.Lithium-magnesium button cell
3.Silver-zinc button cell
4.Alkaline-magnesium button cell
5.Silver-oxide button cell
6.Mercury-oxide button cell

Advantages of secondary cell over a primary cell

1. Secondary cell can be put to use again and again by
recharging it. While a primary cell once discharged cannot
be recharged.
2. The internal resistance of a secondary cell is less than that
of a primary cell. As such a secondary cell enables to draw
much larger current.
Disadvantages of secondary cell
1. A secondary cell has to be charged first so as to obtain
electric energy from it. In other words, secondary cell
requires a lot of time before it can be put to use, while
primary cell stsrts functioning immediately after its
construction.
2. The initial cost of a secondary cell is quite large as
compared to that of a primary cell.

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF CELL

Internal resistance of a cell is defined as the
resistance offered by the electrolyte and electrodes of a cell
when the electric current flows through it.
The value of internal resistance of a freshly prepared
cell is generally low and its value goes on increasing as the cell
is pur to more and more use.
This internal resistance has a negative effect on the
working of a cell, it reduces the efficiency of a cell.
The internal resistance of a cell depends on the following
factors:
1. Distance between the electrodes
2. The nature of the electrolytes
3. The nature of electrodes
4. Area of the electrodes immersed in the electrolyte. If area
increases, internal resistance decreases.

EMF of a Cell
Emf of a cell is defined as the potential difference
between the two electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit. It is
denoted by V.
When the electric cell is in the open circuit the
current flows through the circuit. There is a fall of potenteial due to
the internal resistance of the cell. The terminal potential difference
between the two electrodes of a cell is less than the emf of the cell
by an amount equal to potential drop due to the internal resistance
of the cell. Thus, the terminal potential difference of cell is always
less than the emf of the cell.
V = E - Ir
Consider a cell of emf E and internal resistance r
which is connected to external resistance R. A high voltage
voltmeter is connected across the electrode of cell. When key K is
closed, current flows and
Total resistance
= R + r
Magnitude of current,
I = E/R+r
Potential difference across internal resistance,(r) = Ir
From Ohms law,

Or,

V = IR
V = (E/R+r)R
r = (E-V/V)R

Accoding to the definition of internal resistance,

V = E - Ir

If
I = 0, V = E
The terminal potential difference across terminal of cell equals to
potential difference across external resistance.
EXPERIMENT
OBJECTTo determine the internal resistance of a primary
cell using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS A potentiometer, a battery, two one-way keys, a
rheostat of low resistance, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a
jockey, connecting wires and piece of sand paper.
THEORY The internal resistance of a primary cell is given by
r = (l1 l2)/l2 *

Here l1and l2are the balancing lengths without shunt

and with shunt respectively and R is the shunt resistance.
PROCEDURE1. Draw the circuit diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the sand paper
and make tight connections.
3. Tight the plugs of resistance box.
4. Check the emf of the battery and cell, and see that emf
of the battery is greater than the emf of the cell.
5. Take minimum current from the battery making rheostat
resistance zero.To test the correctness of the
connections :( insert the plug in the key K and note the
reading. Take out 2000 resistance plug from the
resistance box).

6. To test the correctness of the connections ( insert the plug

in the key K1 & note the reading. Take out the 2000
resistance plug from the resistance box)
7. Without inserting the plug in the key K2 adjust the rheostat
so that a null point is obtained on the fourth wire of the
potentiometer.
8. Introduce the 2000 plug back in its position in the
resistance box and by slight adjusting the key.
9. Measure the balancing length l1 between the point and end
P of the wire.
10. Take out the 2000 plug again from the resistance box.
Introduce the plugs in key K1 , as well as in key K2 . Take
out a small resistance (1-5 ohm) from the resistance box
connected in parallel with the cell.
11. Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain
null point.
12. Introduce 2000 ohm plug back in its position in the
resistance box and if necessary make further adjustment
for sharp null point.
13. Measure the balancing length l2 from end P.
14. Remove the plug keys at K1 and K2, wait for sometime
and for the same value of current repeat the steps 7-13.
15. Repeat the observations for different values of R1
repeating each observation twice.
16. Record your observations in the table.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The connection should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It
should touch the wire gently.
3. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a
particular set of observation.
4. The emf of the battery should be greater than the emfs

of the either of the two cells.

5. Current should be passed for short time only, while
finding the null point.
6. Cell should not be disturbed during experiment.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1.
2.
3.

The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.

The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform crosssection and material density throughout its length.
End resistances may not be zero.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Moderns abc of Physics

Satish K. Gupta

Comprehensive Practical Physics

J.N. Jaiswal

Concepts of Physics (Vol.2)

H. C. Verma

A Textbook of Electricity
and Magnetism

D. C. Pandey

I. E. Irodov

D. B. Singh

Pradeeps Fundamental Physics

K. L. Gomber
K. L. Gogia