PART 5: GEOMORPHOLOGY - STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Earth surface is still undergoing physical changes, in both small & continental scale.
Resulting from effect of weathering & tectonic forces.
Produce various deformations and changes to the earth-crusts and shape of the
earth surface e.g. rock mass that constitutes mountain range.
In responding to the physical changes (e.g. state of stresses) of the surroundings, a
rock mass may deform or change its physical state.
Changes in rock mass include: expands if confining stress reduces; deforms
plastically (ruptures) if acting stress is larger than its strength; deforms elastically
(reshapes) if acting stress is smaller than its strength.
As result, rock mass displays certain characteristics, indicating changes in the
surrounding.
EXCAVATION OF SLOPE IN ROCK MASS
The phrase solid as a rock is not a correct statement on the properties of rock
mass.
Rock bodies, whether exposed on the surface or buried in the earths crust, are not
free from fracture and weakness planes.
In addition, fresh and strong rock may be degraded and weakened by weathering
processes.
Take
a
strong,
solid
(without
discontinuity
features), and fresh (unweathered) rock mass

A slope cut in a fresh,

strong and solid rock mass
but,
with
horizontal
bedding planes (a type of
discontinuity or weakness
plane).....

For the cut slope (A) in this

rock mass, is the stability
being affected by the
horizontal bedding planes
and inclined joints? Let
propose another slope (B)
on the other side of the
hill...

A near vertical slope is Again, one will question the

excavated in the rock stability
of
the
cut
mass...
slope . . . is it being
affected by the horizontal
bedding planes? Is there
any immediate effect due
to rock mass properties &
bedding planes?

The rock properties and the

horizontal bedding planes
have no immediate effect
on the stability of both
SLOPE A and B. However,
with
respect
to
the
orientation
the
joints,
SLOPE B is critical.

.....in terms of the rock

mass
properties
would
there be any problem on
the stability of the cut
slope?

A cut slope in a fresh,

strong rock mass with
horizontal bedding planes
and
inclined
fracture
planes (e.g. joints).

GEOMORPHOLOGY
The characteristics include presence of structural discontinuities in rock mass, and
the most important in construction are:
a) bedding planes
b) folding (lipatan)
c) fault (sesar)
d) joint (kekar)
These discontinuity features induce weakness and defect into rock bodies.
They affect rock behaviour when subjected to loading (e.g. stability of tunnel
excavated in highly jointed rock mass, compared to massive rock).
FOLD (LIPATAN)
Folds only occur in clastic sedimentry rocks which exhibit bedding/layers/strata,
metamorphic rocks originating from clastic sedimentary rocks & volcanic rocks.
Beddings/strata are weakness planes in rock relative displacement can occur
between bedding planes.
Folds is formed when bedded/stratified rock is subjected to lateral compressive
stress in the earth crust.
THINGS TO PONDER
Why there is no folding in granite?
For horizontal rock strata, why folding is associated with compressive lateral
stresses?
FOLDINGS
Type of folding: symmetrical, non-symmetrical, over-turned & recumbent fold
(lipatan rebah).
Recumbent fold can affect sequence of bedding arrangement (difficulties in
verifying the relative age of beddings).
Important geometrical parameters of fold:
a) Limbs, syncline & anticline
b) Dip direction/strike of inclined bedding (limbs).

FOLD GEOMETRY

 When rock strata are folded, they are under a state of strain (keterikan), this will
induce remnant or residual stress in the folded rock mass.
For symmetrical fold residual tensile stress occurs in the upper portion of the fold,
& residual compressive stress in the lower portion. Usually tension cracks can be
found at the crest.
For a deformed rock mass (e.g. folded), its in situ stress distribution is no longer in
equilibrium presence of remnant stress due to deformation.
THINGS TO PONDER
What type of stress usually associated with tension cracks in the crest of a fold?
For an excavation work in a folded rock mass, why it is critical to excavate at the
shoulder of the fold?
TENSION CRACKS AT CREST OF A FOLD

Folded rock mass creates problems to construction - higher in situ stress:

o Virgin in-situ stress ( gh) + residual stress.

 Slope excavated in folded rock mass may exhibit frequent failures inclined
bedding plane.
For petroleum industry, folded strata is the main target area in exploring for
petroleum reservoirs.

Inclined bedding planes in folded strata

bedding planes

Inclined

Inclined bedding planes in folded strata

FAULT (SESAR)
Fault a fracture between two rock blocks where there has been observable relative
displacement.
One of the block can be displaced upwards or downwards or even displaced
laterally.
Fault can occur in all kind of rocks (whenever cracks are present).
Important geometry of fault: dip direction of fault, dip angle, strike & amount of
displacement.
ASSOCIATED DISPLACEMENTS IN FAULT FORMATION
FAULT STRUCTURE & GEOMETRY
Faults are classified based on
their formation: normal fault,
reverse fault and strike-slip fault
(sesar mendatar).
A large scale displacement (few
kms)
may
induce
metamorphism
in
the
surrounding
rock,
forming
metamorphic rocks e.g. fault
breccia & clay gouge.

 Fault traversing a river gives rise to waterfall. Springline is a result of groundwater

flowing a long a fault line.
Large faults (10 20 km deep) can act as passage for magma to flow upwards from
inside the mantle.
NORMAL & REVERSE FAULT

STRIKE - SLIP FAULT (horizontal displacement)

Movements of fault

San Andreas Fault two continental plates slide past one another

Earthquake is produced by a sudden slip along interlocked fault line

Formation of multiple large size faults (fault zone) may induce remnant or residual
stress in host rock.
Residual shear stress may occurs in rock bodies at near a fault zone.
Excavation work in rock displaying fault structure, instability of excavated surfaces
is a common problem, particularly if faults are filled with clay gouge.
Faults induce discontinuity (ketakselarasan) and weakness into rock uneven
stresses distribution.
Ideally, rock mass without discontinuities (faults & fold), stress distribution can be
assumed in a state of hydrostatic stress (P gh); stresses are equal in all
directions.
If faults are present in rock mass, stress in one direction may not be equal to stress
in the opposite direction (e.g. horizontal stresses, h).
JOINT (KEKAR)
Joint is a fracture, separating two rock blocks, where there is no observable (very
small) displacement.
Formation of joints is associated with tensile stress acting within a rock body. The
source of tensile stresses can be from any/all of the following processes:
o Expansion & shrinking of a massive magma body during cooling process joint
sets that are perpendicular to each other.

Intersect of > 2 joint sets

Exposed joint surfaces
Joint set (vertical orientation)
Expansion of rock bodies due to reduction in overburden stress. For instance,
decreasing thickness of materials (soils) covering a deep seated bed rock after
continuous & intensive weathering at the surface sheet joints.
Tensile stress acting at crest of a fold tension cracks.
For impermeable rock (e.g. granite) joint acts as a secondary permeability.
As other discontinuities in rock, joints are weakness planes in rock.
SHEET JOINT (KEKAR BERLAPIS)

TENSION CRACKS AT CREST OF A FOLD

Joint displaying very small displacement

Joint

Un-displaced

Various types of discontinuity/weakness planes & and their formation in

different rock type
Important geometrical parameters: dip angle, dip direction & strike (Figure 17).
Joints are relatively smaller in size compared to fault (few m length)
A group of joints of almost similar orientation is called JOINT SET.
Two or more joint sets that are intersecting each others are termed as JOINT
SYSTEM.
In a joint system, if one joint set is more dominant than other sets, this set is called
primary set.

Joint Sets 1 set and 3 sets

(shale)

Joint Set

Joint Set (Granite)

Effect of 1 Joint on UCS of Rock

Effect of 2 Joint on UCS of Strength

Effect of Many Joint on UCS of Rock: In highly fractured rock the strength
may approach that of soil
The more is the number of joint sets, the weaker and more unstable is the rock.
Rock with more joint sets is easier (cheaper) to excavate. Bed rock displaying
multiple joint sets may not be suitable for foundation of large structures.
Joints in hard rock are passage for weathering agents (water, O2) to penetrate into
rock thus rocks with more joint sets are more easily weathered compared to rock
with less joint sets.
Exposed rounded rock boulders are the result of weathering of rock that exhibits 3
joint sets that are perpendicular to each other.

Large rounded to sub-rounded boulder (granite)

Boulders are produced by weathering of jointed granite sphreoidal

weathering

Physical weathering (disintegration due to joints) creates new surfaces for

chemical weathering to take place on the exposed surfaces, especially at the 8
corners.
THINGS TO PONDER
What are the main differences between joint and fault?
Why a slope face cut in rock displaying 3 joint sets is less stable than in rock
displaying 1 joint set ?
Do I have any other options besides this non-entertaining Rock Mechanics?
(Yes.......try Rock & Roll).
Intrusive igneous rock (e.g. granite) almost always exhibiting 3 sets of joint, typical
joint characteristic for massive and strong rock, with random (rawak) minerals
arrangement.
For rocks displaying structured minerals arrangement in certain orientation
(lamination, slaty & schistosity), e.g sedimentary & metamorphic rock, the major
joint sets are usually parallel to the mineral arrangement.

Fracture plane parallel to lamination (sandstone)

MEASUREMENT OF JOINT (& Other fracture planes)
Major rock excavation work (e.g. slope & tunnel) requires a preliminary (initial)
investigation before design & construction Joint survey: field work to identify
types of weakness planes (joint, bedding planes, faults) measurement on
geometrical orientation (dip & dip direction).
Joint orientation & joint sets for a rock type are usually consistent thus
measurement can be undertaken on the exposed portion of the rock.
Data & info obtained (e.g. geological mapping) are used for preliminary design of
the structure.
Figure 17 shows the important geometrical characteristics of joint (or other
weakness plane) that need to be measured in the field:
o DIP angle (sudut kecondongan).
o Dip direction (arah kecondongan)/Strike.
Joint survey is undertaken on exposed rock body (accessibility & cost).
Other relevant data & info on joint: open or close, conditions of joint surface (rough
or smooth), infill (berinti) & size/length, continuity (keselanjaran).

Geometrical parameters : an inclined weakness plane

(Kekar berinti)

Filled joint

MEASUREMENT OF JOINT (& other

fracture planes)
Instrument used are Brunton compass &
tapes.
Collected data few hundreds to
thousands.
Data is analysed using computer software
(e.g.
Georient):
lower
hemisphere
strereonet projection.
Output data: dip & dip direction of major
& minor joint sets, probablity of failure
direction and mode of failure.
Mean dip & dip direction of all the measured joint is compared with the proposed
cut slopes.
Joint measurement using
Brunton Compass
Typical roughness profile & index (JRC) of joint surface

DATA FROM JOINT MEASUREMENT

Stereonet projection plot :

Great circles

Stereonet projection plot :

projection output :
Poles density
sets & cut slope

Stereonet
Great circles of joint

Modes of Slope Failure and Plotted Stereonet

Modes of Slope Failure and Plotted Stereonet

Modes of Slope Failure

Effect of weakness planes (dip & dip direction):

On stability of cut slope face in a discontinuous rock mass

Direction of tunneling with respect to joint orientation

THE GRAND FINALE
Theoretically, a vertical slope face of several thousand meters height (H) can be
excavated in a massive, continuous & strong rock (based on formula H = UCS/)
However, in actual condition in the field, this is impossible (the allowable maximum
vertical height, H, is less than 10 m)?