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Vodka
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Vodka (Polish: wdka [vutka], Russian:

[votk], Ukrainian: [horilka]) is a distilled
beverage composed primarily of water and ethanol,
sometimes with traces of impurities and flavorings.
Traditionally, vodka is made by the distillation of fermented
grains or potatoes, though some modern brands use other
substances, such as fruits or sugar.
Since the 1890s, the standard Polish, Russian, Ukrainian,
Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian and Czech vodkas are 40%
alcohol by volume ABV (80 proof), a percentage that is
widely misattributed to Dmitri Mendeleev.[1][2] The
European Union has established a minimum of 37.5% ABV
Selection of vodkas and spirits at a store in Sanok,
for any "European vodka" to be named as such.[3][4]
Poland.
Products sold as "vodka" in the United States must have a
minimum alcohol content of 40%.[5] Even with these loose
restrictions, most vodka sold contains 40% ABV. For homemade vodkas and distilled beverages referred to as
"moonshine", see moonshine by country.
Vodka is traditionally drunk neat (not mixed with any water, ice, or other mixer), though it is often served chilled in
the vodka belt countries of Eastern Europe and around the Baltic Sea. It is also commonly used in cocktails and
mixed drinks, such as the vodka martini, vodka tonic, screwdriver, greyhound, Black or White Russian, Bloody
Mary, and sex on the beach.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Poland
2.2 Russia
2.3 Sweden
3 Production
3.1 Distilling and filtering
3.2 Flavoring
4 Today
4.1 European Union regulation
5 Health
6 See also
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7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Etymology
The name "vodka" is a diminutive form of the Slavic word
voda (water), interpreted as little water: root - (vod-)
[water] + -- (-k-) (diminutive suffix, among other
functions) + -a (postfix of feminine gender).[6][7][8]
The word "vodka" was recorded for the first time in 1405 in
Akta Grodzkie,[9] the court documents from the Palatinate
of Sandomierz in Poland.[9] At the time, the word vodka
The "vodka belt" countries of Northern and Eastern
(wdka) referred to chemical compounds such as
Europe are the historic home of vodka. These
medicines and cosmetics' cleansers, while the popular
countries have the highest vodka consumption in
beverage was called gorzaka (from the Old Polish gorze
the world
meaning "to burn"), which is also the source of Ukrainian
horilka (). The word vodka written in Cyrillic
appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of Kievan
Rus'.[9]
A number of Russian pharmaceutical lists contain the terms "vodka of grain wine" ( vodka
khlebnogo vina) and "vodka in half of grain wine" ( vodka polu khlebnogo
vina).[10] As alcohol had long been used as a basis for medicines, this implies the term vodka could be a noun
derived from the verb vodit, razvodit (, ), "to dilute with water". Grain wine was a spirit
distilled from alcohol made from grain (as opposed to grape wine) and hence "vodka of grain wine" would be a
water dilution of a distilled grain spirit.
Although the word vodka could be found in early manuscripts and in lubok pictograms, it began to appear in
Russian dictionaries only in the mid-19th century. It was attested in Smuel Gyarmathi's Russian-GermanHungarian glossary of 1799, where it is glossed with Latin vinum adustum ("burnt [i.e. distilled] wine").[11]
In English literature the word vodka was attested already in the late 18th century. In a book of his travels published
in English in 1780 (presumably, a translation from German), Johann Gottlieb Georgi correctly explained that
"Kabak in the Russian language signifies a public house for the common people to drink vodka (a sort of brandy)
in."[12] William Tooke in 1799 glossed vodka as "rectified corn-spirits".[13] In French, Thophile Gautier in 1800
glossed it as a "grain liquor" served with meals in Poland (eau-de-vie de grain).[14]
Another possible connection of "vodka" with "water" is the name of the medieval alcoholic beverage aqua vitae
(Latin, literally, "water of life"), which is reflected in Polish okowita, Ukrainian , Belarusian , and
Scandinavian akvavit. (Note that whiskey has a similar etymology, from the Irish/Scottish Gaelic uisce
beatha/uisge-beatha.)
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People in the area of vodka's probable origin have names for vodka with roots meaning "to burn": Polish: gorzaa,
berbelucha, bimber; Ukrainian: , horlka; Belarusian: , harelka; Lithuanian: degtin; Samogitian:
degtn, is also in use, colloquially and in proverbs[15]); Latvian: degvns; Finnish: paloviina. In Russian during the
17th and 18th centuries, or (goryashchee vino, "burning wine" or "hot wine") was
widely used. Others languages include the German Branntwein, Danish brndevin, Dutch: brandewijn, Swedish:
brnnvin, and Norwegian: brennevin (although the latter terms refer to any strong alcoholic beverage).

History
Scholars debate the beginnings of vodka.[16] It is a contentious issue because very little historical material is
available.[17][18] Vodka originated in Eastern Europe. The first production was either in Poland in the 8th century or
in the area of today's Russia in the late 9th century according to different sources.[16][19] According to the Gin and
Vodka Association (GVA),[19] the first distillery was documented over three hundred years later at Khlynovsk as
reported in the Vyatka Chronicle of 1174. For many centuries, beverages differed significantly compared to the
vodka of today, as the spirit at that time had a different flavor, color and smell, and was originally used as
medicine.[19] It contained little alcohol, an estimated maximum of about 14%, as only this amount can be attained
by natural fermentation. The still, allowing for distillation ("burning of wine"), increased purity, and increased alcohol
content, was invented in the 8th century.[20]

Poland
In Poland, vodka (Polish: wdka; obsolete: gorzaka) has been produced since the early Middle Ages with local
traditions as varied as the production of cognac in France, or Scottish whisky.[21]
The world's first written mention of the drink and of the word "vodka" was in 1405 from Akta Grodzkie recorder
of deeds,[9] in the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland[9] and it went on to become a
popular drink there. At the time, the word wdka referred to chemical compounds such as medicines and
cosmetics' cleansers, while the popular beverage currently known as vodka was called gorzaka (from the Old
Polish verb gorze meaning "to burn"), which is also the source of Ukrainian horilka (). The word written in
Cyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of
Kievan Rus'.[9]
In these early days, the spirits were used mostly as medicines. Stefan Falimierz asserted in his 1534 works on herbs
that vodka could serve "to increase fertility and awaken lust". Wdka lub gorzaa (1614), by Jerzy Potaski,
contains valuable information on the production of vodka. Jakub Kazimierz Haur, in his book Skad albo skarbiec
znakomitych sekretw ekonomii ziemiaskiej (A Treasury of Excellent Secrets about Landed Gentry's
Economy, Krakw, 1693), gave detailed recipes for making vodka from rye.
Some Polish vodka blends go back centuries. Most notable are
ubrwka, from about the 16th century; Goldwasser, from the
early 17th century; and aged Starka vodka, from the 16th
century. In the mid-17th century, the szlachta (nobility of
Poland) were granted a monopoly on producing and selling
vodka in their territories. This privilege was a source of
substantial profits. One of the most famous distilleries of the
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aristocracy was established by Princess Lubomirska and later

operated by her grandson, Count Alfred Wojciech Potocki.
The Vodka Industry Museum, located at the park of the
Potocki country estate has an original document attesting that
the distillery already existed in 1784. Today it operates as
"Polmos acut".[22]
Vodka production on a much larger scale began in Poland at
the end of the 16th century, initially at Krakw, whence spirits
were exported to Silesia before 1550. Silesian cities also bought
vodka from Pozna, a city that in 1580 had 498 working spirits
distilleries. Soon, however, Gdask outpaced both these cities.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish vodka was known in the
Netherlands, Denmark, England, Russia, Germany, Austria,
Chopin
Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria and the Black Sea basin.

Wyborowa ubrwka Luksusowa

Early production methods were rudimentary. The beverage was usually low-proof, and the distillation process had
to be repeated several times (a three-stage distillation process was common). The first distillate was called
brantwka, the second was szumwka, and the third was okowita (from aqua vitae), which generally contained
7080% ABV. Then the beverage was watered down, yielding a simple vodka (3035% ABV), or a stronger one
if the watering was done using an alembic. The exact production methods were described in 1768 by Jan Pawe
Biretowski and in 1774 by Jan Chryzostom Pasek. The late 18th century inaugurated the production of vodka from
various unusual substances including even the carrot.[21]
Though there was clearly a substantial vodka cottage industry in Poland back to the 16th century, the end of the
18th century marked the start of real industrial production of vodka in Poland (the eastern part of Poland was
controlled by the Russian empire at that time). Vodkas produced by the nobility and clergy became a mass
product. The first industrial distillery was opened in 1782 in Lww by J. A. Baczewski. He was soon followed by
Jakub Haberfeld, who in 1804 established a factory at Owicim, and by Hartwig Kantorowicz, who started
producing Wyborowa in 1823 at Pozna. The implementation of new technologies in the latter half of the 19th
century, which allowed the production of clear vodkas, contributed to their success. The first rectification distillery
was established in 1871. In 1925, the production of clear vodkas was made a Polish government monopoly.[21]
After World War II, all vodka distilleries were taken over by Poland's MarxistLeninist government. During the
martial law of the 1980s, the sale of vodka was rationed. Following the success of the Solidarity movement and the
abolition of single-party rule in Poland, many distilleries began struggling financially. Some filed for bankruptcy, but
many were privatized, leading to the creation of various new brands.[21]

Russia
A type of distilled liquor designated by the Russian word vodka came to Russia in the late 14th century. In 1386,
the Genoese ambassadors brought the first aqua vitae ("the water of life") to Moscow and presented it to Grand
Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The liquid obtained by distillation of grape must was thought to be a concentrate and a
"spirit" of wine (spiritus vini in Latin), from where came the name of this substance in many European languages
(like English spirit, or Russian , spirt).

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According to a legend, around 1430, a monk named Isidore from Chudov Monastery inside the Moscow Kremlin
made a recipe of the first Russian vodka.[23] Having a special knowledge and distillation devices, he became the
creator of a new, higher quality type of alcoholic beverage. This "bread wine", as it was initially known, was for a
long time produced exclusively in the Grand Duchy of Moscow and in no other principality of Rus' (this situation
persisted until the era of industrial production). Thus, this beverage was closely associated with Moscow.
Until the mid-18th century, the drink remained relatively low in alcohol content, not exceeding 40% ABV. Multiple
terms for the drink were recorded, sometimes reflecting
different levels of quality, alcohol concentration, filtering,
and the number of distillations; most commonly, it was
referred to as "burning wine", "bread wine", or even in some
locations simply "wine". In some locations, grape wine may
have been so expensive that it was a drink only for
aristocrats. Burning wine was usually diluted with water to
24% ABV or less before drinking. It was mostly sold in
taverns and was quite expensive. At the same time, the
word vodka was already in use, but it described herbal
tinctures (similar to absinthe), containing up to 75% ABV,
and made for medicinal purposes.
The first written usage of the word vodka in an official
Russian document in its modern meaning is dated by the
decree of Empress Elizabeth of June 8, 1751, which
regulated the ownership of vodka distilleries. By the 1860s, due to the government policy of promoting
consumption of state-manufactured vodka, it became the drink of choice for many Russians. In 1863, the
government monopoly on vodka production was repealed, causing prices to plummet and making vodka available
even to low-income citizens. The taxes on vodka became a key element of government finances in Tsarist Russia,
providing at times up to 40% of state revenue.[24] By 1911, vodka comprised 89% of all alcohol consumed in
Russia. This level has fluctuated somewhat during the 20th century, but remained quite high at all times. The most
recent estimates put it at 70% (2001). Today, some popular Russian vodka producers or brands are (amongst
others) Stolichnaya and Russian Standard.[25]
Russian Vodka in various bottles and cups

During the late 1970s, Russian culinary author William Pokhlebkin

compiled a history of the production of vodka in Russia, as part of the
Soviet case in a trade dispute; this was later published as A History of
Vodka. Pokhlebkin claimed that while there is a wealth of publications
about the history of consumption and distribution of vodka, virtually
nothing had been written about vodka production. One of his assertions
was that the word "vodka" was used in popular speech in Russia
considerably earlier than the middle of the 18th century, but the word
did not appear in print until the 1860s. Pokhlebkin's sources were
challenged by David Christian in the Slavic Review in 1994. Christian
criticised the lack of valid references in Pokhlebkin's works stating that
his work has an obvious pro-Russian bias. Pokhlebkin is also known
for his Pan-Slavic sympathies under the leadership of Russia, and
sentiments which in David Christian's opinion discredits majority of his

A large selection of vodkas at a

hypermarket near Nizhny Novgorod,
Russia.

work, especially his History of Vodka.[26]

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Sweden
Up until the 1950s, vodka was not used as a designation for Swedish distilled beverages, which were instead called
brnnvin ("burn-wine"). This beverage has been produced in Sweden since the late 15th century, although the total
production was still small in the 17th century.[27] From the early 18th century, production expanded, although
production was prohibited several times, during grain shortages. Although initially a grain product, potatoes started
to be used in the production in the late 18th century, and became dominant from the early 19th century.[28] From
the early 1870s, distillery equipment was improved.
Progressively from the 1960s, unflavoured Swedish brnnvin also came to be called vodka. The first Swedish
product to use this term was Explorer Vodka, which was created in 1958 and initially was intended for the
American export market.[29] In 1979, Absolut Vodka was launched, reusing the name of the old Absolut Rent
Brnnvin ("absolutely pure brnnvin") created in 1879.
Vodka has become a popular source of insobriety among young people, with a flourishing black market.[30] In
2013 the organizers of a so-called 'vodka car' were jailed for 2.5 years for having provided thousands of liters,
mainly to underaged girls.[31]

Production
Vodka may be distilled from any starch- or sugar-rich plant matter;
most vodka today is produced from grains such as sorghum, corn, rye
or wheat. Among grain vodkas, rye and wheat vodkas are generally
considered superior. Some vodkas are made from potatoes, molasses,
soybeans, grapes, rice, sugar beets and sometimes even byproducts of
oil refining[32] or wood pulp processing. In some Eastern European
countries, such as Poland, some vodka is produced by just fermenting a
solution of crystal sugar and yeast. In the European Union there are
talks about the standardization of vodka, and the Vodka Belt countries
insist that only spirits produced from grains, potato and sugar beet
molasses be allowed to be branded as "vodka", following the traditional

An old Ukrainian vodka still.

methods of production.[33][34]
In the United States, many vodkas are made from 95% ethanol
produced in large quantities by agricultural-industrial giants Archer
Daniels Midland and Midwest Grain Processors. Bottlers purchase the
base spirits in bulk, then filter, dilute, distribute and market the end
product under a variety of vodka brand names.[35]

Vodka bottling machine, Shatskaya

Vodka (Shatsk, Russia)

Distilling and filtering

A common property of the vodkas produced in the United States and Europe is the extensive use of filtration prior
to any additional processing including the addition of flavorants. Filtering is sometimes done in the still during
distillation, as well as afterwards, where the distilled vodka is filtered through activated charcoal and other media to
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absorb trace amounts of substances that alter or impart off-flavors to the vodka. However, this is not the case in the
traditional vodka-producing nations, so many distillers from these countries prefer to use very accurate distillation
but minimal filtering, thus preserving the unique flavors and characteristics of their products.
The master distiller is in charge of distilling the vodka and directing its filtration, which includes the removal of the
"fore-shots", "heads" and "tails". These components of the distillate contain flavor compounds such as ethyl acetate
and ethyl lactate (heads) as well as the fusel oils (tails) that impact the usually desired clean taste of vodka. Through
numerous rounds of distillation, or the use of a fractioning still, the taste is modified and clarity is increased. In
contrast, distillery process for liquors such as whiskey, rum, and baijiu allow portions of the "heads" and "tails" to
remain, giving them their unique flavors.
Repeated distillation of vodka will make its ethanol level much higher than is acceptable to most end users, whether
legislation determines strength limits or not. Depending on the distillation method and the technique of the stillmaster,
the final filtered and distilled vodka may have as much as 9596% ethanol. As such, most vodka is diluted with
water prior to bottling.
Polish distilleries make a very pure (96%, 192 proof, formerly also 98%) rectified spirit (Polish language: spirytus
rektyfikowany). Technically a form of vodka, it is sold in liquor stores rather than pharmacies. Similarly, the
German market often carries German, Hungarian, Polish, and Ukrainian-made varieties of vodka of 90 to 95%
ABV. A Bulgarian vodka, Balkan 176, has an 88% alcohol content. Everclear, an American brand, is also sold at
95% ABV.

Flavoring
While most vodkas are unflavored, many flavored vodkas have been produced in traditional vodka-drinking areas,
often as home-made recipes to improve vodka's taste or for medicinal purposes. Flavorings include red pepper,
ginger, fruit flavors, vanilla, chocolate (without sweetener), and cinnamon. In Russia, vodka flavored with honey and
pepper, pertsovka in Russian, is also very popular. In Poland and Belarus, the leaves of the local bison grass are
added to produce zubrwka (Polish) and zubrovka (Belarusian) vodka, with slightly sweet flavors and light amber
colors. In Lithuania and Poland, a famous vodka containing honey is called krupnik.
This tradition of flavoring is also prevalent in the Nordic countries, where vodka seasoned with herbs, fruits and
spices is the appropriate strong drink for several seasonal festivities. Sweden has forty-odd common varieties of
herb-flavored vodka (kryddat brnnvin). In Poland and Ukraine, a separate category (nalyvka in Ukraine and
nalewka in Poland) is used for vodka-based spirits with fruit, root, flower, or herb extracts, which are often homemade or produced by small commercial distilleries. Their alcohol contents vary between 15 and 75%. In Estonia,
vodkas are spiced with barbaris, blackcurrant, cherry, green apple, lemon, vanilla and watermelon flavors.[36]
More recently, people have experimented with producing more unusual flavors of vodka, such as very hot chili
flavored vodka[37] and even bacon vodka.[38]

Today
According to The Penguin Book of Spirits and Liqueurs, "Its low level of fusel oils and congenersimpurities
that flavour spirits but that can contribute to the after-effects of heavy consumptionled to its being considered
among the 'safer' spirits, though not in terms of its powers of intoxication, which, depending on strength, may be
considerable."[39]
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Since the year 2000, due to evolving consumer tastes and regulatory changes, a number of 'artisanal vodka' or even
'ultrapremium vodka' brands have appeared.

European Union regulation

The recent success of grape-based vodka in the United States prompted traditional vodka producers in the Vodka
Belt countries of Poland, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Sweden to campaign for EU legislation that will categorize
only spirits made from grain or potatoes as "vodka".[33][34] This proposition provoked heavy criticism from south
European countries, which often distill used mash from wine-making into spirits; although higher quality mash is
usually distilled into some variety of pomace brandy, lower-quality mash is better turned into neutral-flavored spirits
instead. Any vodka not made from either grain or potatoes would have to display the products used in its
production. This regulation entered into force in 2008.[4]

Health
In some countries, black-market or "bathtub" vodka is widespread because it can be produced easily and avoid
taxation. However, severe poisoning, blindness, or death can occur as a result of dangerous industrial ethanol
substitutes being added by black-market producers.[40] In March 2007 in a documentary, BBC News UK sought
to find the cause of severe jaundice among imbibers of a "bathtub" vodka in Russia.[41] The cause was suspected to
be an industrial disinfectant (Extrasept) 95% ethanol but also containing a highly toxic chemical added to the
vodka by the illegal traders because of its high alcohol content and low price. Death toll estimates list at least 120
dead and more than 1,000 poisoned. The death toll is expected to rise due to the chronic nature of the cirrhosis that
is causing the jaundice. However, there are also much higher estimates of the annual death toll (dozens or even
hundreds of thousand of lives) produced by the vodka consumption in Russia.[42]

See also
List of cocktails with vodka
List of vodkas
Vodka war at European Parliament

References
1. ^ Evseev, Anton (2011-11-21). "Dmitry Mendeleev and 40 degrees of Russian vodka"
(http://english.pravda.ru/science/mysteries/21-11-2011/119683-dmitry_mendeleev_vodka-0/). Science. Moscow:
English Pravda.Ru. Retrieved 2014-07-06.
2. ^ "Prominent Russians: Dmitry Mendeleev" (http://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/science-andtechnology/dmitry-mendeleev/). Prominent Russians: Science and technology. Moscow: RT. 2011. Retrieved
2014-07-06.
3. ^ Production of vodka
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080122091206/http://www.ginvodka.org/history/vodkaproduction.html) at the
Wayback Machine (archived January 22, 2008). Gin and Vodka Association. ginvodka.org
4. ^ a b "Regulation (EC) No 110/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 on the

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4. ^ a b "Regulation (EC) No 110/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 on the
definition, description, presentation, labelling and the protection of geographical indications of spirit drinks and
repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 1576/89" (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/Notice.do?
val=464638:cs&lang=en&list=464638:cs,&pos=1&page=1&nbl=1&pgs=10&hwords=).
5. ^ "United States Code of Federal Regulations Title 27, Section 5.22(a)(1)"
(http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?
c=ecfr;sid=a405a5761091de13308884c6cc36ee89;rgn=div6;view=text;node=27%3A1.0.1.1.3.3;idno=27;cc=ecfr).
United States Government Printing Office. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
6. ^ "Vodka (distilled liquer)" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/631781/vodka). Encyclopdia Britannica
Online.
7. ^ vodka (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=vodka). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2008-1122.
8. ^ Etymology of the word "vodka" in . .: -
. , -, 2004.
9. ^ a b c d e f "History of vodka production, at the official page of Polish Spirit Industry Association (KRPS), 2007"
(http://web.archive.org/web/20070930131416/http://krps.pl/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=27) (in Polish). Archived from the original
(http://krps.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=27) on September 30, 2007.

10. ^ Pokhlebkin, William and Clarke, Renfrey (translator). A History of vodka. Verso: 1992. ISBN 0-86091-359-7.
11. ^ Gyarmathi, Smuel (1799). Affinitas linguae hungaricae cum linguis Fennicae originis grammatice demonstrata.
Nec non vocabularia dialectorum tataricarum et slavicorum cum hungarica comparata
(http://books.google.com/books?id=if1JAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA333). Gttingen.
12. ^ Georgi, Johann Gottlieb (1780). "Russia: or, a compleat historical account of all the nations which compose that
Empire." (http://books.google.com/books?id=GKEBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA115). printed for J. Nichols: T. Cadell; H.
Payne; and N. Conant. p. 115.
13. ^ Tooke, William (1799). "View of the Russian empire during the reign of Catharine the Second, and to the close
of the present century, Volume 1" (http://books.google.com/books?id=wBIbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA362). Piccadilly:
T.N. Longman and O. Rees, Pater-Noster-Row, and J. Debrett. p. 362.
14. ^ Gautier, Thophile (1800). "Voyage en Russie" (http://books.google.ca/books?
id=9lBEAAAAIAAJ&q=vodka&redir_esc=y). G. Charpentier et cie. pp. 354, 406.
15. ^ Drotvinas, Vincentas. "What was lapjurgis drinking?", Kalbos kultra ("Language Culture"), issue 78, pp. 241
246 (online summary
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080411121714/http://www.lki.lt/php/English/publications/angliskos_santraukos_K
K.doc) at the Wayback Machine (archived April 11, 2008))
16. ^ a b Smith, A. F. (2007). The Oxford companion to American food and drink. Oxford University Press. p. 693.
ISBN 978-0-19-530796-2.
17. ^ Blocker, Jack S; Fahey, David M and Tyrrell, Ian R (2003). Alcohol and temperance in modern history: An
international encyclopedia (http://books.google.ca/books?id=BuzNzmx0l8C&lpg=PP1&dq=Alcohol%20and%20temperance%20in%20modern%20history%3A%20an%20international%
20encyclopedia&pg=PA636#v=onepage&q=vodka%20history&f=false) Vol. 1 A L, ABC-CLIO, pp. 389, 636
ISBN 1576078337.
18. ^ Ermochkine, Nicholas and Iglikowski, Peter (2003). 40 degrees east : an anatomy of vodka, Nova Publishers, p.
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217, ISBN 1590335945.

19. ^ a b c Origins & Development of Vodka (http://classicweb.archive.org/web/20080105095200/www.ginvodka.org/history/originvodka.html). The Gin and Vodka
Association. ginvodka.org
20. ^ Briffault, Robert (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 195.
21. ^ a b c d Leszek Wiwaa (2010). Od gorzaki do wdki zarys historii polskiej wdki (History of Polish vodka)
(http://www.ksiazka.net.pl/?id=49&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=6465). Wydawnictwo Leon. ISBN 8392886100.
22. ^ "Count Alfred Potocki Factory Museum of Liqueurs, Rosolios and Rum"
(http://www.muzeumgorzelnictwa.pl/museum.html). Polmos Distillery. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
23. ^ Pokhlebkin V. V. / . . (2007). The history of vodka / . Moscow: Tsentrpoligraph /
. p. 272. ISBN 5-9524-1895-3.
24. ^ Bromley, Jonathan (2002). Russia 18481917 (http://books.google.com/books?id=vuFjmDQPG7kC&pg=PA40).
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^ *Price, Pamela
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Vandyke (1980). The Penguin Book of Spirits and Liqueurs. Penguin Books. pp. 196 ff. ISBN10/12
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39. ^ *Price, Pamela Vandyke (1980). The Penguin Book of Spirits and Liqueurs. Penguin Books. pp. 196 ff. ISBN 014-046335-6.
40. ^ Eke, Steven (November 29, 2006). "'People's vodka' urged for Russia"
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6157015.stm). BBC News. Retrieved 2008-11-22.
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Globalization: Identity, Security, and Society in an Era of Change
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decrease the mortality crisis in Russia', Evaluation & the Health Professions, vol. 31, no. 3, Sep 2008. pp. 272281
(http://ehp.sagepub.com/content/31/3/272.short).

Further reading
Begg, Desmond (1997). The Vodka Companion: A Connoisseur's Guide. Running. ISBN 0-7624-02520.
Broom, Dave (1998). Complete Book of Spirits and Cocktails. Italy: Carlton Books Ltd. ISBN 1-85868485-4.
Delos, Gilbert (1998). Vodkas of the World. Edison, New Jersey: Wellfleet Press. ISBN 0-7858-1018-8.
Elborn, Geoffrey (2013). The Dedalus Book of Vodka. Dedalus. ISBN 9-781907-650048.
Faith, Nicholas; Ian Wisniewski (1977). Classic Vodka. London: Prion Books Ltd. ISBN 1-85375-234-7.
Lingwood, William; Ian Wisniewski (2003). Vodka: Discovering, Exploring, Enjoying. New York:
Ryland Peters & Small. ISBN 1-84172-506-4.
Rogala, Jan (2004). Gorzaka czyli historia i zasady wypalania mocnych trunkw. Baobab. ISBN 8389642-70-0.

External links
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