Simple Stresses in Machine Parts

SimpleStressesinMachineParts
VedatTemiz
Assistant Professor ofMachine Design

Introduction
Inengineeringpractice,themachinepartsaresubjectedto
variousforceswhichmaybeduetoeitheroneormoreof
thefollowing:
1) Energy transmitted,
2) Weight ofmachine,
3) Frictional resistances,
4) Inertiaofreciprocatingparts,
5) Changeoftemperature,and
6) Lackofbalanceofmovingparts.

Load
It
Itisdefinedasanyexternalforceactinguponamachinepart.
is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part
Thefollowingfourtypesoftheload areimportantfromthe
subjectpointofview:
j p
1.Deadorsteadyload.Aloadissaidtobeadeadorsteady
load,whenitdoesnotchangeinmagnitude or direction.
2.Liveorvariableload.Aloadissaidtobealiveorvariable
load,whenitchangescontinually.
3.Suddenlyappliedorshockloads.Aloadissaidtobea
suddenlyappliedorshockload,whenitissuddenlyappliedor
removed.
d
4.Impactload.Aloadissaidtobeanimpactload,whenitis
applied with some initial velocity
appliedwithsomeinitialvelocity.

Stress
Whensomeexternalsystemofforcesorloadsactonabody,
the internal forces (equal and opposite) are set up at various
theinternalforces(equalandopposite)aresetupatvarious
sectionsofthebody,whichresisttheexternalforces.This
internalforceperunitareaatanysectionofthebodyis
p
y
y
knownasunitstressorsimplyastress.Itisdenoted bya
Greeklettersigma().Mathematically,

F
=
A

Forceorloadactingonabody
C
Crosssectionalareaofthebody
ti
l
f th b d

InS.I.units,thestressisusuallyexpressedinPascal(Pa)suchthat1Pa=1N/m2

Strain
When
Whenasystemofforcesorloadsactonabody,itundergoes
a system of forces or loads act on a body it undergoes
somedeformation.Thisdeformationperunitlengthisknown
asunitstrainorsimplyastrain.ItisdenotedbyaGreekletter
py
y
epsilon().Mathematically

l
=
l

Ch
Changeinlengthofthebody
i l th f th b d
Originallengthofthebody

TensileStress and Strain

When
Whenabodyissubjectedtotwoequalandoppositeaxial
a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial
pullsF(alsocalledtensileload)asshowninFig.(a),thenthe
stressinducedatanysectionofthebodyisknownastensile
y
f
y
stressasshowninFig.(b).

Alittleconsiderationwillshowthatduetothe
A
little consideration will show that due to the
tensileload,therewillbeadecreaseincross
sectionalareaandanincreaseinlengthofthe
body.Theratiooftheincreaseinlengthtothe
body The ratio of the increase in length to the
originallengthisknownastensilestrain.

TensileStress and Strain

Tensilestress
Tensile stress
F
t =
A

Axialtensileforceactingonthebody
Crosssectionalareaofthebody

Tensile strain

l
t =
l

Increase inlength
Original length

Compressive
p
Stress and Strain
When
Whenabodyissubjectedtotwoequalandoppositeaxial
a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial
pushesF(alsocalledcompressiveload)asshowninFig.(a),
thenthestressinducedatanysectionofthebodyisknownas
y
y
compressivestressasshowninFig.(b).

Alittleconsiderationwillshowthatduetothe
A
little consideration will show that due to the
compressiveload,therewillbeanincreaseincross
sectionalareaandadecreaseinlengthofthebody.
The ratio of the decrease in length to the original
Theratioofthedecreaseinlengthtotheoriginal
lengthisknownascompressivestrain.

Compressive
p
Stress and Strain
Compressive stress
F
c =
A

Axialcompressiveforceactingonthebody
Crosssectionalareaofthebody

Compressive strain

l
c =
l

Decrease inlength
Original length

Young'sModulusorModulusofElasticity
Hooke's
Hooke slaw*statesthatwhenamaterialisloadedwithin
law* states that when a material is loaded within
elasticlimit,thestressisdirectlyproportional to strain

whereEisaconstantofproportionalityknownasYoung'smodulus
ormodulusofelasticity.In S.I.units,itisusuallyexpressedinGPa
i.e.GN/m2 orkN/mm2.ItmaybenotedthatHooke'slawholdsgood
for tension as well as compression
fortensionaswellascompression.

Fl
E= =
A l
*ItisnamedafterRobertHooke,whofirstestablisheditbyexperimentsin1678.

ValuesofE
V
l
f E forthecommonly
f th
l
usedengineeringmaterials
g
g

Shear Stress and Strain

When
Whenabodyissubjectedtotwoequalandoppositeforces
a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces
actingtangentiallyacrosstheresistingsection,asaresultof
whichthebodytendstoshearoffthesection,thenthestress
y
,
inducediscalledshearstress.

Shear Stress and Strain

Thecorrespondingstrainisknownasshearstrainanditis
p
g
measuredbythe angulardeformationaccompanyingtheshear
stress.Theshearstressandshearstrainaredenotedbythe
Greekletterstau()andphi()respectively.Mathematically,
kl
( ) d hi ()
i l
h
i ll

F
F
4 F
= =
=
A d2 d2
4

ShearModulusorModulusof
Ri idit
Rigidity
It
Ithasbeenfoundexperimentallythatwithintheelasticlimit,
has been found experimentally that within the elastic limit
theshearstressisdirectlyproportionaltoshearstrain.
Mathematicallyy

or = G or / = G
Shear stress
Shear strain

Constantof
proportionality known
proportionality,known
asshearmodulusor
modulusofrigidity

ValuesofG forthecommonly
used materials
usedmaterials

Bearingg Stress
Alocalised compressivestressatthesurfaceofcontact
betweentwomembersofamachinepart,thatarerelatively
atrestisknownasbearingstressorcrushingstress.The
bearing stress is taken into account in the design of riveted
bearingstressistakenintoaccountinthedesignofriveted
joints,cotterjoints,knucklejoints,etc.

F
F
pb = =
A dl
average bearing
pressure

Radialloadon
thejournal

Lengthofthejournalincontact
Di
Diameter
ofthe
f h journal
j
l

Stressstrain Diagram
g
In
Indesigningvariouspartsofa
designing various parts of a
machine,itisnecessarytoknow
howthematerialwillfunctionin
service For this certain
service.Forthis,certain
characteristicsorpropertiesofthe
materialshouldbeknown.The
mechanicalpropertiesmostlyused
h
l
l
d
inmechanicalengineeringpractice
arecommonlydeterminedfroma
standardtensiletest.Thistest
consistsofgraduallyloadinga
p
standardspecimenofamaterial
andnotingthecorresponding
valuesofloadandelongationuntil
the specimen fractures
thespecimenfractures.

Stressstrain Diagram
g
1.Proportionallimit. Thediagram shows
that from point O to A is a straight line
thatfrompointOtoAisastraightline,
whichrepresentsthatthestressis
proportionaltostrain.Itisobvious,that
H k ' l h ld
Hooke'slawholdsgooduptopointAand
d t
i tA d
itisknownasproportionallimit.
2.Elasticlimit.Itmaybenotedthateven
iftheloadisincreasedbeyondpointAup
tothepointB,thematerialwillregainits
s ape a d s e e t e oad s e o ed
shapeandsizewhentheloadisremoved.
Thismeansthatthematerialhaselastic
propertiesuptothepointB.Thispointis
known as elastic limit
knownaselasticlimit.

Note: Sincetheabovetwolimitsareveryclose
toeachother,therefore,forallpractical
purposesthesearetakentobeequal.

Stressstrain Diagram
g
3.Yieldpoint.Ifthematerialisstressed
beyond point B the plastic stage will
beyondpointB,theplasticstagewill
reachi.e.ontheremovaloftheload,the
materialwillnotbeabletorecoverits
original
i i l sizeand
i
d shape.
h
At thi
Atthispoint,the
i t th

materialyieldsbeforetheloadandthereisan
appreciablestrainwithoutanyincreasein
stress The stress corresponding to yield point
stress.Thestresscorrespondingtoyieldpoint
isknownasyieldpointstress.
4.Ultimatestress.AtD,thespecimenregains
somestrengthandhighervaluesofstresses
t
th d hi h
l
f t
arerequiredforhigherstrains,thanthose
betweenAandD.Thestress(orload)goeson
increasing till the point Eisreached.
increasingtillthepoint
E is reached AtE,the
At E the
stress,whichattainsitsmaximumvalueis
knownasultimatestress.It isdefinedasthe
largest stress obtained by dividing the largest
largeststressobtainedbydividingthelargest
valueoftheloadreachedinatesttothe
originalcrosssectionalareaofthetestpiece.

Stressstrain Diagram
g
5.Breakingstress.Afterthespecimenhas
reached the ultimate stress a neck is
reachedtheultimatestress,aneckis
formed,whichdecreasesthecross
sectionalareaofthespecimen,asshown
i Fi (b) Alittleconsiderationwillshow
inFig.(b).
A littl
id ti
ill h
thatthestress(orload)necessaryto
breakawaythespecimen,islessthanthe
maximumstress.Thestressis,therefore,
reduceduntilthespecimenbreaksaway
atpointF.Thestresscorrespondingto
pointFisknownasbreakingstress.
6.Percentagereductioninarea.

A=Originalcrosssectionalarea,and
A
= Original cross sectional area and
a=Crosssectionalareaattheneck.

Stressstrain Diagram
g
7
7.Percentage
P
t
elongation.
l
ti
It i th
Itisthe
percentageincreaseinthestandardgauge
length(i.e.originallength)obtainedby
measuringthefracturedspecimenafter
bringingthebrokenpartstogether.

l=Gaugelengthororiginallength,and
L=Lengthofspecimenafterfractureorfinallength.

Note :Thepercentageelongationgivesa
: The percentage elongation gives a
measureofductilityofthemetalunder
test.

Workingg Stress
Whendesigningmachineparts,itisdesirabletokeepthe
stresslowerthanthemaximumorultimatestressatwhich
failure of the material takes place This stress is known as the
failureofthematerialtakesplace.Thisstressisknownasthe
workingstressordesignstress.Itisalsoknownas safeor
allowablestress.
Note: Byfailureitisnotmeantactualbreakingofthematerial.Somemachineparts
aresaidtofailwhenthey
id t f il h th haveplasticdeformationsetinthem,andtheynomore
h
l ti d f
ti
t i th
d th
performtheirfunctionsatisfactory.

Factor ofSafetyy
Itisdefined,ingeneral,asthe ratioofthemaximumstressto
the working stress Mathematically
theworkingstress.Mathematically,

Incaseofductilematerialse.g.mildsteel,wheretheyieldpointisclearlydefined,the
factorofsafetyisbasedupontheyieldpointstress.Insuchcases,

Incaseofbrittlematerialse.g.castiron,theyieldpointisnotwelldefinedasforductile
materials.Therefore,thefactorofsafetyforbrittlematerialsisbasedonultimatestress.
,
y

SelectionofFactorofSafetyy
Theselectionofaproperfactorofsafetytobeusedindesigninganymachine
componentdependsuponanumberofconsiderations,suchasthematerial,
modeofmanufacture,typeofstress,generalserviceconditionsandshapeof
theparts.Beforeselectingaproperfactorofsafety,adesignengineershould
considerthefollowingpoints:
gp
1) Thereliabilityofthepropertiesofthematerialandchangeofthese
propertiesduringservice;
2)) Thereliabilityoftestresultsandaccuracyofapplicationoftheseresultsto
h
li bili
f
l
d
f
li i
f h
l
actualmachineparts ;
3)) Thereliabilityofappliedload;
y
pp
;
4) Thecertaintyastoexactmodeoffailure;
5) Theextentofsimplifyingassumptions;
6) Theextentoflocalised stresses;
7) Theextentofinitialstressessetupduringmanufacture;
8) Theextentoflossoflifeiffailureoccurs;and
The extent of loss of life if failure occurs ; and
9) Theextentoflossofpropertyiffailureoccurs.

Valuesoffactorofsafety

StressesduetoChangein
T
TemperatureThermalStresses
t
Th
l St
Wheneverthereissomeincreaseordecreaseinthe
temperatureofabody,itcausesthebodytoexpandor
contract.Alittleconsiderationwillshowthatifthebodyis
allowed to expand or contract freely with the rise or fall of
allowedtoexpandorcontractfreely,withtheriseorfallof
thetemperature,nostressesareinducedinthebody.But,if
the deformation of the body is prevented, some stresses are
thedeformationofthebodyisprevented,somestressesare
inducedinthebody.Suchstressesareknownasthermal
stresses.
Iftheendsofthebodyarefixedtorigid
y
g
Increaseordecreaseinlength

l = l t
l=Originallengthofthebody,
t=Riseorfalloftemperature,and
=Coefficientofthermalexpansion

supports,sothatitsexpansionisprevented,
thencompressivestraininducedinthebody

c =

Thermal stress

l l t
=
= t
l
l

th = c E = E t

Linear and Lateral Strain

Alittleconsiderationwillshowthatduetotensileforce,thelengthofthebar
increasesbyanamountlandthediameterdecreasesbyanamountd.
Similarly,ifthebarissubjectedtoacompressiveforce,thelengthofbarwill
y, f
j
p
,
g
decreasewhichwillbefollowedbyincreaseindiameter.
Itisthusobvious,thateverydirectstressisaccompaniedbyastraininitsown
It
is thus obvious, that every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its own
directionwhichisknownaslinearstrainandanoppositekindofstraininevery
direction,atrightanglestoit,is known aslateral strain.

Poisson's Ratio

Ithasbeenfoundexperimentallythatwhenabodyisstressedwithinelasticlimit,
thelateralstrainbearsaconstantratiotothelinearstrain,Mathematically,

ThisconstantisknownasPoisson'sratioandisdenotedby1/mor.

ValuesofPoisson
Values
of Poissonssratioforcommonly
ratio for commonly
usedmaterials

Volumetric Strain
When
Whenabodyissubjectedtoasystemofforces,itundergoes
a body is subjected to a system of forces it undergoes
somechangesinitsdimensions.Inotherwords,thevolumeof
thebodyischanged.Theratioofthechangeinvolumetothe
y
g
g
originalvolumeisknownasvolumetricstrain.Mathematically,
volumetricstrain,

v = V / V

V=Change involume,and V=Original volume

Volumetricstrainofarectangularbodysubjectedtoanaxialforceisgivenas

v =

V
2
= 1
V
m

=Linear strain.

Volumetricstrainofarectangularbodysubjectedtothreemutuallyperpendicularforces
isgivenby
g
y
wherex,y andz arethestrainsinthedirectionsxaxis,yaxisandzaxisrespectively

Bulk Modulus
When
Whenabodyissubjectedtothreemutuallyperpendicular
a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular
stresses,ofequalintensity,thentheratioofthedirectstress
tothecorrespondingvolumetricstrainisknownasbulk
p
g
modulus.
ItisusuallydenotedbyK.Mathematically,bulkmodulus,

Relation Between Bulk Modulus and YoungssModulus

RelationBetweenBulkModulusandYoung
Modulus
Thebulkmodulus(K)andYoung'smodulus(E)arerelatedbythefollowing
relation,
l i

R l ti B t
RelationBetweenYoungsModulusandModulusofRigidity
Y
M d l
dM d l
f Ri idit
TheYoung'smodulus(E)andmodulusofrigidity(G)arerelatedbythefollowing
relation

Impact
p Stress
Thestressproducedinthememberduetothe
fallingloadisknownasimpactstress.
a g oad s o as pact st ess.
ConsiderabarcarryingaloadWataheighth
andfallingonthecollarprovidedatthelower
end as shown in Fig
end,asshowninFig.
Weknowthatenergygainedbythesystemin
the form of strain energy
theformofstrainenergy

d t ti l
l t b th
i ht
andpotentialenergylostbytheweight

Sincetheenergygainedbythesystemisequaltothepotentialenergylostby
theweight,therefore

Impact
p Stress

F
Fromthisquadraticequation,wefindthat
thi
d ti
ti
fi d th t
Note : Whenh=0,theni =2W/A.This
meansthatthestressinthebarwhen
theloadinappliedsuddenlyisdouble of
thestressinducedduetogradually
appliedload.

Torsional Shear Stress

Whenamachinememberissubjectedtotheactionoftwoequaland
opposite couples acting in parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment)
oppositecouplesactinginparallelplanes(ortorqueortwistingmoment),
thenthemachinememberissaidtobesubjectedtotorsion.Thestressset
upbytorsionisknownastorsional shearstress.Itiszeroatthecentroidal
axisandmaximumattheoutersurface.

= Torsional shearstressinducedattheoutersurfaceoftheshaftormaximumshear stress,

r= Radiusoftheshaft,T= Torque or twisting moment,
J=Secondmomentofareaofthesectionaboutitspolaraxisorpolarmomentofinertia,
G= Modulusofrigidityfortheshaftmaterial,l= Lengthoftheshaft,and
= Angleoftwistinradiansonalengthl.

Torsional Shear Stress

Theequation(i)isknownastorsionequation.Itisbasedonthefollowing
assumptions:
1.Thematerialoftheshaftisuniformthroughout.
2.Thetwistalongthelengthoftheshaftisuniform.
3 The normal crosssections of the shaft which were plane and circular
3.Thenormalcrosssectionsoftheshaft,whichwereplaneandcircular
beforetwist,remainplaneandcircularaftertwist.
4.Alldiametersofthenormalcrosssectionwhichwerestraightbefore
twist,remainstraightwiththeirmagnitudeunchanged,aftertwist.
5.Themaximumshearstressinducedintheshaftduetothetwisting
moment does not exceed its elastic limitvalue.
momentdoesnotexceedits
limit value

Polarmomentofinertia
Forasolidshaftofdiameter(d),thepolarmomentofinertia,
For a solid shaft of diameter (d) the polar moment of inertia

Incaseofahollowshaftwithexternaldiameter(do)andinternaldiameter
(di),thepolarmomentofinertia,

Note:Theexpression(G J)iscalledtorsional rigidity

oftheshaft.

ShaftsinSeriesandParallel
Whentwoshaftsofdifferent
diametersareconnectedtogether
toformoneshaft,itisthenknown
ascompositeshaft.Ifthedriving
torqueisappliedatoneendand
q
pp
theresistingtorqueattheother
end,thentheshaftsaresaidtobe
connected in series as shown in
connectedinseriesasshownin
Fig.Insuchcases,eachshaft
transmitsthesametorqueandthe
total angle of twist is equal to the
totalangleoftwistisequaltothe
sumoftheangleoftwistsofthe
twoshafts.Mathematically,total
angleoftwist,
l f i

Iftheshaftsaremadeofthesamematerial,
thenG1 =G2 =G.

ShaftsinSeriesandParallel
Whenthedrivingtorque(T)is
g q ( )
appliedatthejunctionofthetwo
shafts,andtheresistingtorquesT1
and T2 attheotherendsofthe
andT
at the other ends of the
shafts,thentheshaftsaresaidto
beconnectedinparallel,asshown
in Fig In such cases the angle of
inFig.Insuchcases,theangleof
twistissameforboththeshafts,

Iftheshaftsaremadeofthesamematerial,
thenG1 =G2 =G.

BendingStressinStraightBeams
g
g
ConsiderastraightbeamsubjectedtoabendingmomentMasshowninFig.below.The
following assumptions are usually made while deriving the bending formula
followingassumptionsareusuallymadewhilederivingthebendingformula.
1.Thematerialofthebeamisperfectlyhomogeneous(i.e.ofthesamematerialthroughout)
andisotropic(i.e.ofequalelasticpropertiesinalldirections).
2 The material of the beam obeys Hookesslaw.
2.ThematerialofthebeamobeysHooke
law
3.Thetransversesections(i.e.BCorGH)whichwereplanebeforebending,remainplane
after bending also.
4. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently, of the layer, above or
4.Eachlayerofthebeamisfreetoexpandorcontract,independently,ofthelayer,aboveor
below it.
5.TheYoungsmodulus(E)isthesameintensionandcompression.
6.Theloadsareappliedintheplaneofbending.
pp
p
g

BendingStressinStraightBeams
g
g
Alittleconsiderationwillshowthatwhenabeamissubjectedtothebendingmoment,the
fibres ontheuppersideofthebeamwillbeshortenedduetocompressionandthoseonthe
on the upper side of the beam will be shortened due to compression and those on the
lowersidewillbeelongatedduetotension.Itmaybeseenthatsomewherebetweenthetop
andbottomfibres thereisasurfaceatwhichthefibres areneithershortenednorlengthened.
f
y
Suchasurfaceiscalledneutralsurface.Theintersectionoftheneutralsurfacewithanynormal
crosssectionofthebeamisknownas neutralaxis.Thebendingequationisgivenby
M=Bendingmomentactingatthegivensection,
=Bending

Bending stress
I=Momentofinertiaofthecrosssectionabouttheneutralaxis,
y=Distancefromtheneutralaxistotheextremefibre,
E=Youngsmodulusofthematerialofthebeam,and
g
f
f
,
R=Radiusofcurvatureofthebeam.

Bending Stress in Straight Beams

BendingStressinStraightBeams
Rearrangingaboveequationgives
TheratioI/yisknownassectionmodulusandisdenotedbyZ.
Notes:
N
t
1. Theneutralaxis ofa sectionalwayspassesthroughitscentroid.
2. Incaseof symmetricalsectionssuchascircular,squareorrectangular,
the neutral axis passes through its geometrical centre
3. Incaseof unsymmetrical sectionssuchasLsectionorTsection,the
neutralaxisdoesnotpassthroughitsgeometricalcentre.Insuchcases,
firstofallthecentroid ofthesectioniscalculatedandthenthedistanceof
theextremefibres forbothloweranduppersideofthesection is
obtained.

Propertiesofcommonlyused
crosssections

Propertiesofcommonlyused
crosssections

Propertiesofcommonlyused
crosssections

Shear Stresses inBeams

Itisgenerallyassumedthatnoshearforceisactingonthesection.But,in
actual practice when a beam is loaded the shear force at a section always
actualpractice,whenabeamisloaded,theshearforceatasectionalways
comesintoplayalongwiththebendingmoment.Ithasbeenobserved
thattheeffectoftheshearstress,ascomparedtothebendingstress,is
quitenegligibleandisofnotmuchimportance.But,sometimes,theshear
it
li ibl
di f t
hi
t
B t
ti
th h
stressatasectionisofmuchimportanceinthedesign.Itmaybenoted
thattheshearstressinabeamisnotuniformlydistributedoverthecross
sectionbutvariesfromzeroattheouterfibres toamaximumatthe
neutralsurfaceasshowninFigs.

Shear Stresses inBeams

Theshearstressatanysectionactsinaplaneatrightangleto
theplaneofthebendingstressanditsvalueisgivenby.
h l
f h b di
di
l i i
b

F =Verticalshearforceactingonthesection,
I=Momentofinertiaofthesectionaboutthe
neutralaxis,
b =Widthofthesectionunderconsideration,
f
,
A =Areaofthebeamaboveneutralaxis,and
y =DistancebetweentheC.G.oftheareaandthe
neutral axis
neutralaxis.

Shear Stresses inBeams

Forabeamofrectangularsection,asshowninFig.,theshear
stressatadistanceyfromneutralaxisisgivenby
di
f
l i i i
b

Maximum shear stress

(substituting y=h/2)
(substitutingy
h/2)

Shear Stresses inBeams

ForabeamofcircularsectionasshowninFig.,theshear
stressatadistanceyfromneutralaxisisgivenby
di
f
l i i i
b

Maximum shear stress

(Substituting y=d/2)

Shear Stresses inBeams

ForabeamofIsectionasshowninFig.,themaximumshear
stressoccursattheneutralaxisandisgivenby
h
l i
di i
b

Shearstressatthejointofthewebandtheflange

Shearstressatthejunctionofthe
topofthewebandbottomofthe
flange

State ofstressatapoint
p

Thestressesonthehiddenfaces becomeequalandoppositetothoseonthe
opposingvisiblefaces.
Thus,ingeneral,a completestateofstressisdefinedbyninestresscomponents,
x ,,
y ,,
z,,xy , xz,,yx ,,yz,,zx ,,and
and zy .

Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress

A
Averycommonstateofstressoccurswhenthestresseson
very common state of stress occurs when the stresses on
onesurfacearezero.
Whenthisoccursthestateofstressiscalledplanestress.
When this occurs the state of stress is called plane stress
Supposethedx dy dz elementofFigure iscutbyanoblique
planewithanormalnat anarbitraryangle
p
y g
counterclockwisefromthexaxis.

Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress2

By summing the forcescaused

b ll h
byallthestresscomponents
tozero,thestressesand
are found to be
arefoundtobe
These equations arecalledthe
are called the
planestresstransformation
equations

Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress3

DifferentiatingEq.onthe left withrespectto
andsettingtheresultequaltozero gives

This equation definestwoparticularvaluesfortheangle2p,oneofwhich

defines themaximumnormalstress1 andtheother,theminimumnormal
stress2.
Thesetwo stressesarecalledtheprincipalstresses
principalstresses,andtheircorresponding
p
p
,
p
g
directions,theprincipal
principal directions.
directions

substitute
,
g
f
g principal
p
p
weseethat=0,meaningthatthesurfacescontaining
stresseshavezeroshearstresses

Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress4

DifferentiatingEq.onthe left withrespectto
andsettingtheresultequaltozero gives

This Equationdefinesthetwovaluesof2s atwhichtheshearstress reaches

an extremevalue.Theanglebetweenthesurfacescontainingthemaximum
shearstresses is90.

substitute
This equation tellsusthatthetwosurfaces
containingthemaximumshearstresses
alsocontainequalnormalstressesof(x +y)/2.

Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress5

Formulasforthetwoprincipalstressescanbeobtainedby
g
angle2
g p ffromEq.inEq.
q
q
substitutingthe

Principal stresses

Inasimilarmannerthetwoextremevalueshearstresses

Mohrs Circle Shear Convention

Thisconventionis
followedindrawing
Mohrscircle:
Shearstressestending
torotatetheelement
clockwise(cw)are
plottedabovethe
axis.
axis
Shearstressestending
torotatetheelement
counterclockwise
l k
(ccw)areplotted
below the axis.

TheoriesofFailureUnderStaticLoad
Sincethesepropertiesareusuallydeterminedfromsimpletensionor
compressiontests,therefore,predictingfailureinmemberssubjectedtouniaxial
i t t th f
di ti f il
i
b
bj t d t
i i l
stressisbothsimpleandstraightforward.Buttheproblemofpredictingthe
failurestressesformemberssubjectedtobiaxialortriaxialstressesismuch
morecomplicated.Infact,theproblemissocomplicatedthatalargenumberof
differenttheorieshavebeenformulated.Theprincipaltheoriesoffailurefora
membersubjectedtobiaxialstressareasfollows:
1.Maximumprincipal(ornormal)stresstheory(alsoknownasRankines theory).
2.Maximumshearstresstheory(alsoknownasGuestsorTrescas theory).
3.Maximumprincipal(ornormal)straintheory(alsoknownasSaintVenant
theory).
4.Maximumstrainenergytheory(alsoknownasHaigh
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haighss theory).
5.Maximumdistortionenergytheory(alsoknownasHencky andVonMises
theory).

MaximumPrincipalorNormal
St
StressTheory(Rankines
Th
(R ki Theory)
Th
)
Accordingtothistheory,thefailureoryieldingoccursatapointina
memberwhenthemaximumprincipalornormalstressinabiaxialstress
b
h th
i
i i l
l t
i bi i l t
systemreachesthelimitingstrengthofthematerialinasimple tension
test. Sincethelimitingstrengthforductilematerialsisyieldpointstress
andforbrittlematerials(whichdonothavewelldefinedyieldpoint)the
limitingstrengthisultimatestress,thereforeaccordingtotheabove
theory,takingfactorofsafety(F.S.)intoconsideration,themaximum
principalornormalstress(t1)inabiaxialstresssystemisgivenby
yt =Yieldpointstressin
tensionasdeterminedfrom
simpletensiontest,and
u =Ultimate stress.
Sincethemaximumprincipalornormalstresstheoryisbasedonfailureintensionor
compressionandignoresthepossibilityoffailureduetoshearingstress,thereforeitisnot
usedforductilematerials.
d f d til
t i l
However,forbrittlematerialswhicharerelativelystronginshearbutweakintensionor
compression,thistheoryisgenerallyused.

MaximumShearStressTheory
(G t
(GuestsorTrescas
T
Theory)
Th
)
According
Accordingtothistheory,thefailureoryieldingoccursatapointina
to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a
memberwhenthemaximumshearstressinabiaxialstresssystem
reachesavalueequaltotheshearstressatyieldpointinasimple tension
test Mathematically
test.Mathematically,
max =Maximumshearstressinabiaxialstresssystem,
y
,
yt =Shearstressatyieldpointasdeterminedfromsimpletensiontest,and
F.S.=Factor ofsafety.

Sincetheshearstressatyieldpointinasimpletensiontestisequal
toonehalftheyieldstress
in tension therefore the equation may be written as
intension,thereforetheequationmaybewrittenas

MaximumPrincipalStrain
Th
Theory(SaintVenants
(S i t V
t Theory)
Th
)
According
Accordingtothistheory,thefailureoryieldingoccursatapointina
to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a
memberwhenthemaximumprincipal(ornormal)straininabiaxialstress
systemreachesthelimitingvalueofstrain(i.e.strainatyieldpoint)as
determined from a simple tensile test The maximum principal (or normal)
determinedfromasimpletensiletest.Themaximumprincipal(ornormal)
straininabiaxialstresssystemisgivenby

According to the
Accordingtothe
abovetheory
t1 andt2 =Maximumandminimumprincipal
stressesinabiaxialstresssystem,
=Strainatyieldpointasdeterminedfromsimple
tensiontest,
1/m=Poissons ratio,
E=Youngs modulus,and
F.S.=Factor ofsafety.

Fromequation,wemaywritethat

Thistheoryisnotused,ingeneral,
becauseitonlygivesreliableresultsin
particularcases.

MaximumStrainEnergyTheory
(H i h Theory)
(Haighs
Th
)
Accordingtothistheory,thefailureoryieldingoccursatapointina
memberwhenthestrainenergyperunitvolumeinabiaxialstresssystem
reachesthelimitingstrainenergy(i.e.strainenergyattheyieldpoint)per
unitvolumeasdeterminedfromsimpletensiontest.
p
Weknowthatstrainenergyperunit
volumeinabiaxialstresssystem,
Limitingstrainenergyperunitvolumefor
yieldingasdeterminedfromsimpletensiontest,
Accordingtotheabovetheory,U1 =U2.

Thistheorymaybeusedforductilematerials.

MaximumDistortionEnergyTheory
(H k andVonMises
(Hencky
d V Mi
Th
Theory)
)
According
Accordingtothistheory,thefailureoryieldingoccursatapointina
to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a
memberwhenthedistortionstrainenergy(alsocalledshearstrainenergy)
perunitvolumeinabiaxialstresssystemreachesthelimitingdistortion
energy (i e distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined
energy(i.e.distortionenergyatyieldpoint)perunitvolumeasdetermined
fromasimpletensiontest.Mathematically,themaximumdistortion
energytheoryforyieldingisexpressedas

Thistheoryismostlyusedforductilematerialsinplaceofmaximumstrain
energy theory
energytheory.
Note: Themaximumdistortionenergyisthedifferencebetweenthetotal
strainenergyandthestrainenergydueto
i
d h
i
d
uniform
if
stress.

StressesinaThinCylindricalShell
d t
duetoanInternalPressure
I t
lP
The
Theanalysisofstressesinducedinathincylindricalshellare
analysis of stresses induced in a thin cylindrical shell are
madeonthefollowingassumptions:
1) Theeffectofcurvatureofthecylinderwallisneglected.
2) Thetensilestressesareuniformlydistributedoverthe
The tensile stresses are uniformly distributed over the
sectionofthewalls.
3) Theeffectoftherestrainingactionoftheheadsattheend
The effect of the restraining action of the heads at the end
ofthepressurevesselisneglected.

StressesinaThinCylindricalShell
d t
duetoanInternalPressure
I t
lP
Whenathincylindricalshellissubjectedtoaninternalpressure,itislikely
to fail in the following two ways:
tofailinthefollowingtwo
1.Itmayfailalongthelongitudinalsection(i.e.circumferentially)splitting
thecylinderintotwotroughs,asshowninFig.(a).
2. Itmayfailacrossthetransversesection(i.e.longitudinally)splittingthe
cylinderintotwocylindricalshells,asshowninFig.(b).

Thusthewallofacylindricalshellsubjectedtoaninternalpressurehasto
Thus the wall of a cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure has to
withstandtensilestressesofthefollowingtwotypes:
(a)Circumferentialorhoopstress,and(b) Longitudinalstress.

Circumferential or Hoop
p Stress
Consider
Considerathincylindricalshellsubjectedtoaninternalpressureasshown
a thin cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure as shown
inFig.(a)and(b).Atensilestressactinginadirectiontangentialtothe
circumferenceiscalledcircumferentialorhoopstress.Inotherwords,itis
a tensile stress on longitudinal section (or on the cylindrical walls)
atensilestressonlongitudinalsection(oronthecylindricalwalls).

p=Intensityofinternalpressure,
d=Internaldiameterofthecylindricalshell,
l=Lengthofthecylindricalshell,
t=Thicknessofthecylindricalshell,and
t1 =Circumferentialorhoopstressforthematerialofthecylindrical shell.

Circumferential or Hoop
p Stress
Weknowthatthetotalforceactingona
longitudinalsection(i.e.alongthediameterXX)of
theshell

andthetotalresistingforceactingonthecylinderwalls
...(oftwo sections)
Fromthesetwoequations,wehave

Longitudinal
g
Stress
Consider
Consideraclosedthincylindricalshellsubjectedtoaninternalpressureas
a closed thin cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure as
showninFig.(a)and(b).Atensilestressactinginthedirectionoftheaxisis
calledlongitudinalstress.Inotherwords,itisatensilestressactingonthe
transverse or circumferential section Y Y (or on the ends of the vessel)
transverseorcircumferentialsectionYY(orontheendsofthevessel).

Longitudinal
Stress
g
Let t2 =Longitudinal stress.
Inthiscase,thetotalforceactingonthetransversesection
(
(i.e.alongYY)
l
)

and totalresisting force

FFromthesetwoequations,
th
t
ti
wehave