Shamsad Ahmad

TECHNIQUES FOR INDUCING ACCELERATED

CORROSION OF STEEL IN CONCRETE
*Shamsad Ahmad
Department of Civil Engineering
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

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*Corresponding Author:
E-mail: shamsad@kfupm.edu.sa
Paper Received 28 July 2009; Paper Revised 04 October 2009; Paper Accepted 07 October 2009

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ABSTRACT
Corrosion of steel in concrete is a slow process. Due to the protective nature of concrete, it takes a reasonably
long time for initiation and progress of reinforcement corrosion even in the case of severe corrosive exposure
conditions. It is difficult to achieve a significant degree of reinforcement corrosion in a limited duration available for
performing research studies evaluating (i) the loss of bond and loss of load-bearing capacity of corroding reinforced
concrete members, (ii) the effect of mineral admixtures in reducing reinforcement corrosion, (iii) the performance of
coated or alloyed reinforcing bars against reinforcement corrosion, and (iv) the effectiveness of electrochemical
techniques applied for the prevention of reinforcement corrosion. For this reason, various techniques for inducing
accelerated corrosion of steel in concrete are used by the researchers.
In this paper, an attempt has been made to firstly describe the impressed current technique commonly used for
accelerating reinforcement corrosion in small- as well as large-sized concrete specimens in the light of state-of-theart information available in the literature. Then the procedure for calculating degree of induced corrosion in
percentage by mass and in terms of average corrosion current density using the intensity and duration of the applied
current is presented. The effectiveness of the applied current in inducing reinforcement corrosion, guidelines for
effectively using the impressed current technique, and some of the alternative techniques for inducing accelerated
corrosion of steel in concrete are also described in the paper.
Key words: concrete, reinforcement corrosion, accelerated corrosion techniques

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TECHNIQUES FOR INDUCING ACCELERATED CORROSION OF STEEL IN

CONCRETE
1. INTRODUCTION
The corrosion of reinforcing steel is generally accelerated by means of the impressed current technique. This is
done to induce a significant degree of corrosion of reinforcing bars embedded in concrete in limited available time.
The impressed current technique has been frequently used to study the effect of reinforcement corrosion on the
cracking of concrete cover, bond behavior, and load-bearing capacity of reinforced concrete structural members [1
13]. Ahmed et al. [14] used the impressed corrosion technique to evaluate the performance of reinforced concrete
members incorporating supplementary cementitious materials, such as fly ash, silica fume, and slag, against
corrosion-induced damage. Ha et al. [15] evaluated the corrosion performance of steel in fly ash cement concrete
using the impressed current technique. Due to the flexibility of the impressed current technique, materials such as
cladding and coatings on the reinforcing steel and concrete coatings and sealants can be evaluated and compared
within a relatively short period of time [16].
The impressed current technique of corrosion acceleration has many advantages, in addition to the obvious
savings in time and money. One advantage over other accelerated techniques is the ability to control the rate of
corrosion, which usually varies due to changes in the resistivity, oxygen concentration, and temperature. Any change
in one of the variables would be compensated for. For example, a change in the resistivity of the concrete as a result
of temperature fluctuations or evaporation of the pore water can be counterbalanced by supplying a greater voltage,
thereby maintaining the desired corrosion rate (impressed current level). This removes much of the variation
encountered in corrosion measurements with time [17]. An accelerated corrosion test by the impressed current
technique is confirmed to be a valid method to study the corrosion process of steel in concrete, and its effects on the
damage of concrete cover [13]. The scientific justification for accelerating corrosion using an impressed current is
strong, dramatically reducing the initiation period required for depassivation from years to days and fixing the
desired rate of corrosion without compromising the reality of the corrosion products formed [17].
Although the impressed current technique has an advantage of corroding rebars at a high constant rate,
reinforcement corrosion induced by impressed current is not fully simulative to the naturally induced corrosion.
Austin et al. [17] have reported that the impressed current technique is confirmed to be an effective and quick
method of accelerating chloride-induced corrosion. However, the electrochemistry behind the mechanism differs
from naturally induced corrosion. The primary electrochemical difference of the impressed current technique to
naturally corroding systems is the raising of the potential to a value greater than the transpassive potential, where the
corrosion rate does not correspond with an equilibrium mixed potential or a potential obtainable under usual service
conditions without applying an external source of energy. Hence, imposing such a potential will result in the rebar
being in an artificially polarized state [17]. Yuan et al. [18] have found that the surface characteristics of the
corroded steel bar are found to be different when the corrosion is induced by the impressed current technique than by
natural accelerated corrosive environment. The differences lead to different corrosion distribution on the surface of
the rebar. While the rebar is corroded on the whole surface of the rebar when using the impressed current technique,
the rebar is corroded mainly on its surface on the side facing the concrete cover under a natural corrosive
environment. This difference in the corrosion distribution on the surface of the bars causes different structural
behavior of the corroded reinforced concrete members.
Auyeung et al. [10] have found that the theoretical and actual corrosion mass loss are not the same because of the
various factors, such as need for electrical energy to initiate the corrosion, resistivity of concrete, composition of the
bar, electrical properties of minerals in concrete, etc. El-Maaddawi and Soudki [19] have revealed that varying the
applied current density level to get different degrees of induced corrosion during the same time period may have
other effects, which may lead to misinterpretation of test results.
Alternative methods for accelerating corrosion of steel in concrete have also been reported in the literature. Ha et
al. [15] used an impressed voltage technique and a macrocell corrosion technique. An alternative method of inducing
accelerated reinforcement corrosion using an artificial climate environment was proposed by Yuan et al. [18].
Husain et al. [20] used an accelerated AC impedance technique for the detection of the breakdown of passivity and
evaluation of the performance of the steel reinforcement in concrete within a much shorter time. Chunlei et al. [21]
developed a new method to quickly assess the efficiency of corrosion inhibitors by electrically accelerating chloride
ions diffusing onto the surface of the embedded steel bar in concrete and inducing corrosion.
Considering the importance of techniques for inducing accelerated corrosion of steel in concrete, it is worthwhile
to collect the state-of-art information available in the literature and present them in a manner so as to facilitate
effective planning and execution of the research related to reinforcement corrosion in limited available time. This

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paper briefly addresses all the aspects of the impressed current technique and also provides a brief description of
some of the alternative techniques for accelerating corrosion of steel in concrete.
2. IMPRESSED CURRENT TECHNIQUE
The impressed current technique, also called the galvanostatic method, consists of applying a constant current
from a DC source to the steel embedded in concrete to induce significant corrosion in a short period of time. After
applying the current for a given duration, the degree of induced corrosion can be determined theoretically using
Faradays law, or the percentage of actual amount of steel lost in corrosion can be calculated with the help of a
gravimetric test conducted on the extracted bars after subjecting them to accelerated corrosion. Using the actual
amount of steel lost in corrosion, an equivalent corrosion current density can be determined.
In this section, the circuitries used in the impressed current technique, the calculation of degree of induced
corrosion and equivalent corrosion current density, and the relationship between theoretical and actual corrosion
mass loss, are presented.
2.1. Set-Ups Used for Inducing Reinforcement Corrosion Through Impressed Current
Set-ups used for inducing reinforcement corrosion through impressed current consist of a DC power source, a
counter electrode, and an electrolyte. The positive terminal of the DC power source is connected to the steel bars
(anode) and the negative terminal is connected to the counter electrode (cathode). The current is impressed from
counter electrode to the rebars through concrete with the help of the electrolyte (normally sodium chloride solution).
A typical lollypop reinforced concrete test specimen and set-up used by Care and Raharinaivo [13] for
accelerated corrosion study using the impressed current technique are shown in Figure 1. The set-up used by Ahmad
et al. [1] for accelerating reinforcement corrosion in several lollypop reinforced concrete specimens connected in
series is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1. A typical lollypop reinforced concrete test specimen and set-up for accelerating reinforcement corrosion [13]

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Figure 2. Lollypop reinforced concrete test specimens and set-up for accelerating reinforcement corrosion connecting several
specimens in series [1]

The set-up used by Azad et al. [12] for accelerating reinforcement corrosion in a large-size specimen
(1501501100 mm reinforced concrete beams) is shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3. Set-up for accelerating reinforcement corrosion in large-size reinforced concrete beam specimen [12]

The set-up used by Maaddawy and Soudki [19] for accelerating reinforcement corrosion in several reinforced
concrete prism specimens connected in series is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Reinforced concrete prism specimens and set-up for accelerating reinforcement corrosion connecting several
specimens in series [19]

The dimension of 50 mm in Figure 4 represents the distance between two equidistant points on each side of the
rebar for placing DEMEC gauge with a gauge length of 50 mm for strain measurements during accelerated corrosion.
Care and Raharinaivo [13] have recommended that the specimens under accelerated corrosion test using
impressed current should be immersed in solutions containing chloride instead of pure water. They have reported
that reinforcement corrosion in specimens under impressed current while immersed in chloride solution obeys
Faradays law. On the other hand, they found that when pure water is used, a more complex process occurs during
the accelerated corrosion test.
2.2. Calculation of Degree of Induced Corrosion and Equivalent Corrosion Current Density
The mass of rust produced per unit surface area of the bar due to applied current over a given time can be
determined theoretically using the following expression based on Faradays law [22]:
M th =

W .I app .T
F

(1)

where Mth = theoretical mass of rust per unit surface area of the bar (g/cm2); W = equivalent weight of steel which is
taken as the ratio of atomic weight of iron to the valency of iron (27.925 g); Iapp = applied current density
(Amp/cm2); T = duration of induced corrosion (sec); and F = Faradays constant (96487 Amp-sec).

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The actual mass of rust per unit surface area may be determined by gravimetric test in accordance with ASTM
G1 [23] on rebars extracted from the concrete by breaking the specimens after the accelerated corrosion test is
completed:
M ac =

(W i W f )
DL

(2)

where Mac = actual mass of rust per unit surface area of the bar (g/cm2); Wi = initial weight of the bar before
corrosion (g); Wf = weight after corrosion (g) for a given duration of induced corrosion (T); D = diameter of the rebar
(cm); and L = length of the rebar sample (cm).
The degree of induced corrosion is also expressed in terms of the percentage weight loss () calculated as

Wi W f
Wi

(3)

100

The equivalent corrosion current density (Icorr) can be determined by equating Equation 1 and Equation 2,
assuming that the theoretical and actual mass of rust are equal (i.e., Iapp = Icorr), as
I corr =

(W i W f )F
DLW T

(4)

2.3. Relationship Between Theoretical and Actual Corrosion Mass Loss

The current applied for inducing corrosion is not found to be fully efficient in causing loss of mass equal to that
theoretically predicted by Faradays law due to several factors, as described earlier. In other words, Iapp is not found
to be equal to Icorr. Austin et al. [17] have proposed a modified version of Faradays law, which the theoretical and
actual corrosion mass loss can be related to as
t .a
M ac = c c
t .Ac

M th

t .a
I corr = c c I app
t .Ac

(5)

where t = total time of external current applied; tc = duration of the corrosion application; Ac = area of rebar over
which the current is applied; and ac = area of the depassivated portion of the rebar.
Time of rebar corrosion, tc, is less than the total time of current application, t, because some time is required for
depassivation of the rebar. Similarly, the surface area of rebar that is actually depassivated, ac, is less than the whole
surface area of the rebar, Ac. Therefore, the coefficient of Iapp in Equation 5,

tc .ac
, is less than 1 (i.e., Icorr < Iapp).
t .Ac

The actual corrosion current density, Icorr, causing reinforcement corrosion can be determined either using
Equation 4 if the gravimetric test is conducted on the rebar after application of the external current, or using
Equation 5 if tc and ac are identified. In both situations, time and testing facilities are required. It will be convenient
if an empirical relationship between Iapp and Icorr is developed so that the value of Icorr can be quickly determined by
substituting Iapp in the equation relating Iapp and Icorr. For this purpose, the data pertaining to Iapp and Icorr for largesized reinforced concrete beams reported by Azher [24] and Al-Gohi [25] were used. Azher [24] applied a current
density of 2 mA/cm2 to 12 reinforced concrete beams, and 3 mA/cm2 to another 12 beams. Al-Gohi [25] applied
three current levels (1.74, 1.76, and 1.88 mA/cm2) to 6 reinforced concrete beams each. They conducted gravimetric
tests on rebars extracted from each specimen after application of the external current. Using the data of the
gravimetric tests, they determined average equivalent corrosion current density, Icorr, as given in Table 1 [24,25].
Table 1. Iapp vs Icorr Data Reported by Azher [24] and Al-Gohi [25]
Iapp (mA/cm2)

Average Icorr (mA/cm2)

1.74
1.76
1.88
2.00
3.00

1.33
1.50
1.66
1.89
2.49

The plot of Iapp versus Icorr data is shown in Figure 5.

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The equation of the best fit Iapp versus Icorr curve is given as

I corr = 1.95An (I app ) + 0.39

(R 2 = 0.94)

(6)

Equation 6 is applicable for Iapp 0.82 mA/cm2.

3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
Icorr (mA/cm2)

2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
1.0

1.5

2.0
2.5
Iapp (mA/cm2)

3.0

3.5

Figure 5. Plot of Iapp vs Icorr data reported by Azher [24] and Al-Gohi [25]

3. ALTERNATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR INDUCING ACCELERATED REINFORCEMENT CORROSION

In view of the fact that the corrosion process is known to be different with the impressed current technique as
compared with the natural corrosive environment, Yuan et al. [18] have proposed an alternative method of inducing
accelerated reinforcement corrosion using artificial climate environment. They accelerated the corrosion process of
the reinforced concrete test beams in an artificial climate room controlled by a computer system. The environmental
conditions in the artificial climate room were as follows: high temperature of 40 C; high relative humidity of 80%;
and repeated wetting-and-drying cycles. Wetting and drying cycles consisted of salt water (5% NaCl solution)
spraying for 1 hour and infrared light shining for 7 hours. They found that the corrosion process and corrosion
characteristics of the steel bar under artificial climate environment are similar to that of corrosion under natural
environment. They found the artificial climate environment as an accelerated laboratory test method more
representative than the impressed current technique.
Chunlei et al. [21] have proposed a new method to accelerate reinforcement corrosion by accelerating chloride
ion diffusion in concrete so that chloride ion density could reach the threshold value on the steel bar surface in a few
days. They have designed a set of Accelerated Chloride Ion Diffusion (ACID) device by using electric field to
accelerate the chloride ion diffusion.
The accelerated chloride migration test (ACMT) based on the electrochemical technique, developed by Yang
[26] to accelerate chloride ion migration in cement-based material to estimate its permeability, may also be used for
accelerating reinforcement corrosion. The set-up for ACMT consists of a two-compartment cell as shown in Figure
6. The cells are connected to a 24-V DC power source in which the wire mesh in the NaOH compartment becomes
the anode and the compartment with NaCl becomes the cathode. A data logger is used to record the current during
the experiment. The quantity of chloride ions in anode and cathode cells is measured periodically.

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Figure 6. Schematic diagram of ACMT cell [26]

A rebar centrally cast in a 75 mm 150 mm concrete cylinder may be used as a test specimen for accelerating
rebar corrosion using the accelerated chloride migration technique.
4. CONCLUSIONS

Set-ups presented in this paper may be used in accelerated corrosion programs involving small- and large-sized
specimens.

Equation 4 can be used to determine Icorr if gravimetric test data are available

In the absence of the gravimetric test data, Equation 6 can be used to calculate Icorr for a given Iapp.

The alternative methods of accelerating reinforcement corrosion described in this paper may also be utilized for
accelerating reinforcement corrosion.

ACKNOWELEDGMENT
The author acknowledges the support provided by the Civil Engineering Department, King Fahd University of
Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, in carrying out this study.
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