for
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Syllabus
ECE
EE
IN
2010
10.00
11.00
9.00
2011
12.00
7.00
9.00
2012
9.00
10.00
8.00
2013
11.00
7.00
6.00
Over All
Percentage
10.50%
8.75%
8.00
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Contents
CONTENTS
#1.
#2.
#3.
#4.
Chapters
Page No.
1-31
32 -53
54-77
Z-Transform
Introduction
Properties of ROC
Properties of Z Transform
Characterization of LTI System from H(Z) and ROC
Solved Examples
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer Keys
Explanations
78-98
1-2
2-9
10- 11
12-17
18-21
21-24
25
25-31
32
33
33 35
36 -41
42-46
46-48
49
49-53
th
54-55
55-57
57-59
59-60
61-65
66-69
69-70
71
71-77
78
79
79-81
81-82
83-86
87-90
90-92
93
93 -98
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Page I
Contents
#5.
#6.
Laplace Transform
Introduction
Properties of Laplace Transform
Laplace Transform of Standard Functions
Solved Examples
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer Keys
Explanations
99 - 120
99
99-101
101-102
102-105
106 - 109
110-113
114
114-120
121 - 148
121-122
122-123
123-124
124-125
125
126
126-132
133-136
137-140
140-143
144
144-148
Module Test
Test Questions
Answer Keys
Explanations
149-161
Reference Book
162
149 - 156
157
157-161
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Page II
Chapter 1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Signals & Systems
Introduction
Signal is defined as a function that conveys useful information about the state or behaviour of a
physical phenomenon. Signal is typically the variation with respect to an independent quantity
like time as shown in figure below. Time is assumed as independent variable for remaining part
of the discussion, unless mentioned.
(1) Speech signal plot of amplitude with respect to time [x(t)]
(2) Image plot of intensity with respect to spatial co-ordinates [I(x, y)]
(3) Video plot of intensity with respect to spatial co-ordinates and time [V(x, y, t)]
X(t)
n = 0, 1, 2, 3. . . .
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Page 1
Chapter 1
Continuous-time signal
Sampling
x[n]
X(t)
x(T)
x(2T)
0
t
Classification of Signals
Conjugate Symmetric vs Skew Symmetric Signals.
A continuous time signal x(t) is conjugate symmetric if x(t) = x*(-t);t.Also, x(t) is conjugate
skew symmetric if x(t) = -x* (-t); t
Any arbitrary signal x(t) can be considered to constitute 2 parts as below,
x(t) = x t + x t
Where x t = conjugate symmetric part of signal =
and x t =
and
x t =
and x t =
t
For real signals, conjugate symmetry property implies even function property and conjugate
skew symmetry property implies odd function property. Above properties can also be applied
for discrete time signals and are summarized in the following table.
Table 1.1 Symmetry Properties Based on Nature of Signal
S.NO
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Nature of signal
Complex, continuous-time
Complex, continuous-time
Real, continuous time
Real, continuous time
Complex, discrete time
Complex, discrete-time
Real, discrete-time
Real, discrete-time
Property
Conjugate symmetry
Conjugate skew symmetry
Even function
Odd function
Conjugate symmetry
Conjugate skew symmetry
Even function
Odd function
th
th
Condition
x(t) = x
t
x(t) = x
t
x(t) = x(-t)
x(t) = -x(-t)
x[n] = x
n
x[n] = x
n
x[n] = x[ n]
x[n] = x[ n]
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Page 2
Chapter 1
Nature of signal
Decomposition
x
x
x
x
Properties
t =x
t
t = x
t
t =x
t
t = x
t
1.
x(t) = x t
x t
2.
x(t) = x t
x t
3.
Complex, discrete-time
x[n] = x n
x n
x n =x
x n = x
4.
Real, discrete-time
x[n] = x n
x n
x n =x
n
x n = x
n
In the figure shown below, x (t), x2[n] are even signals and y (t), y [n] are odd signals.
y (t)
x (t)
A
-T
T
-A
y [n]
x n]
2
1
+
A
1
3 -2
2
-1
-1
x
x
x
x
t
x t is conjugate symmetric
t
x t is conjugate skew symmetric
t . x t is conjugate symmetric
t x t is conjugate symmetric
Above applies for complex discrete-time signals also and can be equivalently derived for real
signals, based on even-odd function properties.
Periodic vs Non-periodic Signals
A continuous time signal is periodic if there exists T such that
x(t+T) = x(t),
t ;T
R {0}
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Page 3
Chapter 1
The smallest positive value of T that satisfies above condition is called fundamental period of
x(t). Also, angular frequency of continuous-time signals is defined as, = 2/T and is measured
in rad/sec.A discrete-time signal is periodic if there exists N such that
=
The smallest positive N that satisfies above condition is called fundamental period of x[n]. Here
N is always positive integer and angular frequency is defined as = 2/N and is measured in
radians/samples. If x t and x t are periodic signals with periods T and T respectively,
then x(t) = x t + x t is periodic iff (if and only if)
is least common multiple (LCM) of T and T .If x n is periodic with fundamental period N and
x n is periodic with fundamental period M than x[n] = x n + x n is always periodic with
fundamental period equal to the least common multiple (LCM) of M and N.
Figure below shows a signal, x(t) of period T
x(t)
-2T
-T
2
T
Fig.1.4 Example of a periodic signal
= im
T
Continuous-time,
non-periodic
= x t
2.
Continuous-time,
periodic signal with
period T
3.
Discrete-time, nonperiodic
im |x n |
= im
4.
Discrete-time,
periodic signal with
period N
im |x n |
1.
dt
x t
dt
x t
dt P =
/
/
x t
dt
1
2N 1
1
2N 1
|x n |
|x n |
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Page 4
Chapter 1
(4) Usually deterministic and non periodic signals are energy signals.
Real vs Complex Signals
A signal x(t) is real signal if its value are only real numbers and the signal x(t) is complex signal
if its value are complex numbers.
Deterministic Vs Random Signals
A signal is said to be deterministic signal whose values can be predicted in advance
Eg : A
A signa is said to be random signa whose va ues are cant be predicted in advance
Eg : Noise
Basic Operations on Signals
Depending on nature of operation, different basic operations can be applied on dependent and
independent variables of a signal. The table below summaries basic operations that can be
performed on dependent variable of a signal.
S. No
1
2
3
4
5
y(t) =
y[n] =
x t dt
xn
-1
x( )
x(2t)
0.5
0.5 t
-2
t
2
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Page 5
Chapter 1
Eg:
X[n]
1 2
5 6
7 8
10
Y[n] = x[2n]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
X(t)
X(t + T0)
T0
T0
y(t) = x(-t)
-1
-1
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Page 6