Homework #2 Solutions (MCEN3021 Fluid Mechanics)

Problem 1
Here you will extend the steady flow between a fixed lower plate and an upper plate moving at
velocity V to the case of two immiscible (non-mixing) liquids between the plates, as shown below.

The bottom liquid extends from y = 0 to y = h1 and has viscosity 1 . The top liquid extends
from y = h1 to y = h1 + h2 and has viscosity 2 . Both liquids can be assumed to have the same
density. The stress = du/dy is constant everywhere between the plates (i.e., it is the same in
both fluids) and the solutions for velocities in both fluids are linear, namely
u1 (y) = a1 y + b1

for

0 y h1

and u2 (y) = a2 y + b2

for h1 y h1 + h2 ,

where u1 (y) is the velocity profile in fluid 1, u2 (y) is the profile in fluid 2, and a1 , b1 , a2 , and b2
are undetermined integration constants.
(a) Using no-slip boundary conditions and continuity of the fluid at the interface, write boundary
conditions for both fluids (Hint: there should be four boundary conditions).
(b) Using the boundary conditions from part (a), determine a1 , b1 , a2 , and b2 .
(c) Write an expression for the velocity U of the liquid at the interface.
(d) Sketch velocity profiles for (i) 1 < 2 , (ii) 1 = 2 , and (iii) 1 > 2 . Assume that h1 = h2 .
Solution:
(a) For the bottom fluid (denoted fluid 1), the no-slip condition at the fixed wall (y = 0) requires
that
u1 (0) = 0 .
(1)
At the interface (y = h1 ), the bottom fluid has some undetermined velocity, which we denote U1 ,
namely
u1 (h1 ) = U1 .
(2)
For the top fluid (denoted fluid 2), the no-slip condition at the moving top wall (y = h1 + h2 )
requires that
u2 (h1 + h2 ) = V .
(3)
Similarly, at the interface (y = h1 ), the top fluid has an undetermined velocity U2 , giving
u2 (h1 ) = U2 .

(4)

Noting that the fluid is continuous such that there is no jump in velocity at the interface, we require
that U1 = U2 . This then gives the condition
u1 (h1 ) = u2 (h2 ) .

(5)

Finally, since the stress is constant everywhere between the plates, we find that
= 1

du1
du2
= 2
dy
dy

for all y .

(6)

We can thus summarize the four boundary conditions as

u1 (0) = 0 ,

u1 (h1 ) = u2 (h1 ) ,

u2 (h1 + h2 ) = V ,

du1
du2
= 2
for all y .
dy
dy

(7)

(b) The general solution for u1 (y) is given in the problem statement. Applying the first boundary
condition gives
u1 (0) = a1 0 + b1 = 0 b1 = 0 .
(8)
Applying the last boundary condition in (7) gives

1 a1 = 2 a2

a1 =

2
a2 .
1

(9)

We can thus write as an intermediate step that u1 (y) = (2 /1 )a2 y. From the second boundary
condition in (8), we obtain


2
2
a2 h1 = a2 h1 + b2 b2 = a2 h1
1 .
(10)
1
1
As an intermediate solution for u2 (y), we have

u2 (y) = a2 h1

2
y
+
1
h1 1

Applying the third boundary condition finally gives



h2 2
+
1 =V
u2 (h1 + h2 ) = a2 h1 1 +
h1 1


.

a2 =

V /h1
,
+

(11)

where (h2 /h1 ) and (2 /1 ). We thus finally obtain the solutions

V
u1 (y) =
+
V
u2 (y) =
+

y
h1


for

y
+1
h1

0 y h1 ,

(12)


for h1 y h2 .

(13)

(c) The velocity at the liquid interface can be obtained equally from either u1 (h1 ) or u2 (h1 ). It can
be verified via substitution into either (12) or (13) that the interface velocity is given by
U=

V
.
+
2

(14)

u 1 /V , u 2 /V

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0

0.5

1
y /h 1

1.5

Figure 1: Profiles of u1 /V and u2 /V versus y/h1 for h1 = h2 with = 0.25 (black solid line), = 1
(red dashed line), and = 2 (blue dash-dot line).
(d) If we let h1 = h2 , then = 1 and the solutions for u1 (y) and u2 (y) are
 
y
V
u1 (y) =
for 0 y h1 ,
1 + h1


y
V
+1
for h1 y h2 .
u2 (y) =
1 + h1

(15)

(16)

The three cases given in the problem statement correspond to > 1 (for 1 < 2 ), = 1 (for
1 = 2 ), and < 1 (for 1 > 2 ). The resulting plots of u1 (y) and u2 (y) are shown in Figure 1
for the three cases. Note that if = 1, u1 (y) = u2 (y) = (V /2h1 )y, which is the solution for flow
between the parallel plates when the two layers consist of the same fluid.

Problem 2
The problem of starting liquid flow through an orifice or small nozzle comes up in situations involving ink-jet printing and filtration. To start the flow in these situations, a sufficient pressure
differential is required to overcome the surface tension of a liquid meniscus that forms at the outlet
of the orifice. Pressure pushes the liquid out the orifice but surface tension keeps it from moving
further, as shown in the figure at the top of the next page.

p1
p2
liquid

gas

Assume that the orifice boundary defines the edge of the meniscus, and that you are trying to start
a room temperature (20 C) flow of water through a circular orifice.
(a) If the orifice has 1 mm diameter, what pressure differential p = p2 p1 is necessary to surpass
the surface tension force of the hemisphere of liquid of the orifice? Give your answer in units of Pa,
to 3 significant figures.
(b) Now, imagine you are designing a very high resolution ink-jet printer that sends water droplets
from an orifice 5 m in diameter. What p do you need to achieve this? Give your answer in units
of kPa, to 3 significant figures.
(c) If you could change the conditions of this problem except for the orifice size, describe a strategy
that you could use to reduce this p.
(d) What p would you need for starting room temperature water flow through a filter with 0.25
m pores, assuming the same model applies? Give your answer in units of bar, to 3 significant
figures.
Solution:
(a) Here, all that is needed is the surface tension induced pressure drop across a hemisphere or
sphere. This is obtained from the following equation:
p =

2
4
=
R
D

In this equation the variables are defined as the following:

p = p2 p1 = Pressure difference across the interface
= Surface tension
R = Radius
D = 2R = Diameter
4

(17)

The problem defines D = 1 mm= 1 103 m. This is an exact value, therefore it doesnt affect the
number of significant figures. The surface tension of water at 20 C may be found in Appendix A
of the textbook, in Table A.5. The appropriate surface tension value here is 0.0728 N/m, which has
been conveniently provided to 3 significant figures. The answer is found by plugging these values
for D and into the equation above. After the calculation is performed, it is rounded to three
significant figures.
p =

4
(4)(0.0728 N/m)
=
= 291 Pa
D
(1 103 m)

(18)

(b) Here, we use the same equation, but now D = 5 m= 5 106 m, again defined exactly.
After the calculation is performed, and rounded to three significant figures, the resulting value is
converted to units of kPa.
p =

4
(4)(0.0728 N/m)
=
= 58,240 Pa 58,200 Pa
D
(5 106 m)


1 kPa
58,200 Pa
= 58.2 kPa
1000 Pa

(19)
(20)

(c) This problem asks you to hold the orifice size constant. The pressure drop p only depends on
two variables: surface tension and orifice size. There, you are asked to present a strategy to lower
surface tension. This can be performed in several ways. Any of the following are acceptable:

1. Temperature: The temperature of the water can be increased in

order to lower the surface tension.
2. Material: A different liquid with lower surface tension can be used,
such as an alcohol or oil.
3. Mixing: A material with a lower surface tension could be mixed
with the water in order to reduce the surface tension.
There are a few other strategies that could be used as well (such as electric charging), but the
ones above are the main strategies to remember when asked to modify surface tension.
(d) This section uses the same surface tension value and computation as in 2(a) and 2(b). However,
the diameter of the hemisphere is much smaller: D = 0.25 m= 2.5 107 m. After the calculation
is performed, and rounded to three significant figures, the resulting value is converted to units of
bar.
p =

4
(4)(0.0728 N/m)
=
= 1,164,800 Pa 1,160,000 Pa
D
(2.5 107 m)


1 bar
1,160,000 Pa
= 11.6 bar
105 Pa

(21)
(22)

Problem 3
Early mountaineers boiled water to estimate their altitude. If they reach the top and find that
water boils at 84 C, approximately how high is the mountain?
Solution:
Interpolating values in Table A.5 in the back of the textbook, water at 84 C has vapor pressure
pv = 56.5kPa. Similarly interpolating values in Table A.6, this vapor pressure corresponds to a
height of
z 4600 4700m .
(23)