DRAINS (PVD)
GENERAL
The consolidation settlement of soft clay subsoil creates a lot of
problems in foundation and infrastructure engineering. Because of the
very low clay permeability, the primary consolidation takes a long time
to complete. To shorten this consolidation time, vertical drains are
installed together with preloading by surcharge embankment or
vacuum pressure. Vertical drains are artificially-created drainage paths
which can be installed by one of several methods and which can have a
variety of physical characteristics
GENERAL
The purpose of vertical drain installation is twofold. Firstly, to
accelerate the consolidation process of the clay subsoil, and, secondly,
to gain rapid strength increase to improve the stability of structures on
weak clay foundation. Vertical drains can be classified into 3 general
types, namely: sand drains, fabric encased sand drains, and
prefabricated sand drains
GENERAL
GENERAL
Figure below illustrate a typical vertical drain installation for highway
embankments. In this method, pore water squeezed out during the
consolidation of the clay due to the hydraulic gradients created by the
preloading, can flow a lot faster in the horizontal direction toward the
drain and then flow freely along the drains vertically towards the
permeable drainage layers. Thus, the installation of the vertical drains
in the clay reduces the length of the drainage paths and, thereby,
reducing the time to complete the consolidation process.
Consequently, the higher horizontal permeability of the clay is also
taken advantage
GENERAL
GENERAL
Applications of sand drains for improvement of soft ground in the
Southeast Asian region have been reported by Tominaga et al. (1979) in
Manila Bay Reclamation Area, Philippines; by Choa et al. (1979) in
Changi Airport, Singapore; by Chou et al. (1980) in Taiwan; by Akagi
(1981), Balasubramaniam et al. (1980), Brenner and Prebaharan
(1983), Moh and Woo (1987), and Woo et al. (1989) in Bangkok,
Thailand. Recent sand drain applications in Japan were reported by
Takai et al. (1989) and Suzuki and Yamada (1990) in the Kansai
International Airport Project and by Tanimoto et al. (1979) in Kobe,
Japan.
GENERAL
In Southeast Asia, various applications have been recently reported
with regards to prefabricated vertical drains by Choa et al. (1981), Lee
et al. (1989), and Woo et al. (1988) in Singapore, by Nicholls (1981) in
Indonesia; by Volders (1984) and Rahman et al. (1990) in Malaysia; and
by Belloni et al. (1979) in the Philippines. In the soft Bangkok clay in
Thailand, prefabricated vertical band drains have been successfully
applied and tested by full scale test embankments by Bergado et al.
(1988, 1990a,b, 1991).
PRELOADING
Preloading refers to the process of compressing foundation soils under
applied vertical stress prior to placement of the final permanent
construction load. If the temporary applied load exceeds the final
loading, the amount in excess is referred to as surcharge load. When a
preload is rapidly applied to a saturated, soft clay deposit, the resulting
settlement can be divided into three idealized components, namely:
immediate, primary consolidation, and secondary consolidation. In
actual condition, the settlement behavior is more complex
PRELOADING
Figure below illustrates a general relationship of the three idealized
components. The relative importance and magnitude of each type of
settlement depends on many factors such as: the soil type and
compressibility characteristics, the stress history, the magnitude and
rate of loading, and the relationship between the area of loading and
the thickness of the compressible soil. Generally, the primary
consolidation settlement predominates and, for many preloading
projects, is the only one considered in the preload design. Preloading
techniques have been discussed in detail elsewhere (Jamiolkowski et al.
1983; Pilot, 1981). One very important key point is that the amount of
preloading should provide surcharge stresses that exceed the
maximum past pressure in the clay subsoil
PRELOADING
PRELOADING
Figure below shows the initial (v0) and final (vf) effective stresses
under the centerline of the test embankment compared with the
maximum past pressure obtained by Casagrande method (Bergado et
al. 1991). The Poulos (1976) method assuming finite elastic layer with
rigid base was found to be approximately 35 % higher than the
predictions of Janbu et al. (1956) assuming semi-infinite elastic layer of
the soil mass.
PRELOADING
SAND DRAINS
Early applications of vertical drains to accelerate consolidation of soft
clay subsoils utilized sand drains. These are formed by infilling sand into
a hole in the soft ground. There are two categories of installation
methods, namely: displacement and non-displacement types. In the
displacement type, a closed end mandrel is driven or pushed into the
soft ground with resulting displacements in both vertical and lateral
directions. The non-displacement type installation requires drilling the
hole by means of power auger or water jets and is considered to have
less disturbing effects on soft clay
SAND DRAINS
Casagrande and Poulos (1969) concluded that driven sand drains are
harmful in soft and sensitive clays due to the disturbance in driving the
drains causing the reduction of shear strength and horizontal
permeability. However, Akagi (1979) asserted that the mere installation
of the sand drains alone results in the consolidation of the soft clay
because of the large stresses induced during the installation. Thus, high
excess pore pressure is generated (Brenner et al. 1979) and, after its
subsequent dissipation, a gain in strength is achieved (Akagi, 1977a)
1 U
r r
where u is the average excess pore pressure at any point and at any
given time; r is the radial distance of the considered point from the
center of the drained soil cylinder; t is the time after an instantaneous
increase of the total vertical stress, and C, is the horizontal coefficient
of consolidation.
F ( n)
Where:
Ch t
Th
De
n2
3 1
F ( n)
n( n) 2
(
1
n
)
4 n
F
(
n
)
F = F(n) + Fs + Fr
where F is the factor which expresses the additive effect due to the spacing
of the drains; F(n); smear effect, Fs; and well-resistance, Fr
ds
1 ln
d w
where ds is the diameter of the disturbed zone around the drain; and k, is the
coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction in the disturbed zone.
kh
qw
where z is the distance from the drainage end of the drain; L is twice
the length of the drain when drainage occurs at one end only; L is equal
to the length of the drain when drainage occurs at both ends; kh is the
coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction in the
undisturbed soil; and qw is the discharge capacity of the drain at
hydraulic gradient 1.
t
( F (n) Fs Fr ) ln
1 Uh
8Ch
DRAIN PROPERTIES
The theory of consolidation with radial drainage assumes that the soil
is drained by vertical drain with circular cross section. The equivalent
diameter of a band-shaped drain is defined as the diameter of a
circular drain which has the same theoretical radial drainage
performance as the band-shaped drain. Subsequent finite element
studies performed by Rixner et al. (1986) and supported by Hansbo
(1987) suggested that the equivalent diameter preferable for use in
practice can be obtained as:
dw
( a b)
DRAIN PROPERTIES
The relative sizes of these equivalent diameters are compared to the
band shaped cross-section of the prefabricated drain by Rixner et al.
(1986).
The discharge capacity of prefabricated drains is required to analyze
the drain resistance factor and is usually obtained from published
results reported by manufacturers. Rixner et al. (1986) reported results
of vertical discharge capacity tests and those obtained by others, as
shown in Fig. below. The results demonstrate the major influence of
confining pressure.
DRAIN PROPERTIES
WELL RESISTANCE
Hansbo (1979, 1981) presented, for equal-strain conditions, a closedform solution which allows for ready computation of the effects of
well-resistance on drain performance. The finite drain permeability
(well-resistance) was considered by imposing on the continuity
equation of flow toward the drain. In this assumption, the flow rate in
the considered section of the drain is equal to the maximum flow rate
which can be discharged through the drain.
WELL RESISTANCE
The discharge capacity of sand drains depends on the permeability of
the sand. The sand used for the drains must be clean with good
drainage and filtration characteristics. The discharge capacity of band
drains varies considerably depending on the make of the drain and
decreases with increasing lateral pressure. This is caused by either the
squeezing in of the filter sleeve into the core channels reducing the
cross-sectional area of the channels, or, for drains without a filter
sleeve, the channels themselves are squeezed together. Another
important factor is the folding of the drain when subjected to large
vertical strains. In this case the channels of flow would be reduced,
thus reducing the discharge capacity. The sedimentation of small
particles in the flow channels may also decrease the discharge capacity.
WELL RESISTANCE
The introduction of the well-resistance concept affects the value of the
degree of consolidation, U, which is no longer constant with depth as
shown in Fig. below.
WELL RESISTANCE
WELL RESISTANCE
Taking well-resistance into consideration, the rate of radial
consolidation is controlled not only by Ch and D. but also by the ratio
qw/kh as shown in Fig. below. This factor may play a very important
role when prefabricated band drains of great lengths are used with
typical values of qw/kh less than 500 m2 where the time necessary to
achieve a specific degree of consolidation is increased (Jamiolkowski et
al. 1983).
WELL RESISTANCE
WELL RESISTANCE
The influence of well-resistance on the consolidation rate increases as
the drain length increases. This is illustrated in Fig. below for a typical
band-shaped drain (qw/kh = 400 m2).
WELL RESISTANCE
(5 6) d m
2
where dm is the diameter of a circle with an area equal to the crosssectional area of the mandrel. At this diameter, the theoretical shear
strain is approximately 5 % as shown in Fig. below
d s 2d m
This relationship has been verified in the reconstituted soft Bangkok
clay by Bergado et al. (1991) using a specially designed laboratory drain
testing apparatus as plotted in Fig. below.