Use of the Psychic in Manga

and Anime
Overview and Critique
And Personal Speculation on Its Effects on the Audience

Overview
Background
Treatment
Examples (partially revised 2001)
Good points (controversial)
Bad points (even more controversial)

Note: One of my purposes in writing this is to help the Westerner to become more aware
of the psychic undercurrents in most Japanese comics. Not everything psychic depicted in
manga is true or even close to the truth, while some of it may be disconcertingly true.
Either way, as with all media, one must carefully examine the material and make
judgments on its merits or counter-merits for oneself. If a comic's treatment of the
psychic is disturbing, it may simply be a different and valid way of looking at an issue --or maybe you'll find you're just better off not reading the material, for various reasons.

Overview
Perhaps one of the most striking aspects of manga and anime to a Westerner is the
emphasis on the supernatural, whether psychic or spiritual. From the ki-attacks of martial
artists to the Shinto wards that keep demons at bay, manga and anime are overflowing
with psychic references. Even many girls' comics center around demons and angels and
ghosts and vampires, and many that don't have brief incidents of psychic activity --- such
as people hearing the voice of a loved one who has just died. Why is it material that
might normally only be found in The X Files or Unsolved Mysteries in the U.S. so
routinely winds up in mainstream Japanese comics?

It's part of Japanese culture

Japan's culture has as a backdrop the rich mythological tapestry of the Far East, as well as
hundreds of years of specialized martial arts training. Up until relatively recently, many
Japanese believed in gods and demons and spirits as a result of both Shintoism and
certain forms of Buddhism, and also had a belief in reincarnation, "Hell" (Jigoku), and
"Heaven" (Tengoku). Every child in Japan is also brought up with a stock set of ghost

stories, from the stories of the faceless nopperabo to the tale of the plate-counting ghost;
students learn of the ancient Chinese beliefs and tales, such as the mythical 108
supernatural rebels in the story of the Water Margin ("Suikoden"). Eastern martial arts,
with aspects of Indian yoga, emphasize the use of Ki ("psychic" energy, the basis of Star
Wars' "the Force"). The Japanese language uses the word "Ki" extensively; it's almost
impossible to avoid it in its many uses. For example, "depression" can translate to "heavy
Ki," "happy and healthy" to something approximating "proper Ki," and so on. On top of
all of this, the Japanese remain deeply curious about the world around them, and they
tend not to have the traditional Western Judeo-Christian-based prohibitions against
exploring the psychic realm.
With such a background of psychic legend, experience, and curiosity, it
seems only natural that the Japanese would delve deeply into the
subject matter in comics --- a medium ideally suited for such
endeavors. The cross-fertilization with the West, with ideas such as
aliens, vampires, cyborgs, mermaids, and Western architecture and
dress, has also produced an amazing explosion of East-West
supernatural hybrids.

Treatment of the Supernatural

Instead of treating the supernatural with overwhelming disbelief, the Japanese tend to
treat it as normal --- at least within the world of comics. Characters within the comics
tend to either treat the supernatural with either (1) initial disbelief but quick acceptance or
(2) immediate acceptance. Perhaps the most telling factor, that which tends to separate
manga from American treatment of the supernatural, is the everyday-ness of it. Rather
than treat the supernatural like something utterly horrible, utterly mysterious, or utterly
ridiculous, manga tends to treat it like anything else: something that can be used or
misused, something to be respected and laughed at, something to be both feared and
treasured.

What are some other examples of the psychic in manga

and anime?
There are too many to count. But here's an overview of various types of the supernatural
and examples.
Just Plain Occasional Inexplicable Stuff. Yes, there are manga where
supernatural things happen ... with no explanation, mostly for the sake of the
characters, and life goes on. These stories tend to be more about the characters
than about cool psychic battles. For example, Me Gumi No Daigo featured a
fireman with a sixth sense for saving lives -- and offered no explanation.
Takahashi Rumiko's short stories often include strange events (e.g., an old woman
suddenly getting psychic powers, or a man haunted by his wife's ghost) in order to
tell a human story. Black Jack, the Tezuka Osamu series about a surgeon, also had
some strange incidents (sometimes involving ghosts or even aliens). Yet, the
supernatural isn't at all the focus in these stories (though it does add some flavor).

The people remain the focus. Many Western short stories feature bizarre incidents
too, and one could point to A Christmas Carol or some Nathaniel Hawthorn
stories as famous Western analogues.
Ki and Ki-based ESP. Many boys' comics that center around intrigue, fighting or
martial arts heavily exploit the notion of Ki. Ki is literally "The Force" of Star
Wars fame; it is apparently an energy that is all around us and which can be used
for good or for ill. Eastern martial arts emphasize training of Ki, and this
awareness of Ki has extended into popular Japanese culture. Characters sense
each others' presences from far away, such as an incident in City Hunter in which
Kaori becomes alarmed when she notices that she can no longer feel Ryo's
presence. Deadly-ki is the feeling of impending attack that snaps people out of
sleep or into action, as seen in Ranma 1/2 whenever Akane senses an impending
attack by Kodachi. A strong field of battle-ki is said to surround powerful
warriors, as characters in the fantasy series Dragon Quest frequently note --sometimes so powerful that attack is made impossible (these stories parallel
legendary events with real historical people). Entire battles are sometimes fought
with ki, as in Yu Yu Hakusho: martial artists in both manga and real life can
sometimes fell an opponent without ever physically touching the person. In
manga, however, the battles tend to be flashier than real life, with bursts of
brightly lit energy and auras that glow like fire.
Psionics and ESP. Psionics sometimes seem to be just a different form of ki, but
without the label of "ki." Psionics also allow for teleportation (which ki usually
doesn't) and a clearer form of telepathy, as well as controlled telekinesis. Stories
about psionics crop up here and there, too. Chojin Locke, about a psionic boy who
can heal others, teleport, use telekinesis and so on, is an obvious example. Some
psionics, like those in Jo Jo's Bizarre Adventure Party, are a unique mixture of ki,
psionics, and magic. Psionics tend to appear in science-fiction realms. Even an
occasional Doraemon story involves psionics, such as a 21st-century training
device for developing one's potential (which, of course, Nobita fails to use
properly).
Chinese, Japanese, and other Eastern Mythology Foundations. The classic
Chinese epic fantasy legend of Suikoden ("The Water Margin") and the traditional
cardinal direction associations (Peacock-South, Blue Dragon-East, etc.) has
carried over considerably into modern Japanese storytelling. Movies, games, and
manga have been based on these supernatural themes (such as the Playstation
game Gensou-Suikoden and the manga Ao No Fuuin and Fushigi Yuugi. Myths
about the princess from the moon and the multi-headed, Hydra-like Yamata no
Orochi also continue to have an influence on manga as diverse as Doraemon to
Queen Millennial. More Indian-esque themes, such as the popular notion of 3eyed super beings, has seen echoes in such works as 3x3 Eyes and Mitsu Me ga
Tooru. And many works that fall into this category also utilize other
characteristics from other categories; it is pretty much assumed that, if one builds
upon a fantastic framework, fantastic abilities must surely fit in too. The below is
especially commonly used:
Eastern magic and/or spiritual/divine powers. Japanese spirituality, influenced
by Hindu-based yoga, Buddhism, and Shintoism, tends to be a mishmash of those

religions. Many manga and anime spiritual warriors use mantras (chanted prayer)
and mudras (special hand positions) to summon the spiritual strength of the good
"Buddhist" or Shinto gods (as a note, some branches of Buddhism do not have
any gods). The character Sakura from Urusei Yatsura ("Lum") had the skills of a
Shinto priestess, and used Shinto tools to keep demons at bay. Nuube in Hell
Teacher Nuube uses Buddhist mantras to help banish demons. Not just spiritual
warriors use these techniques; ninjas (both in real life and in the comics) also use
mudras and Ki meditation to improve themselves. Unfortunately, there are few
obvious Western influences in manga spirituality, and one of them is the sadly
stereotypical use of the cross against vampires (which usually doesn't work). One
hopes that some of the more positive aspects of Western culture could be
incorporated, instead of just the negative ones.
Discarnate people (ghosts) and souls. Late 1990's manga seem to have had a
fascination with soul-swapping, such as with Hisoka Returns and Noside, both of
which involve main characters whose bodies temporarily died, necessitating they
move into the body of some other person who had recently died. The recent
Tuxedo Gin is another story of soul transmigration; a recently "deceased" young
man takes up residence in a penguin. In Yu Yu Hakusho, Yuusuke's body remains
comatose while he wanders around as a ghost for a while. Many other manga
simply involve ghost characters, such as Ghost Sweeper Mikami. In Hell Teacher
Nuube, ghosts are frequently the lost souls of those who remain tied to Earth
because of some unfinished task or unfulfilled longing.
Otherwordly non-human entities (angels, demons) All sorts of these appear:
monsters, demons, angels, aliens, magical animals, minor and major gods from
mythology, and so on. Some can be as bizarre as tea (e.g., Earl Grey, Darjeeling)
royalty who act as wish-granting genies and friends (Koucha Ouji (Tea Prince)). A
number of authors seem particularly fond of the notion of winged angels and
demons. Girls' manga like Angel Sanctuary and Akuma No Houteishiki ("Devils'
Equation") in fact seem to enjoy turning angels and demons into (often sexylooking) manga characters. Likewise, boys' comics like Bastard and Debi Debi
(Devil Devil) similarly have angels and demons, and like the girls' manga, they
tend to turn them into sexual beings (sometimes with children!) who are a mixture
of good and bad. In other words, it's not at all what most Westerners would think
of for "angels" and "demons"! On another note, though, manga tends to hold that
many evil beings (and people) are those who have gone astray due to cruel
circumstances, and that they still have the chance for redemption. Manga and
anime often place the reader in the bad guy's shoes, explaining his history and
motivations, and showing off his good points. Often the bad guys convert to the
"good side" in manga and anime after being shown a demonstration of the power
of friendship and selflessness. Those who have too much pride to openly convert
usually die heroically. A prime example of this tendency to convert is the Dragon
Quest series.)
Heaven and Hell, the Demon World and/or Spiritual World (other planes).
Japan had a belief in a Hell-like world, ruled by the Enma-Dai-Ou, as well as a
Heaven. Mixing up Eastern and Western "Heaven" and "Hell" seems to be
standard practice (there was a humorous Buddhist priest with halo and wings in

Tuxedo Gin). Most of the manga featuring "angels" and "demons" do have a
Heaven and Hell, though again, both are fictitious versions. A number of manga
also take a somewhat Eastern approach and divide up the world into 3 parts: the
human (physical) world, the demon/monster world, and the spiritual world where
the souls of the dead go. (Comics like Vampire Princess Miyu tend to have only
the first two, but Yu Yu Hakusho, Ghost Sweeper Mikami and others include the
spirit world of the dead.) Typical plot involves a human who has to protect the
human world from encroachers from the demon world, in the process usually
gaining at least one "chaotic good" demon friend who helps in the fight. The spirit
world is often not mentioned by name, but it is often implied to exist --- because
the souls of characters who die usually wind up Someplace Else that is neither the
demon world nor the human world.

Good points of the Anime-manga treatment of the

supernatural
Here we get into a controversial philosophical discussion. I will assume that some readers
object to all this psychic stuff as promoting evil. Here are some reasons why I don't think
it is doing so:
How are supernatural powers depicted? What are its fruits? Even the
Western Judeo-Christian beliefs argue that some supernatural forces
are good or divine, even if others are not. In the Japanese view, psychic
powers are like any other talent --- neither good nor bad, but capable
of being used for either. Most characters in manga who routinely use
psychic powers are theoretically on the side of "good." They help those
in need, fight evil, and so on.
The Japanese treatment of the psychic tends to retain fundamental and
arguably "good" elements, which are characteristic of manga and
anime in general. Here are some basics:

Emphasis on compassionate use of skills. The best heroes are those who defend or
help the weak and/or innocent, and who show mercy to the defeated. Even the
most miserly and money-hungry of main characters often winds up working for
free, out of compassion (true for everything from surgery to ghost-busting). Some
villains also show mercy and compassion; it's just considered the "cool" thing to
do. Finally, the use of self-control, restraint, and mercy often lead the characters
to a better understanding of the "enemy," sometimes to the point where they
realize they can avoid conflict and help the misunderstood enemy accomplish
something that is actually good.
Emphasis on teamwork, trust, and friendship. Over and over, it's stressed that
teamwork is essential. Each person must use her or his own special strengths to
help the team, and the team comes to depend on those specialized skills. Even the
hero often gets saved by a less important character. Each teammate strives for
group harmony (aiki), even struggling mentally to accept those s/he can't stand. A

common scene is a team member angrily lecturing someone (often the main
character) who violates the code of intra-group respect.
Emphasis on rigorous training and deep understanding. Just as non-psychic
manga characters spend a lot of time studying in school, or in the office, or at
home, many psychic characters spend a lot of time training and studying not only
their art, but the art of training as well. The reader watches as they gain deep
insights into the nature of both their trade and what it means to be human. The
reader also watches as they complain about how exhausted they are. Characters
often pass out from the strenuousness of their training, whether psychic or not.

Overall message? Hard work, strong friendship, and right use of one's
powers can conquer even the most powerful evil. A pretty powerful,
encouraging message.

What are the bad points of having so much psychic

material?
OK, so suppose that you see nothing wrong with so much psychic
warfare going on page after page. Here are my personal views on why
it's not necessarily a good thing, either!
The most obvious problem with manga and anime, especially boys'
manga, is the overemphasis on fighting one's way out of everything
(whether with guns or psychic attacks). The underlying issue, of
course, is that peaceful resolution simply does not make for an exciting
read. Watching, say, true aikido in action would be boring, because
true aikido is the avoidance of conflict. In our already violence-filled
world, prevention seems to need a lot of help, and battle-oriented
manga (while possibly providing an outlet for frustration) may be
hurting that cause.
The rest of the bad points of the depiction of the supernatural require
some belief in the supernatural. If you don't believe in spirits and
psychic energy and so on, the rest of this section will have no meaning
to you. Skip ahead. But supposing you do believe in those things, and
supposing you're willing to accept the very loose definitions of "good"
as "actively caring and helpful to others" and "evil" as "actively selfish
and harmful to others," here are some other problems I see associated
with manga and anime.
Glamor vs. education. One recent episode of Hell Teacher Nuube
involved students who unknowingly risked their lives playing with an
ouija board (Nuube had to rescue them). Though the manga included a
stern, explicit warning about the risks of using ouija boards, publicizing
their use may not be a good thing. This is reminscent of the little tiny
"how to be good" message tacked on the end of every violent G.I. Joe

episode. The key question becomes, What is the ratio of real education
to glamorization?
Glamorizing "evil." Sometimes the education-to-glamorization ratio
is pretty low. Manga and anime have a bad habit of glamorizing the
supernatural --- not just the heroes, but the bad guys as well. Demons
are often depicted as beautiful or handsome creatures, and truly
"good" entities are rarely depicted at all. Maybe this is a warning about
how appearances can be deceiving?
Downplaying "good." It seems that "angels" in many series are just
as proud, arrogant, and unthinking as their evil counterparts. They also
seemingly have to resort to violence about as often. I suspect this is
because "angels" are seen as "cool," which means that authors who
want to write weird psychic "cool" stuff latch onto them. There are
wonderful manga where ordinary, quiet, humble acts of goodness and
kindness are glorified, but they don't usually feature supernatural
winged beings!
Glamorizing psychic powers. Another problem is that "You might get
what you asked for." Some real-world people suggest that one's desires
are a powerful attractant in the spiritual world. By glamorizing psychic
prowess, manga and anime may lead readers to desire psychic powers
because it's "cool." "If only I could do that!" -- I have received many,
many pieces of email asking about the ki/energy blasts done in Dragon
Ball Z! Such an attitude can be, according to various scholars of the
spiritual, dangerous to have, opening one up to subtle and sometimes
unnoticed psychic attack. Just as bad, potentially, is the desire to meet
spirits. The spirits most likely to meet a curious person are not the
"good" ones, even if they claim to be. Yet, in most manga dealing with
such meta-situations (of characters who read manga and want to meet
spirits or monsters), the spirits are good and trustworthy.
Not enough real research. It would be folly to use manga and anime
as guidebooks to the supernatural, but for many people, it's the main
source of information. This could be seen as a problem.

My Personal Opinion?
I think that anime and manga often do a pretty good job with the supernatural. Many do
take the time to depict the drawbacks of psychic skills, such as the tendency to get
attacked by other beings who have such skills (and the possibility of death of oneself or a
loved one resulting). They also take care to show the heavy weight of responsibility to (1)
not misuse power and (2) to protect those who are not as powerful.

That said, over the past few years I have gotten more and more
queries about using "ki blasts" and other psychic abilities. This alarms
me, because the desire for psychic powers is a dangerous trap. It tends
to get one involved in the darker side of the spiritual spectrum.
Moreover, I have seen enough manga to realize some of the best
stories that teach kindness tend to be the least dramatic in terms of
psychic battles or winged beings.
It all depends on the author, the editors and publishers, and the
desires of the consumer.
If the manga and anime medium is to continue to delve into the
psychic world, one hopes that the authors do their research thoroughly
on the nature of the supernatural. They need to take a long hard look
at their own responsibilities and the effects of their power, even if that
is the plain, natural and "mundane" power to teach while entertaining.
Text copyright 1996, 1997, 2001 by Eri Izawa
rei@mit.edu

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