M1 - Geomorphology - Tectonic Geomorphology

TECTONIC GEOMORPHOLOGY
Benjamin Guillaume
GEOMORPHOLOGY
[from greek g, Earth and morph, shape and logos, speech]
the branch of geology that is concerned with the
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structure, origin, and development of the topographical

features of the Earth's surface
TECTONICS
[from greek tektonikos, relating to building]
the branch of geology relating to the structure of the Earths

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crust and the large-scale processes which take place within it
TOPOGRAPHY
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Topography (ETOPO1)
-10.9 km <elevation< 8.9 km
Mariannes trench
Everest
PLATE TECTONICS
Wegener (1912)
Morgan, McKenzie et Le Pichon (1967)
10
-10 (2006)
Chamot-Rooke et Rabote
diverging plate boundaries (spreading ridges)

transform plate boundaries (transform faults)
converging plate boundaries (subduction-collision)
PLATE TECTONICS
Wegener (1912)
Morgan, McKenzie et Le Pichon (1967)
10
-10 (2006)
Chamot-Rooke et Rabote
~1 cm/yr <convergence velocity< ~25 cm/yr
PLATE TECTONICS
10
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John Nelson, IDV Solutions
maximum released energy and deformation at convergent plate boundaries
Pacific ring of fire
The shape of the EARTH is controlled at first-order by plate

tectonics and modulated by surface processes
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60N
60N
30N
30N
0
0
30S
30S
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60S
60S
Tectonics act at different

time-scales
mountain
building
10s
of Myr
10
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earthquakes
sec
Burbank and Anderson (2012)
SHORT-TERM DEFORMATION
Some theory
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= 45 + /2
: internal friction angle
= 45 - /2
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= 45 - /2
SHORT-TERM DEFORMATION
Some theory
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right-lateral
strike-slip fault
0
2-stages process
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Example : Nankaido (Japan) December 1946 Mw : 8.1
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subduction thrust fault
opposite vertical motions

during coseismic and
interseismic stages
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after Hyndman and Wang (1995)
Models for earthquake recurrence

10
-10
after Shimaki and Nakata (1980)
and Friedrich et al. (2003)
Earthquake nucleation
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controlled by the
difference between
coefficients of dynamic
and static friction
= maximum slip where t
is largest
Slip propagates toward

the surface : a few 10s
mm to 10s cm
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after Zielke and Arrowsmith (2008)
Length-displacement ratios on faults
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Maximum displacement ranges

from 0.3% to 30% of fault length
after Scholz (1990), Schlische et al.

(1996), and Davis et al. (2005)
GEOMORPHIC
EXPRESSION OF
FAULTS
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Strike-slip fault zones
(maximum compressive stress is

horizontal + horizontal deviatoric tensile
stress)
0
Offset drainage channel

Beheaded stream
Linear valley
Garlock fault
(California)
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Location of fault trace and

direction of relative motion

10
-10
San Andreas fault (California)
Right-lateral / left-lateral?

10
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San Andreas fault (California)
Right-lateral strike-slip fault!
Normal faults
(maximum compressive stress is vertical + horizontal deviatoric tensile stress)
2D
10
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Normal faults
(maximum compressive stress is vertical + horizontal deviatoric tensile stress)
2D
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East African
rift system
3D
Transfer of displacement
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between adjacent major
faults
after Morley (1989)
Example : Lost River Range

(Idaho) 1983 - M = 7.0
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Asymmetry during coseismic

phase
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Persists during interseismic

phase
after Stein et al. (1988)
Thrust faults : the most destructive earthquakes

Since 1960s :
Great Chilean (1960 ; Mw = 9.5)

Alaska (1964 ; Mw = 9.2)
Sumatra-Andaman (2004 ; Mw = 9.1)
Tohoku-Oki (2011 ; Mw = 9.0)
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short-term
Thrust faults
(maximum compressive stress is

horizontal + vertical deviatoric tensile
stress)
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Example : Kern County

(California) 1952 - M = 7.3
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after Stein et al. (1988)
long-term
Thrust faults : model of deformation during earthquake cycle

10
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after Davis et al. (2005)
GEOMORPHIC EXPRESSION OF FOLDS

Different models of folds (see your textbooks...)
10
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after Hubert-Ferrari et al. (2007)
Surface expression of slip gradients

Displacement variations in the subsurface fault are directly related
to the magnitude of rock uplift at the surface.
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Lateral fold growth

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Example : Wheeler Ridge

anticline
0
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after Burbank et al. (1996)
Lateral fold growth

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Example : Wheeler Ridge

anticline
0
Intense dissection on the steeply

dipping flank of the fold
Deflection of streams toward the

east by the growing fold
after Burbank et al. (1996)
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EARTHQUAKE-TRIGGERED EROSION : LANDSLIDES

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Papua - New Guinea (courtesy of N. Hovius)

Landslides
triggered by
earthquakes
develop
preferentially close
to crests and
channels
10
-10

Landslides
triggered by
earthquakes
develop
to crests and
channels
Amplification of
seismic shaking
near crests
10
-10

Landslides
triggered by
earthquakes
develop
to crests and
channels
Amplification of
seismic shaking
near crests
10
-10
Higher pore pressures + local steepening of hillslopes by river incision

near channels
METHODS FOR MEASURING SHORT-TERM

DEFORMATION AND TOPOGRAPHY
Trilateration arrays (horizontal)
Tide gauges (vertical)
Tropical corals (vertical)
GPS (horizontal + vertical)
Radar interferometry (horizontal)
Lidar imaging (vertical)
ASTER imagery (vertical)
....
10
-10
See Burbank and Anderson, Tectonic geomorphology, 2012
DEFORMATION AND GEOMORPHOLOGY AT

INTERMEDIATE TIME-SCALES
Intermediate time-scales?
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-10

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Holocene-Pleistocene boundary (11.6 ky) 300-400 ky
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Landscape =
0
episodic + continuous tectonic and geomorphic processes
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10

Landscape =
0
Allows determining long-term mean rate of deformation
Needed to compare with shorter-term record
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Landscape =
0
Allows determining long-term mean rate of deformation
Needed to compare with shorter-term record
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Mean vertical uplift of 1 mm/yr and horizontal deformation of 1 cm/yr gives

400 m of vertical motion and 4 km of horizontal motion

At these time-scales :
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Pristine tectonic forms become degraded by erosion

Major glacial-interglacial cycles : specific geomorphic markers
(marine terraces, fluvial terraces)
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after Porter (1989) and

Lisiecki and Raymo (2005)
CALIBRATING RATES OF DEFORMATION

Marine terraces : formation
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Terraces form during

highstand sea-level and
are abandoned during
lowstand sea-level
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Marine terraces : formation
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Uplift rate from

age-elevation
relationship
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Regard et al. (2010)
Marine terraces : extracting uplift rates

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after Lajoie (1986)
Steady Uplift rate = Elevation / Age
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northern California
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after Merritts and Bull (1989)
Unsteady Uplift rate = Elevation / Age

If age of the surface is known directly (cosmogenic
datation, U-Th,...) or indirectly (relative to Marine
Isotopic Stage)
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Mean uplift rate over a time interval tit0 (i0) between each
0
marine terrace (i) and present sea level (0)
UpliftRatei0 = (ShAi Ei)/ Agei

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ShAi : present-day elevation of the shoreline angle of the marine terrace (time ti)
Ei : sea-level elevation at ti compared to the present sea level

If age of the surface is known directly (cosmogenic
datation, U-Th,...) or indirectly (relative to Marine
Isotopic Stage)
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Incremental uplift rate over a time interval titj (ij) between two
0
successives marine terraces
UpliftRateij = [(ShAi - Ei) - (ShAj - Ej)]/ [Agei - Agej]

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ShAi : present-day elevation of the shoreline angle of the marine terrace (time ti)
Ei : sea-level elevation at ti compared to the present sea level
A CASE STUDY : SOUTH AMERICA

Tectonic framework
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Subduction of the Nazca plate

beneath the South American
plate for 10s of Myr
Present-day convergence
velocity = 8 cm/yr
Subduction of ridges
(topographic anomalies =
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thickenned crust produced by
hot spot volcanism)
Espurt et al. (2008)
A CASE STUDY : SOUTH AMERICA

Tectonic framework
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Espurt et al. (2008)
Shore morphology
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Methodology : example of
Punta Choros (Chile)
DEM from aerial stereophotos
Identification of terraces = break-inslope on cross-sections
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> 400 ky
0
> 400 ky
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Sampling for cosmogenic dating (10Be)
Uplift rate
J. Maison (M1, 2013)
Rasa age evaluation - lower level (~110 m)

10
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Regard et al. (2010)
Main results
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The Central Andes coast morphology (rasa) seems to indicate that

uplift is:
Recent (Quaternary, with evidences of preexisting subsidence)
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Wide (most probably due to subduction)
MIS 11 (~400 kyrs BP) appears to have been particularly marked:
variation in uplift rate or greater efficiency in erosion?
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MIS 5e uplift rates (~100 ky)
Ride de Carnegie
az
N
de
id
e
Taux de
soulvement
(MIS 5e)
R
Higher uplift rates related

to topographic anomalies
within the subducting plate
ca
10
mm/an
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
after Pedoja et al. (2011)
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Marine terraces : determining slip rates on faults

San Juan (Chile)
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Loma Fault
Saillard et al. (2011)
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Marine terraces : determining slip rates on faults

SlipRateij = (ShACEHi ShACTHi) - (ShACEHj ShACTHj) / (Agei Agej)
10
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Saillard et al. (2011)
Marine terraces : folding and shortening rates

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Melnick et al. (2009)

Fluvial terraces : formation
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Unlike marine terraces, fluvial terraces are not necessarily horizontal

Fluvial terraces : are diachronous
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Terrace T6 at Cajon
Creek (California)
7 ky
0
4 ky
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after Weldon (1986)
Fluvial terraces : displacement across faults
Wellington Fault
(New-Zealand)
Increase of the amount of offset with age
10
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after Van Dissen et al. (1992)
Fluvial terraces :
displacement across faults
Asymmetry in faulting rate
Maximum faulting rate at
the core of the fold
Increase of the amount of
offset with terrace age
Variable faulting rate on
single fault
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Ventura River (California)

after Rockwell et al. (1984)

Stream gradient : principle
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after Duvall et al. (2004)
For a uniform lithology, anomalously steep or gentle profile may

be interpreted in term of ongoing tectonism
Stream gradient : physical modeling

Adaptation of the river
profile to a change in
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tectonic uplift rate
knickpoint
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knickpoint sweeps
upstream
courtesy of D. Lague
Stream gradient : knickpoints

Uplift rate x2
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Formation of a knickpoint that sweeps upstream

- lower channel steepens
- upper channel retains its initial gradient
Same concavity but different steepness
after Whipple and Tucker

(1999)
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Stream gradient : extracting uplift history from river profiles

Rate of change of elevation z/t along a river profile :
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z/t = U(x,t) + E(x,t)

x : distance along river profile
U : rate of rock uplift
E : rate of erosion
E(x,t) = -vAm (z/x)n + k (2z/x2)

n and m : constants affecting the concavity of a river profile (n generally taken = 1)
Am : related to average discharge along a river
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v and m : control the value of the advective term, which governs the transient form
river profile and the knickpoint retreat velocities
k : erosional diffusivity (10-107 m2 Ma-1)
U(x,t)

Inverse modeling testing plausible parameters values
(2x102 <k< 7x102 ; 200<v<210 ; 0.19 <m< 0.21; 1<n<1.05)
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In gray : observed profile

In black : best-fitting
profile
0
-10
Roberts et al. (2012)
Colorado catchment

Getting uplift rate history for different parameters
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best-fit
to river
profile
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Colorado catchment

Applying to a large number of rivers to get spatial uplift history
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Madagascar

Maps of cumulative uplift
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Madagascar
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Drawback : only
works for uplifted
areas
TECTONIC GEOMORPHOLOGY AT LARGER

TIME-SCALES
Larger time-scales?

TIME-SCALES
Larger time-scales?
Time required for the growth and decay of a mountain chain
= 10s of Myr

TIME-SCALES
Larger time-scales?
= 10s of Myr
Currently observable deformation patterns, climate and
erosion rates may have only tangential relevance to a ranges
overall evolution

TIME-SCALES
Larger time-scales?
= 10s of Myr
overall evolution
At these time-scales, detailed interactions of short-term
deformation and surface processes are often obscured

TIME-SCALES
Larger time-scales?
= 10s of Myr
overall evolution
At these time-scales, detailed interactions of short-term
deformation and surface processes are often obscured
Larger spatial framework: 100s to 1000s of km
Climate and tectonics
Climate
(through erosion)
Tectonics
Climate
(through erosion)
Tectonics
Erosion-controlled isostatic uplift (Molnar and England, 1990)
Climate
Tectonics
(through erosion)

Widening/narrowing of orogens in response to erosion (e.g., Whipple and
Meade, 2006)
Climate
Tectonics
(through erosion)

Meade, 2006)
Enhanced deformation where rainfall is high (e.g., Willett, 1999)

...
Climate
Tectonics
(through erosion)

Meade, 2006)
Enhanced deformation where rainfall is high (e.g., Willett, 1999)

...
Problems of dataset (often use of proxy, e.g. cooling

and not erosion rate) and time-frame of correlations

Cooling age = Age at
which a rock crosses the
closure temperature of a
specific
thermochronometer
Zr FT : 220C
Ap FT : 110C
Ap He : 60C
Proxy for erosion rate :
younger age = faster
erosion
Two possible scenari :

Acceleration of erosion rates into a increasingly narrow zone over
the last 5 My (B)
vs.
Spatially focused erosion pattern persisting for Myr (C)

Climate
(through erosion)
Tectonics

Climate
(through erosion)
Tectonics
Orographic rainfall (Burbank et al., 2003)
Loci of high rainfall develop on the upwind side of a range

vs rain shadow develop on the downwind side

Example : summer monsoon
in the Himalayas
Bookhagen and
Burbank (2010)

Example : summer monsoon
in the Himalayas
Monsoon rainfall produces a peak
associated with each topographic step
Bookhagen and
Burbank (2010)
Latitudinal gradients in climate and tectonics

Elongate N-S oriented ranges
can span latitudinal bands
with contrasting climate
regimes
Latitudinal gradients in climate and tectonics

Elongate N-S oriented ranges
can span latitudinal bands
with contrasting climate
regimes
Example : the Andes
Montgomery et al. (2001)
the Andes : latitudinal gradients in climate and tectonics
Variable amount of sediments

provided to the trench

Central Andes :
- low precipitation
- low trench fill thickness (deep
trench)
- high interplate coupling
- high topography
Northern and Southern Andes :
the opposite
Its a model...
Lamb and Davies (2003)
WHEN MANTLE FLOW IS INVOLVED...

Dynamic topography
Surface deformation associated with density driven
convection in the sub-lithospheric mantle
WHEN MANTLE FLOW IS INVOLVED...

Dynamic topography
Surface deformation associated with density driven
convection in the sub-lithospheric mantle
Large-scale signal (100s of km) and moderate amplitude (~100s of m)
Dynamic topography
Well expressed in areas with no recent tectonic activity (e.g., Africa)
Present-day topography
Tomography
Moucha and Forte (2011)
Signature of a plume
F. Guillocheau
Dynamic topography
Well expressed in areas with no recent tectonic activity (e.g., Africa)
Present-day topography
F. Guillocheau
Dynamic topo (10 Ma-0 Ma)
Moucha and Forte (2011)
Dynamic topography
Inverse signal of equal amplitude above high density anomalies
(subduction zones)
Steinberger (2007)
Dynamic topography
Inverse signal of equal amplitude above high density anomalies
(subduction zones)
Steinberger (2007)
but signal convoluted with isostatic response of the lithosphere to

convergence (generally of higher amplitude)
Dynamic topography
Control the fraction of inundated continents
60N
60N
30N
30N
30S
30S
60S
60S
Present-day elevation
m
10000 8000 6000 4000 2000
2000
4000
6000
8000
Dynamic topography
Control the fraction of inundated continents
60N
60N
30N
30N
30S
30S
60S
60S
Present-day elevation -200m

m
10000 8000 6000 4000 2000
2000
4000
6000
8000
Dynamic topography : tilting of the Australian continent

Subduction to the North :
downward deflection
Mid-ocean ridge to the South :
upward deflection
Sandiford (2007)
Dynamic topography : tilting of the Australian continent

Subduction to the North :
downward deflection
Mid-ocean ridge to the South :
upward deflection
Down to the north tilt of

the continent!
(as recorded by shoreline migration

for the last 15 Myr)
Sandiford (2007)

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TECTONIC GEOMORPHOLOGY

the branch of geology that is concerned with the

structure, origin, and development of the topographical

[from greek tektonikos, relating to building]

the branch of geology relating to the structure of the Earths

-10.9 km <elevation< 8.9 km

diverging plate boundaries (spreading ridges)

~1 cm/yr <convergence velocity< ~25 cm/yr

maximum released energy and deformation at convergent plate boundaries

Pacific ring of fire

The shape of the EARTH is controlled at first-order by plate

Tectonics act at different

Example : Nankaido (Japan) December 1946 Mw : 8.1

subduction thrust fault

opposite vertical motions

Models for earthquake recurrence

Slip propagates toward

after Zielke and Arrowsmith (2008)

Length-displacement ratios on faults

Maximum displacement ranges

after Scholz (1990), Schlische et al.

Strike-slip fault zones

(maximum compressive stress is

Offset drainage channel

Location of fault trace and

Strike-slip fault zones

Strike-slip fault zones

Right-lateral strike-slip fault!

(maximum compressive stress is vertical + horizontal deviatoric tensile stress)

(maximum compressive stress is vertical + horizontal deviatoric tensile stress)

Example : Lost River Range

Asymmetry during coseismic

Persists during interseismic

Thrust faults : the most destructive earthquakes

Great Chilean (1960 ; Mw = 9.5)

(maximum compressive stress is

Example : Kern County

after Stein et al. (1988)

Thrust faults : model of deformation during earthquake cycle

after Davis et al. (2005)

GEOMORPHIC EXPRESSION OF FOLDS

after Hubert-Ferrari et al. (2007)

Surface expression of slip gradients

Lateral fold growth

Example : Wheeler Ridge

after Burbank et al. (1996)

Lateral fold growth

Example : Wheeler Ridge

Intense dissection on the steeply

Deflection of streams toward the

after Burbank et al. (1996)

EARTHQUAKE-TRIGGERED EROSION : LANDSLIDES

Papua - New Guinea (courtesy of N. Hovius)

EARTHQUAKE-TRIGGERED EROSION : LANDSLIDES

EARTHQUAKE-TRIGGERED EROSION : LANDSLIDES

EARTHQUAKE-TRIGGERED EROSION : LANDSLIDES

Higher pore pressures + local steepening of hillslopes by river incision

METHODS FOR MEASURING SHORT-TERM

See Burbank and Anderson, Tectonic geomorphology, 2012

DEFORMATION AND GEOMORPHOLOGY AT

DEFORMATION AND GEOMORPHOLOGY AT

DEFORMATION AND GEOMORPHOLOGY AT

DEFORMATION AND GEOMORPHOLOGY AT