Boltzmann, Ludwig (1844-1906), an Austrian physicist, made a major contribution to the foundation and development of statistical

mechanics, the study of temperature, pressure, and related phenomena by a mathematical analysis of movements of molecules that
are assumed to obey the laws of mechanics.
The son of an Austrian taxation official, Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann grew up in Wels and Linz. He earned his doctorate in 1866 from
the University of Vienna. His doctoral thesis, written under the direction of Josef Stefan, was on the kinetic theory of gases. He
began his academic career the following year with an appointment at the Physikalisches Institut in Vienna, which was followed by a
series of professorial positions in different related disciplines. He left a professorship in theoretical physics at the University of Graz
(1869-1873), in southeast Austria, for a professorship in mathematics at the University of Vienna (1873-1876), and then returned to
the University of Graz (1876-1879) as a professor of experimental physics. After serving as director of the Physikalisches Institut
(1879-1889), Boltzmann took a position as professor of theoretical physics at the University of Munich. In 1894, he returned to
Vienna as professor of theoretical physics at the university, succeeding his mentor, Josef Stefan. The following year, Ernst Mach
(whose name today is used to measure the speed of sound, as the Mach I) was appointed to the chair of history and philosophy of
science at Vienna. The two men not only were scientific opponents, with Boltzmann championing the point of view of the atomists
and Mach of the energeticists, but also were on bad personal terms. Boltzmann's dislike of working alongside Mach led him to
move to the University of Leipzig in 1900, where he became professor of theoretical physics. Even though the move made him the
colleague of his most vigorous scientific opponent, Wilhelm Ostwald, Boltzmann and Ostwald had a good personal relationship.
Nonetheless, a bout of severe depression led Boltzmann to make a suicide attempt while in Leipzig.
Boltzmann at least partly in jest, attributed his peripatetic nature to the fact that he was born during the dying hours of a Mardi Gras
ball. He recognized early on that he was subject to what today is called bipolar disorder, characterized by periods of mania
alternating with periods of depression, usually separated by lengthy intervals of normal mood. How much of his depression was
attributable to chemical imbalances and how much to the lack of acceptance of his ideas can never be known for sure.
After Mach's retirement from the University of Vienna in 1901, Boltzmann returned there in 1902 to his chair of theoretical physics,
which had remained unfilled in the interim. The university also honored him with a second chair, which Mach had just vacated.
Responsible now for teaching Mach's course in the philosophy of science, Boltzmann became famous as a lecturer in this field. The
audience for his lectures soon grew too large to be accommodated in the largest available lecture hall. Boltzmann's reputation even
reached the imperial court, and Austrian emperor Franz Josef invited him to the royal palace.
Boltzmann is best known for establishing statistical mechanics, the branch of science independently invented by the American
mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs. Their work connected the properties and behavior of molecules, atoms, or elementary
particles with the large-scale properties of the substances of which they are the building blocks. Boltzmann used probability to
describe how atomic properties determine the properties of matter.
Over the course of his career, Boltzmann made significant contributions to mechanics, dynamics, and electromagnetism, all of which
were being developed during his student years. He was one of the first European scientists to recognize the importance of Scottish
physicist James Clerk Maxwell's research in the field of electromagnetism. Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, a book based on
Boltzmann's lectures on Maxwell's theories, which was published in 1897 with a preface by Boltzmann, helped disseminate
Maxwell's work.
Boltzmann's first published paper (1865) was stimulated by a lecture given by Josef Stefan on electrical theory. Three years later, he
published a paper on thermal equilibrium in gases, which both cited and extended Maxwell's work on this topic. In 1871, he obtained
an equation for the distribution of atoms due to collision. According to this equation, which became known as the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution, the average amount of energy required for atomic motion in all directions is equal. In 1884, Boltzmann
expanded on the work of his mentor by demonstrating how the empirical law for black-body radiation that Stefan formulated in 1879
could be derived from the principles of thermodynamics. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the total energy radiated from a
black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. The law is illustrated by the fact that a blue star that is the
same size as a red star is very much brighter. In the 1890's, Boltzmann derived the second law of thermodynamics from the
principles of mechanics. He asserted that entropy increases almost always, rather than always.

Many scientists rejected Boltmann's ideas. At an 1895 scientific meeting in the German seaport city of Lbeck, a heated debate took
place between Boltzmann and Wilhelm Ostwald. Asserting that Boltzmann was wrong when he said that everything could be
explained with suitable equations, Ostwald said, The actual irreversibility of natural phenomena thus proves the existence of
processes that cannot be described by mechanical equations, and with this the verdict on scientific materialism is settled.
Boltzmann and his backers countered with a strong and vocal opposition. A youthful eyewitness to the debate, physicist Arnold
Sommerfeld, compared the ensuing argument to the battle of the bull [Boltzmann] with the supple fighter [Ostwald]. According to
Sommerfeld, Boltzmann's arguments were convincing, and the young mathematicians in attendance sided with Boltzmann.
Ostwald continued, however, as spokesman of those European scientists who failed to fully understand the statistical basis for
Boltzmann's ideas. Despite the fact that Ernst Mach did not get along well with Boltzmann, he felt the tone of the scientific debates
was overly heated and tried to reconcile the two schools of thought.
In 1904, Boltzmann traveled to the United States, where he lectured on applied mathematics at the St. Louis World's Fair. He went
on to California, where he visited Stanford University and the University of California at Berkeley. During this visit. Boltzmann
learned about new discoveries concerning radiation that would shortly validate his theories. Upon his return to Austria, he continued
to defend his belief in atomic structure.
Despite his vigorous rebuttals, however, many scientists continued to challenge his theories, and he worried that his life's work was
on the verge of collapse. In 1906, suffering from illness and depression, Boltzmann committed suicide. He died before seeing his
work confirmed by scientific discoveries of the 1900's that proved atomic theory.
In recent years, Boltzmann has been recognized as a pioneer of quantum mechanics. By introducing the theory of probability into
his statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics, he broke with the classical idea that fundamental laws have to be
strictly deterministic. In an 1872 paper, Boltzmann introduced the idea of discrete energy levels. At a scientific meeting in Halle,
Germany, in 1891, Boltzmann anticipated by just under a decade Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck's law that assumed the quantization
of energy. In Boltzmann's lectures on natural philosophy in 1903, he anticipated Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity by
treating space and time coordinates equally.

2
Ludwig Boltzmann was an Austrian physicist whose efforts radically changed several branches of physics. He is
mostly noted for his role in the development of statistical mechanics and the statistical explanation of the second law
of thermodynamics.

Early Life and Education:

Born in Vienna on February 20, 1844, Ludwig Boltzmanns fater was a tax official. He earned his PhD degree in 1866
at the University of Vienna.

Contributions and Achievements:

Ludwig Boltzmann taught mathematics, experimental physics and theoretical physics at several universities, but
theoretical physics was his main passion. He wrote his famous travelogue Reise eines deutschen Professors ins
Eldorado during this time.
Boltzmanns scientific approach was to attack the problem. He explained the second law of thermodynamics in the
early 1870s on the basis of the atomic theory of matter. He demonstrated that the second law could be interpreted by
blending the laws of mechanics, applied to the motions of the atoms, with the theory of probability. He clarified that
the second law is an essentially statistical law. He formulated most of the structure of statistical mechanics, which
was later researched by the mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs.
In addition to his contributions to statistical mechanics, Boltzmann made detailed calculations in the kinetic theory of
gases. He was probably the first person to understand the significance of James Clerk Maxwells theory of

electromagnetism, on which he wrote a two-volume treatise. Boltzmann also worked on a derivation for black-body
radiation based on the Stefans law, which was later termed by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz as a true pearl of theoretical
physics. His work in statistical mechanics was vocally criticized by Wilhelm Ostwald and the energeticists who
disregarded atoms and based physical science exclusively on energy conditions. They were unable to understand the
statistical nature of Boltzmanns logic.
His ideas were supported by the later discoveries in atomic physics in the early 1900, for instance Brownian motion,
which can only be explained by statistical mechanics.

Later Life and Death:

Ludwig Boltzmann was greatly demoralized due to the harsh criticism of his work. He committed suicide on
September 5, 1906 at Duino, Italy by hanging himself. He was 62 years old.

JOSEPH STEFAN
Both Josef Stefan's parents, although living near Klagenfurt in Austria-Hungary (now Austria), were of
Slovenian origin and spoke Slovenian. His father, Ales Stefan (1805-1872), worked as a miller of flour and
as a baker. Josef's mother, Marija Startinik (1815-1863), was employed as a maidservant. They were
both illiterate and were not married. Josef showed his brilliance when at elementary school in
Klagenfurt and he showed himself to have both the desire and ability to do well at the Gymnasium
which was recommended by his teachers. However, as an illegitimate child he would not be allowed to
attend a Gymnasium so, when he was eleven years old, his parents married to give Josef to opportunity
of a good education. Stefan entered the Gymnasium in Klagenfurt in 1846.
On 13 March 1848, eleven days before Stefan's thirteenth birthday, a Revolution began in Austria. It was
prompted by the Paris Revolution in February of the same year. People sought basic freedoms but the
country was divided and revolutionary and counter-revolutionary groups fought for power. Stefan was
at an impressionable age and the Revolution made him much more aware of the various ethnic
groupings and his own Slovenian origins. He reacted by writing Slovenian poetry which he published. His
poetry touched on scientific topics as well as sometime being fiercely patriotic while at other times it
was romantic. In 1853 he completed his studies at the Gymnasium as the top student in his class and,
although having a range of interests which he could have chosen to study at university, nevertheless was
quite certain that mathematics and physics were for him. He did consider joining the Benedictine Order
for a while but soon gave up the idea.
Stefan entered the University of Vienna in 1853. He graduated four years later with a degree in
mathematics and physics. He continued to write Slovenian poetry and prose throughout his student
years but after criticisms by the Slovenian literary experts, he gave this up around the time he graduated
from the University of Vienna. For the next year he taught physics for pharmacy students, then accepted
a position with Karl Ludwig at the Physiology Institute of Vienna University. Here he carried out
experimental work on the flow of water through tubes. During this period he was preparing to habilitate
which he did in 1858. Appointed a lecturer in mathematical physics at the University of Vienna in 1858,
he was elected to the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1860, then he became a professor at the
University of Vienna in 1863. In 1866 he became director of the Physical Institute at Vienna. This
Institute had been founded by Doppler in 1850.
His career at the University of Vienna included a spell as dean of the Philosophy Faculty in 1869-70, and
rector in 1876-77. We noted his election to the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1860. He became a full
member in 1865, was secretary of the Mathematical Sciences Class of the Academy from 1875, and was
vice-president of the Academy from 1885 until his death.
The programme of research that Stefan embarked on was wide ranging across a number of different
areas. He was a great admirer of Maxwell's contributions and was a major player in making his work
known on the Continent. It was in Maxwell's papers that he came across the following:It would be almost impossible to establish the value of the conductivity of a gas by direct experiment, as
the heat radiated from the sides of the vessel would be far greater than the heat conducted through the
air, even if current could be entirely prevented.

Of course Maxwell was right about the difficulties but Stefan was one to rise to a challenge, especially
when it came to devising experiments thought to be almost impossible. A new instrument would be
needed to determine the thermal conductivity of air, reasoned Stefan, and he set about devising one
which he called a diathermometer described in his paper Untersuchung ber die Wrmeleitung in
Gasen, Erste Abhandlung (1872). With this he was able to find a value of the thermal conductivity or air
which only has an error of about 10%. Maxwell, and also Clausius who had also worked on the problem,
had deduced that thermal conductivity should be independent of the pressure of the gas, and Stefan
was able to verify this experimentally. He went on the find the thermal conductivity of hydrogen, nitrous
oxide, methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, presenting the results in Untersuchung ber die
Wrmeleitung in Gasen, Zweite Abhandlung (1875).
Stefan showed empirically, in 1879, that total radiation from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature. This is the result for which he is best known and it was the work
which we have described above which set him up to undertake this next piece of research. In fact he
was led to the result by data produced by Tyndall in an 1865 book. Tyndall measured the radiation from
a platinum wire heated by an electric current. Stefan, using Tyndall's data, wrote in ber die Beziehung
zwischen der Wrmestrahlung und der Temperatur (1879):From weak red heat (about 525 C) to complete white heat (about 1200 C) the intensity of radiation
increases from 10.4 to 122, thus nearly twelvefold (more precisely 11.7). This observation caused me to
take the heat radiation as proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. The ratio of the
absolute temperature 273 + 1200 and 273 + 525 raised to the fourth power gives 11.6.
Stefan then applied it to determine the approximate temperature of the surface of the Sun. Boltzmann,
who was one of Stefan's students, showed in 1884 that this Stefan-Boltzmann law could be
demonstrated mathematically.
After this work, Stefan looked at the problem of the polar ice caps. Several ships had been trying to find
the Northwest Passage and in so doing had become stuck in the polar ice over the winter. The scientists
on board had taken recordings of the air temperature and ice growth. Stefan realised that this was a
variant of the problem he had been studying. Instead of considering the transfer of heat across a fixed
boundary, this problem involved the transfer of heat across a moving boundary. He presented his results
in ber die Theorie der Eisbildung, insbesondere ber die Eisbildung im Polarmeere (1889).
Other work by Stefan includes studies of surface tension and evaporation, during which he proposed
what today is called 'Stefan's number' and 'Stefan's law'. He also undertook research on alternating
electric currents, studying the induction coefficients of wire coils. His wide range of topics can be
illustrated by noting that he also made important contributions to optics, discovering secondary rings in
Newton's experiments.
The life which Stefan led was totally dedicated to science. He frequently slept in his laboratory and on
occasions would spend several days in the laboratory without ever leaving. Of course with such total
dedication to his work, Stefan had little time for friends and had hardly any social life. However he was
liked by his students who found him an excellent teacher who could enthuse them for physics. Although
his great strength as a researcher was on the experimental side, nevertheless he was an excellent
mathematician who could show insight on the theoretical side too. His most famous
student,Boltzmann said this of him (see for example [5]):-

He used the tools of advanced mathematics and understood how to present the most difficult
developments in the clearest and most lucid form without ever having to resort to mathematical
formalism. ... [He] never tried to flaunt [his] mental superiority. [His] uplifting humour, which turned the
most difficult discussion into an entertaining game for the student, made such a deep impression on me.
Boltzmann painted a picture of a wonderful research environment:Nothing diminishes the excellence of [Stefan's] character, the magic [he] worked on the young
academics. That magic could only be experienced personally. [The experience] stayed with me my whole
life as a symbol of serious, inspired experimental activity.
For most of his life Stefan was unmarried, too dedicated to his profession to have space for wife or
family. However, in 1891 when he was 56 years old, he married Marija Neumann who was a widow. He
lived only a little over a year after his marriage, suffering a stroke. He was buried in the Zentralfriedhof
in Vienna.

Blackbody Concepts
Incident energy striking an object from the surroundings, can be absorbed by the object,
reflected by the object, or transmitted through the object (if it is not opaque) as seen in
Figure 2-1. If the object is at a constant temperature, then the rate at which it emits energy
must equal the rate at which it absorbs energy, otherwise the object would cool (emittance
greater than absorption), or warm (emittance less than absorption). Therefore, for bodies at
constant temperature, the emittance (absorption), the reflection and the transmittance of
energy equals unity. Central to radiation thermometry is the concept of the blackbody. In
1860, Kirchhoff defined a blackbody as a surface that neither reflects or transmits, but
absorbs all incident radiation, independent of direction and wavelength. The fraction of
radiation absorbed by a real body is called absorptivity,
For an ideal blackbody, the
absorptivity is 1.0
. For non-blackbodies, the absorption is a fraction of the radiation
heat transfer incident on a surface, or
Hence, in term of radiation heat transfer, q":

In addition to absorbing all incident radiation, a blackbody is a perfect radiating body. To

describe the emitting capabilities of a surface in comparison to a blackbody, Kirchoff defined
emissivity
of a real surface as the ratio of the thermal radiation emitted by a surface at
a given temperature to that of a blackbody at the same temperature and for the same
spectral and directional conditions.
This value also must be considered by a non-contact temperature sensor when taking a
temperature measurement. The total emissivity for a real surface is the ratio of the total
amount of radiation emitted by a surface in comparison to a blackbody at the same
temperature. The tables beginning on p. 72 give representative emissivity values for a wide
range of materials. If precise temperature measurements are required, however, the
surface's actual emittivity value should be obtained. (Although often used interchangeably,
the terms emissivity and emittivity have technically different meanings. Emissivity refers to
a property of a material, such as cast iron, whereas emittivity refers to a property of a
specific surface.)
In 1879, Stefan concluded based on experimental results that the radiation emitted from
the surface of an object was proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of
the surface. The underlying theory was later developed by Boltzmann, who showed that the
radiation given off by a blackbody at absolute temperature
Ts (K) is equal to:

where ( is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

radiation for a non-blackbody, per unit area is defined as:

The heat transfer rate by

where Ts is the surface temperature and Tsur is the temperature of the surroundings.

Figure2-2:Spectral Distributions
Although some surfaces come close to blackbody performance, all real objects and
surfaces have emissivities less than 1. Non-blackbody objects are either graybodies, whose
emissivity does vary with wavelength, or non-graybodies, whose emissivities vary with
wavelength. Most organic objects are graybodies, with an emissivity between 0.90 and 0.95
(Figure 2-2). The blackbody concept is important because it shows that radiant power
depends on temperature. When using non-contact temperature sensors to measure the
energy emitted from an object, depending on the nature of the surface, the emissivity must
be taken into account and corrected. For example, an object with an emissivity of 0.6 is
only radiating 60% of the energy of a blackbody. If it is not corrected for, the temperature
will be lower than the actual temperature. For objects with an emissivity less than 0.9, the
heat transfer rate of a real surface is identified as:

The closest approximation to a blackbody is a cavity with an interior surface at a uniform

temperature Ts, which communicates with the surroundings by a small hole having a
diameter small in comparison to the dimensions of the cavity (Figure 2-3). Most of the
radiation entering the opening is either absorbed or reflected within the cavity (to ultimately
be absorbed), while negligible radiation exits the aperture. The body approximates a perfect
absorber, independent of the cavity's surface properties.

Figure 2-3: An Isothermal Blacbody Cavity

The radiation trapped within the interior of the cavity is absorbed and reflected so that the
radiation within the cavity is equally distributed--some radiation is absorbed and some
reflected. The incident radiant energy falling per unit time on any surface per unit area
within the cavity is defined as the irradiance
If the total irradiation G (W/m2)
represents the rate at which radiation is incident per unit area from all directions and at all
wavelengths, it follows that:

If another blackbody is brought into the cavity with an identical temperature as the interior
walls of the cavity, the blackbody will maintain its current temperature. Therefore, the rate
at which the energy absorbed by the inner surface of the cavity will equal the rate at which
it is emitted. In many industrial applications, transmission of radiation, such as through a
layer of water or a glass plate, must be considered. For a spectral component of the
irradiation, portions may be reflected, absorbed, and transmitted. It follows that:

In many engineering applications, however, the medium is opaque to the incident radiation.
Therefore,
and the remaining absorption and reflection can be treated as surface
phenomenon. In other words, they are controlled by processes occurring within a fraction of
a micrometer from the irradiated surface. It is therefore appropriate to say that the
irradiation is absorbed and reflected by the surface, with the relative magnitudes
of
depending on the wavelength and the nature of the surface.
Radiation transfer by a non-blackbody encompasses a wide range of wavelengths and
directions. The spectral hemispherical emissive power,
is defined as the rate at
which radiation is emitted per unit area at all possible wavelengths and in all possible
directions from a surface, per unit wavelength
and per unit surface area.
Although the directional distribution of surface emission varies depends on the surface
itself, many surfaces approximate diffuse emitters. That is, the intensity of emitted radiation
is independent of the direction in which the energy is incident or emitted. In this case, the
total, hemispherical (spectral) emissive power,
is defined as:

or

where Ie is the total intensity of the emitted radiation, or the rate at which radiant energy is
emitted at a specific wavelength, per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the
direction, per unit solid angle about this direction, and per unit wavelength. Notice that
is
a flux based on the actual surface area, where
is based on the projected area. In
approximating a blackbody, the radiation is almost entirely absorbed by the cavity. Any
radiation that exits the cavity is due to the surface temperature only.
The spectral characteristics of blackbody radiation as a function of temperature and
wavelength were determined by Wilhelm Wien in 1896. Wien derived his law for the
distribution of energy in the emission spectrum as:

where
(b for blackbody) represents the intensity of radiation emitted by a blackbody at
temperature T, and wavelength
per unit wavelength interval, per unit time, per unit solid
angle, per unit area. Also, h = 6.626 x 10-24 Js and k = 1.3807 x 10-23 JK-1are the
universal Planck and Boltzman constants, respectively; co= 2.9979 x 108 m/s is the speed of
light in a vacuum, and T is the absolute temperature of the blackbody in Kelvins (K). Due
to the fact that deviations appeared between experimental results and the equation, Planck
suggested in 1900 a refinement that better fit reality:

It is from this equation that Planck postulated his quantum theory. A more convenient
expression for this equation, referred to as the Planck distribution law (Figure 2-4), is:

where the first and second radiation constants are

and
Planck's distribution shows that as wavelength varies,
emitted radiation varies continuously. As temperature increases, the total amount of energy
emitted increases and the peak of the curve shifts to the left, or toward the shorter
wavelengths. In considering the electromagnetic spectrum, it is apparent that bodies with
very high temperatures emit energy in the visible spectrum as wavelength decreases.
Figure 2-4 also shows that there is more energy difference per degree at shorter
wavelengths.

Figure 2-4: Planck Prediction of Blackbody Emissive Power

From Figure 2-4, the blackbody spectral distribution has a maximum wavelength value,
lmax, which depends on the temperature. By differentiating equation 2.12 with respect to
and setting the result equal to zero:

where the third radiation constant, C3 = 2897.7

K. This is known as Wien's
displacement law. The dashed line in Figure 2-4 defines this equation and locates the
maximum radiation values for each temperature, at a specific wavelength. Notice that
maximum radiance is associated with higher temperatures and lower wavelengths.

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The total power per unit area from a blackbody radiator can be obtained by integrating
the Planck radiation formula over all wavelengths. The radiated power per unit area as
a function of wavelength is

so the integrated power is

It is helpful to make the substitution

Making the substitution gives

Making use of the standard form integral

gives the final form of the Stefan-Boltzmann law

THE CONCEPTS MAP OF BLACK BODY

Abstract
There are several mechanisms whereby thermal energy heat- can be transferred
between
two bodies of different temperature. The flow of heat is of great interest and use in
engineering applications and thermodynamical processes. This is the mechanism
responsible for the absorption of thermal energy from the sun. One of these
mechanisms is
Thermal Radiation. This was the most complex to understand of the three. In light of
modern
Physics and electromagnetic radiation theory, this flow of thermal energy is now
understood
to be electromagnetic radiation from the infra-red and visible light sections of the
spectrum.
The Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation was the first successful model of the
experimental
data obtained by heating a radiating blackbody and analysing the colour and thermal
energy
flux at higher temperatures. This law describes a dependency upon energy per unit
area of
output radiation on the 4th power of the objects temperature. Qualitatively warmer
objects
emit more radiation with smaller wavelengths. This empirical relationship of P~T4
was
investigated in this experiment by using an incandescent Tungsten filament lightbulb
and
heating it by applying a higher current to it in successive steps, whilst analysing the
voltage

(and hence Temperature of) a thermocouple stack referred to as a thermopile placed

level to
the radiating bulb. It was found that the colour of the filament became whiter as its
temperature increased, and that in fact the output energy per unit area is related to the
filaments temperature to the power 4 by means of a plot of thermopile potential ( a
measure
of its temperature) versus filament temperature converted via its resistance. Indeed
the
Stefan Boltzmann Law of radiation is a good description of the radiative flow of heat
from a
hot object to its surroundings.
PHY 263 Practical Experiment :
Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation
ALISSA KRIEL
11123002
Practical performed on 18 October 2013
(Group 2 , Friday session)
Immediate Laboratory partner : S. Congolo
Other group members : M.L. Jacobs, K. Van Der Laarse
The analysis of the power per unit area emitted by a
Tungsten filament as a function of filament temperature
to verify the 4th power relation of the Stefan-Boltzmann
Law of radiation
Introduction

The movement and flow of heat is a cardinally important thermodynamical process

that is at
the same time a life-source for Earth and a property that can be used in many modern
applications of technology and industry. The heat from the sun provides the surface of
the
earth with the necessary light and heat for nature to thrive. The important question is
how
this heat travels through space to our atmosphere or generally how heat is
transferred
between two bodies of differing temperature. ([4], p100)
There are three mechanisms whereby thermal energy is transferred between objects :
Conduction (by direct contact) , Convection (by means of a fluid medium around the
objects)
and Thermal Radiation, the mechanism of interest in this practical investigation. ([1],
p I-4)
The radiation of thermal energy has been a field of great interest and a source of great
confusion for many scientists over the years. It was found that an object that absorbed
thermal energy also emitted thermal energy. An ideal radiator of heat (and hence a
total
absorber of heat) was labelled a Blackbody Radiator. Experimentally acquired data of
intensity of radiation from a heated body yielded spectral distribution graphs that
could not
be accurately derived from theory in the 19th century.
An example of a failed theory for the shape of the spectral distribution graph is the
RayleighJeans formula that relies on classical physics theory. The formula somewhat
approaches the

experimental data for long wavelengths of emitted radiation, but deviates badly for
radiation
with shorter wavelengths. The experimental data basically showed that the maximum
irradiated lights wavelength tended to decrease as the temperature of the object was
increased, which Wiens displacement law describes. The second trend noted in the
experimental results is that the total power of radiation increased with increasing
temperature. This observation was accurately quantified by considering the power
radiated
per unit area as a function of object Temperature This is the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
of
radiation : ([2], p 96-100)
_ = ____......................(1)
Planck further investigated functions that could describe the spectral distribution of
radiation
due to temperature, assuming Maxwells electromagnetic wave theory. He came to the
conclusion that the electromagnetic thermal radiation particles can only have discrete
energies. Therefore, the heat energy must be radiated by EM waves, which we mostly
encounter as Infrared radiation.
In order to physically measure the thermal radiation given off by a Tungsten filament,
it is
necessary to manipulate the equations of theory, whereafter the 4th power relation
between
Irradiance per unit area and Temperature can be determined. This proportionality is
valid for
the Non-Blackbody radiator filament since it has an absorption coefficient of less than
one.

Plancks Law of radiation:

__, __ = ______
__ __
______
.....................(2)
By integrating the above equation over all wavelengths, we obtain the StefanBoltzmann
Law:
____ = ___
__ . __
__ . __............................(3),
where =
___
__ . __
__ = 5.67 x 10-8 W.m-2.K-4
The thermal energy flux which reaches a detector a fixed distance from the heated
source is
proportional to P(T). As this thermal energy reaches a detector, which in our case
is a
series of thermocouples whose potential difference reading indicates temperature
of
the detector absorbing the thermal radiation, the potential difference, Utherm is
proportional to the 4th power of the temperature of the heat source.

For the thermocouple pile detector at room temperature, a correction must be

incorporated.
Finally, taking logarithms on both sides of the proportionality:
!"__#$ = %&'()*'). __............................(4)
Thus, a straight line trend with a gradient of 4 will arise in a Logarithmic-Logarithmic
plot if
the thermal radiation obeys the Law in (3):
+&,!"__#$ = +&,%&'()*') + 4+&,_............................(5)
The Tungsten filament used in the incandescent lamp in this experiments temperature
could
be determined by measuring its current at an applied potential difference after which
its
Resistance could be calculated using Ohms Law. The resistance of the filament at
0oC is
given by: ([3], p 143)
/0 = 1_"2_
_34."235."2_
...................(6),
where tR denotes the room temperature in oC, and R(tR) is the filament resistance at
room
temperature.
Finally, the temperature of the filament related to its measured resistance at any
Temperature T is :
_ = 273 + _
_5 . 9:;_ + 4< =1_>_

1?
1B D....................................(7)
Method:
In order to finally utilize equation (5), which is the double-logarithmic plot, we will
firstly need
to measure the thermocouple stacks potential difference (Utherm) at its exposure to
the
heated filament at various intensities or equivalently powers of radiation. The
brighter the
filament glows, by Wiens displacement law the hotter it is and thus the greater will
be the
power with which it emits thermal radiation which the thermocouple stack will absorb
to
increase its own temperature and thus Utherm values.
These voltages are very small, and in order to record data that may be quantitatively
manipulated, an amplifier was connected between the thermopile and the voltmeter.
Output
voltage readings of the order of 0.1 mV could be expected.
Before the bulb was placed nearby the sensor, The reading of the Utherm voltmeter
was
zeroed by means of adjusting the amplifier.
The thermopile sensor was placed approximately 29.5 cm away from the lamp, and
level to
the light bulb. A DC power supply to the lamp was connected, along with an ammeter
to
monitor applied current and a voltmeter to record Potential difference across the
filament in

order to compute Resistance via Ohms Law.

To compute the filaments resistance at 0oC via Equation (6), Room temperature was
recorded and the resistance of the filament at room temperature was determined by
connecting a 100 resistor in series between the power supply and the filament, and
measuring the voltage across it at several supplied currents between 100mA and
200mA to
prevent heating of the filament which would of course change its resistance.
When this was complete, the resistor was removed, and the light bulb was supplied
with
electricity at Voltages between 0.5 V and 7.0 V, several measurements of the current
through the bulb and the thermocouple stack Potential difference being made.
The corresponding Filament Temperature at each recorded step could now be
computed
using equation (7).
Results:
Below follows a table containing several measured voltages and current of the W
filament at
room temperature, as well as calculated resistances and an average resistance at room
temperature.
Another table containing the measured filament current, filament voltage and
Thermopile
Potentials follows that, along with computed Reistance of the filament and
corresponding
Temperatures of the Filament.

Using the applicable data, a Log-Log plot of Thermopile potential as a function of

Filament
temperature is shown.
Table 1 : Measured values of current and Voltage over the Tungsten filament at
room
Temperature 26oC
Applied Current I (mA)
1 mA
Voltage over Filament (V)
0.001 V
Computed Resistance*
() 0.01
100 0.023 0.23
125 0.029 0.23
150 0.034 0.23
175 0.040 0.23
200 0.046 0.23
The Resistance was computed via / = E
F
Average Filament Resistance at 26oC :
R (tR) = 0.23 0.01
Thus, the filaments resistance at 0oC by equation (6):
/0 =

0.23H
1 + ;. 26 + <. _26__
= 0.20 0.01
Table 2 : Measured Values of Filament Current, Filament Voltage and
Thermopile
detector Potential Utherm, and computed values of resistance and Temperature
of
Filament
Applied
Voltage to
Filament (V)
0.001 V
Applied
Current to
Filament (A)
0.001 A
Resistance of
Filament *
() 0.01
Temperature
of Filament*
T ( K)
0.1 K

Utherm (mV)
0.1 mv
1.257 1.857 0.68 700.5 0.1
2.504 2.702 0.93 960.6 0.2
3.109 3.027 1.03 1047.0 0.3
3.538 3.289 1.08 1088.2 0.4
4.039 3.557 1.14 1138.4 0.5
4.427 3.738 1.18 1179.0 0.6
4.849 3.920 1.24 1222.3 0.8
5.460 4.192 1.30 1275.7 0.9
5.95 4.430 1.34 1308.4 1.1
6.53 4.631 1.41 1361.9 1.3
7.08 4.843 1.46 1403.0 1.5
Resistance was calculated by Ohms Law.
The Temperature of the Filament was calculated using equation (7). For the first line
in Table 2:
_ = 273 +
1
2<
.JK;_ + 4< 9
0.68
0.20

 1D M
= 700.5 0.1 K
The light bulb started by glowing a very faint red, and as the supply current
increased, and hence the resistance and Temperature of the filament, the colour of
the filament turned progressively brighter, through yellow to white, as predicted by
Wiens Displacement law.
y = 1E-13x4.149
R = 0.951
0.1
1
10
1 10 100 1000 10000
UTherm (mV) T
(
K)
Graph 1 : Double Logarithmic Axes plot of
recorded Thermopile voltage as a function of
Filament temperature
In Graph 1, we can see that the power trendline is of the form y = constant.x4 when
rounded.
By mathematical manipulation, one ends with equation (5) in the form:
+&,!"__#$ = log _1 10__R_ + 4.15+&,_. Hence the slope of this line is 4.15 }
0.08 .

Discussion
It is seen in Table 1 and Table 2 that the Tungsten Filaments resistance increases
with
increasing temperature, which is to be expected since metals behave in this way and
Tungsten is a metal. This increasing resistance/Temperature resulted in successively
brighter colour of the lamp filament, eventually reaching a bright white as very high
temperatures were reached.
The corresponding increase in Thermopile potential indicates that as the filament
became
hotter, it radiated more heat which the thermopile absorbed and increased its own
Temperature by. The Resultant plot in Graph indicates that the heat radiated from the
filament is related to the 4th power of filament temperature. Thus, the warmer the
light
filament became, the more thermal energy per unit area it radiated.
The thermopiles increase in temperature is due to the absorption of this heat.
The actual slope of the trendline in Graph 1 is 4.15 0.08. The exact theoretically
expected
value from the Stefan Boltzmann Law is 4. Within error limits of 95% confidence
level, the
experimentally acquired value of the slope is in agreement with the theory. The slight
deviation may be due to external interfering sources of heat influencing the
temperature of
the thermopile, and skewing results, or due the fact that the filament is not an actual
Blackbody radiator which is the ideal emitter/absorber of radiation on which the
model is

based. Instead, the filament is Grey body that approximates this behaviour.
This is a result that indicates that the Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation is an
accurate
model for the Heat flow via radiation from a heated object.
Conclusion
The experimental results agree with the answer expected were the Stefan-Boltzmann
Law of
radiation accepted as true. The experimental results indicate that the thermal energy
per unit
area radiated by a heated object is a function of its temperature to the power 4 as is
the
empirical relationship in the aforementioned law. Adherence to this law implies that
the
thermal radiation complies with the wave-particle duality of modern physics.
Thus, the warmer a body becomes, the more powerfully it emits radiation. As this
thermal
radiation is principally Electromagnetic radiation which consists of photons, they may
be
reflected, as light is off a mirror. Therefore, a shiny object can be anticipated to reflect
a
good deal of incoming thermal radiation photons instead of absorbing them making
a shiny
object less susceptible to absorbing thermal radiation (it is noted that conduction
between
the shiny object and a warmer body is a different story, for example a polished tea
kettle on
hot stove element which will most definitely become very warm). A blackened object
will not

tend to absorb much of the thermal radiation photons, in contrast to a shiny one. And,
as the
blackened object absorbs more heat, in order to remain in thermal equilibrium it must
also be
an excellent emitter of thermal energy. Thus, this is why a blackened object will feel
warmer
than a shiny object at the same temperature.
Thermal radiation may also explain why cloudy nights are warmer than clear ones. On
cloudy nights, the earth which radiates heat will emit radiation toward the sky.
The clouds
can absorb some of this thermal energy, and also re-emit thermal energy. Thus, the
escape
of thermal energy away from the ground is slowed somewhat. On clear evenings, the
thermal energy radiated by the earth will continue to move outward without being
absorbed
closer to ground level, thus resulting in a continuous steady loss of thermal energy as
no
sunlight re-heats the surface level- hence the cooler tinge in the air.
References:
[1] Janna W.S., 2009, Engineering Heat Transfer, Third edition, p.I-1 I-23, 11-1
11-31.
[2] Thornton S.T. & Rex A., 2013, Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th
Edition, p. 96 100.
[3] PHYWE Physics laboratory experiments manual, 2008, p. 140-145
[4] Backman D, Seeds M.,2010, Horizons: Exploring the universe, 11th edition, p 99 -

101

Objectives
The aim of this laboratory is to introduce the basic properties of thermal
radiation .Through a series of simple experiments we will examine the
emissive power of energy radiated by a body as a function of its
temperature, its propagation through space and the temperature
dependence of spectral distribution of thermal radiation.We will also
investigate the emissivity of different surfaces and the transmission
properties of glass as a function of temperature.

Theoretical Background
Thermal Radiation
Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by a body as result of its finite
temperature.In contrast to heat transfer through convection and
conduction, radiation heat transfer does not require a medium and
can occur in a vacuum. This is because thermal radiation energy is a
type of electromagnetic (E-M) radiation and like other types of E-M
radiation it can travel can travel through vacuum at the speed of light.
Since it is the only mode of heat transfer that can take place through
vacuum, radiative heat transfer is the mode of heat exchange
between the Sun and Earth; hence the term solar radiation.

Fig. 1 - Radiative properties of a surface

Fig. 1 shows that when radiant energy G (W/m2) is incident on a

surface, portions of it can be reflected, absorbed and/or transmitted.
The relative fractions that are reflected, absorbed and transmitted are
determined by the radiative properties r, and t, the reflectivity,
absorptivity and transmissivity, respectively, of that surface. From
conservation of energy we also know that:
r++t=1
In addition to the above, the surface also emits energy via radiation
where the amount of energy emitted by the surface is given by the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
E=AT4
In this equation, s is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and is equal
to 5.67 x10-8 W/m2K4; A is the surface are, is the emissivity of the
surface, a surface property similar to r, and t and T is the absolute
temperature of the body in degrees Kelvin. The emissivity of a body
can vary between 0 and 1. A surface with = 1 is a perfect radiator
and is referred to as a black body radiator; for all real surfaces, < 1.
The Stefan-Boltzmann law will be verified in this experiment.

Thermal

Radiation

Spectrum

Electromagnetic radiation, like all other forms of radiation, travels at the

speed of light, which is related to its wavelength, and frequency n
by

c=
where c = 3 x108m/s is the speed of light. Thermal radiation spans only a
portion of the entire electromagnetic spectrum, which ranges from Xrays to Microwaves. The thermal spectrum spans

Fig. 2 Thermal radiation portion of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

(Courtesy of EML 3015, C. Shih)
a range of 0.1m - 100m, which, as shown in Fig. 2 includes the entire
visible spectrum. Whether thermal radiation is visible, and at what color,
is a function of the portion of the radiation that falls within the visible
spectrum. Not only is the total amount of thermal radiation emitted by
a surface - described by the Stefan-Botzmanns law - a direct
function of temperature, how this energy is distributed over the thermal
spectrum as a function of wavelength, is also a related to the surface
temperature.
The Planck Distribution gives the spectral distribution of thermal
radiation of a Black Body as a function of temperature. This distribution
function can be found in any standard undergraduate heat transfer
text. Using Plancks Distribution, the spectral distributions from black
bodies at various temperatures are shown in Fig. 3. The figure shows
that energy radiated varies continuously with wavelength at any given
temperature. It also illustrates that at lower temperatures most of the
energy the energy is outside the visible spectrum. However, as the
temperature rises, more and more energy is shifted to shorter

wavelengths and into the visible spectrum region. The dependence of

spectral distribution on temperature also explains why the

Fig. 2 Spectral distribution of a Black body emissive power using

Plancks Distribution
(adapted from EML 3015 notes by Dr. Shih)
color of a body changes as it is heated: from black to dark red to
bright red to yellow and finally to white hot. The overall intensity of the
visible light from an object also increases with temperature since a
larger percentage of the total energy radiated is in the visible
spectrum.
Solar radiation has a spectrum very similar to that of a black body at
5800K. As a result, a large portion of solar radiation is visible. The
reflectivity, absorptivity and transmissivity of most materials are also a
function of wavelength of the incident radiation. Hence they may

transmit radiation from sources above (or below) certain temperatures,

i.e. within a certain range of wavelengths, while blocking light from
sources at temperatures outside that range. This wavelength
dependence of material transmission properties is responsible for the
greenhouse effect and will also be explored in this experiment.

Apparatus
The following main components will be used to conduct different parts
of
this
experiment.
Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp:
This lamp will serve as a high temperature source of thermal radiation.
By adjusting the voltage and current supplied to this lamp, filament
temperatures as high as 3000C can be obtained. The voltage and
current supplied to this lamp can be monitored using a voltmeter and
an ammeter, respectively. These values can be used to determine the
resistances of the filament at various temperatures, which can then be
used, calculate the temperature of the filament.
(IMPORTANT: Never supply more than 13V and 3A to this lamp)
Variable Power Supply:
This power supply will be used to operate the Stefan-Boltzmann lamp.
Be very careful while using this supply, the current output is very high.
IMPORTANT: Never supply more than 13V and 3A to the lamp)

Radiation Sensor:
The Pasco TD-8553 radiation sensor produces a voltage output, which is
proportional to the intensity of radiation incident upon the sensor. The
output voltage ranges from microvolts to 100 millivolts.

Thermal Radiation (Leslies) Cube:

The cube has four different surfaces with different radiative properties.
It can be heated up to temperatures of 120C by a light bulb placed
inside the cube. The cube temperature is measured by measuring the
resistance of a thermistor embedded inside the cube. Once the
resistance is measured the temperature can be obtained using the
temperature vs. resistance calibration provided to you by the Teaching
Assistants.
Multimeters:
Three multimeters will be provided to measure the voltages, currents,
and
resistances
of
the
above
components.

Experimental

Procedure

NOTE: Please record all you measurements in appropriate tables or

spaces
in
the
data
sheets.
I. Verification of Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law will be verified in this experiment. You will
also measure the transmission properties of glass as a function of
temperature
of
the
radiation
source.
1. Connect the voltmeter, the ammeter and the Power supply to the
Stefan-Boltzmann lamp as shown in Fig. 4 .

Figure 4
The voltmeter should be connected to the binding posts of the lamp.
2. Connect the radiation sensor to a multimeter and place it
approximately 6 cm away from the lamp, as shown.
3. Remove all other objects in the vicinity of the radiation sensor to
ensure that its output is not influenced by extraneous radiation
sources.
4. Before turning on the lamp, measure and record the ambient room
temperature,Tref and the resistance of the lamp filament, Rref.
5. Turn on the power supply and set it to the lowest voltage reading, V,
in Table 1 in the data sheet. Measure and record the current, I, and
the radiation sensor output voltage.
6. Repeat step 5 for each voltage setting, V, in Table 1.
7. At V = 3 Volts place the glass square between the sensor and the
bulb and record the radiation sensor output, repeat for V = 10 Volts.
Note: Record the sensor reading at each setting quickly. In between
readings, cover the sensor with the insulating foam blocks provided.
This prevents the sensor surface from overheating and providing
erroneous readings.