1

Detection of Arcing Faults: Modelling,

Simulation, Testing and Algorithms Aspects
V.Terzija, N.I.Elkalashy, G.Preston, V.Stanojevi, G.trbac

Abstract A new adaptive numerical algorithm for overhead

line protection is presented in this paper. It uses an advanced
fault model taking into account the arcing phenomena at the
fault location and an efficient parameter estimation technique. A
dynamic arc model is included in fault modelling to represent the
arc interaction with the transmission system. Performance of the
proposed estimation technique is extensively verified at different
arc model parameters. The algorithm is derived in the time
domain and it is based on synchronized acquisition of currents
and voltages at both line terminals. It is tested through
computer-based simulations of a line connecting two active
networks.
Index TermsNumerical protection, fault location, electrical
arc, synchronized sampling, parameter estimation.

I. INTRODUCTION

fault locator is an essential complement to the

commonly used line protection. The fault locator
provides the distance to fault, together with information about
the measuring loop that has been used in the calculation. In
addition, both pre-fault and fault quantities of voltages and
currents are available. Various fault location methods, which
use one- and two-terminal information, have been developed
in the past. Two-terminal fault location methods can be only
used if the synchronized phasor measurement is available.
Some selected papers in the field of overhead lines fault
location and protection are published in [19].
New results in the field of development of fault locators and
disturbance recorders are reported in this paper. For this
purpose, a new two-terminal numerical algorithm for
overhead line protection and disturbance record analysis is
presented and used as a representative example. The new
algorithm determines the fault location, fault nature (transient,
arcing or permanent, non-arcing fault) and the tower footing
resistance. The critical issues such as modelling, simulation,
testing and algorithm development will be discussed in the
paper.

II. MODELLING OF FAULTY TRANSMISSION LINE

Realistic modelling of the fault is crucial in the
development of modern numerical algorithms. For a single
line to ground arcing fault on a transmission line, a detailed
three-phase representation of the faulted line is presented in
Fig. 1. It is assumed that currents and voltages are
synchronously acquired at both line terminals and
simultaneously processed using a central Intelligent Electronic
Device (IED). Based on the signals available, it is necessary to
determine the distance to the fault, l, the arc voltage
amplitude, Ua, and the tower footing resistance RF.
l

uA3
uA2

RELIABLE

uA1= uA

D-l

iA3

iB3

iA2

iB2

iA1

iL

iR

ua
ia

iB1

uB3
uB2
uB1 = uB

Electric arc
uF

RF

Fig. 1. Three-phase representation of the faulted line.

The arc appearing at the fault location can be considered as

a long arc in free air. Its nonlinear physical nature causes
distortions in the voltage and current waveforms at each end
of the transmission line. The arc voltage waveform can be
modelled as a pure square wave as follows [10-12]:
u a (t ) = U a sgn (ia )

(1)
The arc voltage model (1) is used in developing the new
algorithm for overhead line protection. By using the
symmetrical components approach, the left line terminal
voltage va can be represented as follows:
di
di 0
(2)
u A = RAP iL + K RiL0 + LPA L + K L L + u F
dt
dt

where R AP , R A0 , LPA and L0A are positive and zero sequence

V. Terzija and G. Preston are with the School of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, The University of Manchester, UK (e-mail: terzija@ieee.org,
g.preston@student.manchester.ac.uk).
N. I. Elkalashy is with Power Systems and High Voltage Engineering,
Helsinki
University
of
Technology
(TKK),
Finland
(e-mail:
elkalashy@ieee.com ).
V. Stanojevi and G.trbac are with Imperial College London, Faculty of
Electrical Engineering, London, UK (e-mail: v.stanojevic@imperial.ac.uk,
g.strbac@imperial.ac.uk).

line resistance and inductance, respectively, iL and iL0 are left

line terminal fault current and zero sequence fault current, u F
is fault voltage, and K R =

L0A LPA
RA0 RAP
and
are
K
=
L
RAP
LPA

the compensation coefficients taking into account the zero-

2
sequence current flowing through the line. These coefficients
can be calculated in advance and for a given line they are
constant. The fault current ia is the sum of the currents flowing
to the fault location from both line terminals:
ia = i L + i R

(3)

Taking into account the arc model (1), the fault voltage at
the fault location, uF, can be expressed as follows:
u F = U a sgn(ia ) + RF ia

(4)

By substituting equations (3) and (4) into equation (2) one

obtains:
di
di 0
u A = RAP iL + K RiL0 + LPA L + K L L +
dt
(5)
dt

U a sgn(iL + iR ) + RF (iL + iR )

Line parameters can be expressed as products of the line

length and its per unit values, so that equation (5) becomes:
di

l +
u A = r P i L + K R i L0 l + l P L + K L
dt
dt
sgn(i L + i R ) U a + (i L + i R ) R F

di L0

(6)

Where: l is the unknown distance from the left line terminal to

the fault location, Ua is the unknown arc voltage magnitude
and RF is the unknown fault resistance. Equation (6) can then
be rewritten in the following simplified form:
u A = ( K 1 + K 2 ) l + sgn( K 3 ) U a + K 4 R F

(7)

that N samples are simultaneously processed by the algorithm.

From this, the measurements are obtained during the finite
time interval Tdw (data window). For each sample, a single
model equation (7) can be written. It results in N equations
which can be represented in a matrix/vector form. In this way,
the following expressions are obtained:

measurement vector of voltage samples:

u A (t1 ) u 1

u A = # = #
u A (t N ) u N

(9)

coefficients of suitable model matrices:

P
di 0
0
P di
r iL + K R iL + l L + K L L
E1
dt
dt
E = # =
#

di
di 0
E N r P iL + K R iL0 + l P L + K L L
dt
dt

sgn( K 3,1 ) sgn[iL + iR ]

sgn(K 3 ) =
#
#
=
sgn( K 3, N ) sgn[iL + iR ]

K 4,1 iL + iR

K4 = # =
#
K 4, N iL + iR

( t = t1 )

(t = t N )

(t = t N )

( t = t1 )

(t = t N )

( t = t1 )

(10)

(11)

(12)

For a given data window, the following holds:

Where parameters K1-K4 can be simply determined from
equation (6). Note that coefficients K3 and K4 are identical.
For simplicity, a new variable E can be introduced:

E = K1 + K 2

(8)

Expression (7) represents the generic mathematical model of

the measured voltage in the faulted phase, which is the
starting point for designing a suitable estimation technique for
estimating the unknown model parameters (fault distance, arc
voltage amplitude and tower footing resistance).
In the algorithm presented, the first order derivatives of the
corresponding quantities with respect to time are calculated by
parabolic interpolation based on several samples around the
considered time instant. Once the second order polynomial is
defined, it is simple to calculate the necessary time
derivatives. From this, the unknown parameters are estimated
based on the uniformly sampled sequence of samples.

l
l

u A = [E sgn(K 3 ) K 4 ] U a + = J U a +
R F
R F
where is a matrix formed by vectors E, sgn(K3) and K4:

J = [E sgn(K 3 ) K 4 ]

If all input signals are uniformly sampled with the sampling

frequency fs and the sampling period Ts = 1/fs, then the value
of t at a discrete time index is given by t = tm = mTs. Assume

(14)

In (13), vector represents a random noise, which models

all measurement and modelling errors. Using the Least Error
Squares technique, the optimal estimates are obtained as
follows:

[l

Ua

( )

RF ]Topt = J T J

( )

Where J T J
III. LEAST ERROR SQUARES PARAMETER ESTIMATION

(13)

1 T

1 T

J uA

(15)

is the pseudo-inverse matrix of the model

matrix J. The number of unknowns determines the model

order n (here n = 3). Even for ordinary hardware platforms the
inversion of a 3x3 matrix is a simple task, so the presented
algorithm can be easily implemented in modern IEDs.

3
IV. SIMULATED TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
A. Arcing Fault Model
Transmission line arcing faults are widely experienced in
power systems and are usually categorized as transient faults.
The modelling of arcing faults and their interaction with the
power system is quite important for the design phase of the
proposed adaptive autoreclosing [13-16].
Several models are used for describing the behaviour of
arcs. Most models are used for circuit breaker arc modelling
[17-20] and several of them have been applied to the
modelling of long arcs and arcing faults [13-16]. Recently the
existing dynamic model has been modified for the
representation of short arcs [21].
There are various concepts for arc modelling and the most
popular rules depend on thermal equilibrium. The thermal
model has the longest history of the dynamic arc models, since
Cassie [17] and Mayr [18] introduced the first description of
arc conductivity in the form of a first order differential
equation. These dynamic equations are improved and
modified to increase the models' validity and to reduce the
computational burden. The thermal long arc model of Kizilcay
[13] and model of Johns [14] have been recently introduced
for modelling the arcing fault as:
g=

(G g )dt

Transmission Line

Power Network

(16)

where g is the time varying arc conductance, G=|i|/Varc is the

stationary arc conductance, |i| is the absolute value of the arc
current, Varc is a constant arc voltage parameter, and is the
arc time constant. There are two unknown parameters needed
in our application, Varc and , of which Varc describes the arc
voltage clipping level, whereas the arc hysteresis in the
simulation phase is sensitive to .
Considering the bilateral interaction between the EMTP
power network and the Transient Analysis Control System
(TACS) field, the arc equation (16) and its parameters are
implemented using the universal arc representation [22]. With
the help of Fig. 2, the current is transposed into the TACS
field using type 91 sensors. This is used as an input to the arc
model that is solved in the TACS exploiting integrator device
type 58 with the aid of FORTRAN expressions. In the next
step, the computed arc resistance is sent back into the network
using TACS controlled resistance type 91 and so on.
Accordingly, the arcing fault interaction with the network and
the corresponding transients are simulated.

SW
R

TACS Field
90

91

91
i(t)

v(t)

Dynamic arc model

Fig. 2. EMTP network of arcing fault.

created by ATPDraw which is a graphical interface used to

simplify the ATP/EMTP processing [24].
Single line-to-ground arcing/arcless faults are simulated at
different locations of the line. Here the results for close
(10 km) and remote (90 km) faults with and without arcing
will be analysed. In all cases, the fault inception occurred at
t = 23 ms and the tower footing resistance was RF = 2 with
arcing/arcless where the aforementioned arcing model (16) is
considered. The parameters of equation (16) are determined so
as to match different arc characteristics, in which, Ua is fixed
to 5.2 kV and is varied in the range of 20-1330 s. In Fig. 3,
the corresponding arc characteristics for two selected cases are
presented. Such characteristics are used for an intensive
evaluation of the proposed fault locator as discussed in the
following section.
The pre-fault load existed before the fault. It is assumed
that all phasors were perfectly synchronized, i.e. that the
synchronization error was 0 degrees. The sampling frequency
was fs = 3200 Hz (64 sample/T0), where T0 is the fundamental
frequency period, equal to 20 ms for 50 Hz signals. Data
window size was Tdw = 40 ms (128 samples per data window).
In the next section, the results of the unknown parameter
estimation will be presented. Both the close (10 km) and
remote (90 km) faults with and without arcing will be
considered.
7000

9000
[V]

[V]

6000

4000

3000
1000
0
-2000

B. Computer Simulated Tests

The validity of the algorithm was tested using simulation of
faults on a 100 km long line [23].The transmission system and
the arcing fault are combined in a single arrangement for
further testing. The system and arc interaction are simulated
using the ATP/EMTP program in which the processing is

-3000
-5000

-8000
-20

-6000

-10

(f ile sy stem2.pl4; x-v ar c:FA

-SW) v :SW

10

20

*10 3

30

-F_R

a- Case 1; =20 s
Fig. 3. Two typical arc characteristics.

-9000
-20

-10

(f ile sy stem2.pl4; x-v ar c:FA

-SW) v :SW

10

20

-F_R

b- Case 2; =550 s

*10 3

30

4
B. Fault Nature Detection

In this section the following four analysed cases are

presented: 10 and 90 km arcing and arcless faults. In all
simulated cases, the tower footing resistance was RF = 2 .
During the algorithm testing, true results are also obtained
with greater values, e.g. RF = 100 ., or RF = 0 . The
analysis is carried out considering three issues: the first is
related to the comparison between two and one port fault
locators; the second emphasises the importance of modelling
the electrical arc for adaptive autoreclosure purposes; the third
considers the sensitivity of the numerical algorithm presented
to the wave form of the arc voltage.
A. Comparison between one- and two-port algorithms
The presented algorithm, which uses synchronized phasors
technology, is compared with the corresponding algorithm
based on measurements from a single line terminal. A 90 km
arcing fault is used to demonstrate the advanced features of
two-port algorithms. From Fig. 4, it is obvious that the new
two-port algorithm delivers a more accurate distance to the
fault. On the other hand, from Fig. 5, it can be concluded that
the arc voltage amplitude estimated by the one port algorithm
is not stable, so it cannot be used as a reliable criterion for
controlling autoreclosure.

Using fault location methods, which include arc voltage in the

fault model, it is possible to detect the nature of the fault.
Simply by evaluating the estimated arc voltage amplitude it is
possible to distinguish between arcing (transient) and arcless
(permanent) faults. In the case of the arcing fault, the arc is
simulated using a square wave to match the assumed arc
waveform described in the modelling process as in (4). For a
90 km fault, in Figs. 6-9 the estimated fault distance, tower
footing resistance and arc voltages for an arcing and an arcless
fault are respectively presented. In all cases exact values are
obtained. In Figs. 8 and 9 the autoreclosing control signals c
are presented also. For an arcing fault, it has a true (logical 1)
value, so the autoreclosing is released. Conversely, for an
arcless fault, it has a false (logical 0) value, so the
autoreclosure is interlocked.
9 4
9 3
9 2

l [km]

V. ESTIMATION RESULTS

9 1
9 0
8 9
8 8
8 7

0 .0 2

0 .0 4

0 .0 6

0 .0 8

0 .1

t [s ]

Fig. 6. Estimated fault arc voltage magnitude 90 km arcing/arcless faults.

100
T w o po rt
O ne po rt

98

3
2 .8

96

2 .6

94

2 .4

90

2 .2
R []

l [km]

92

2
1 .8

88

1 .6

86
1 .4

84

1 .2

82
80

0 .0 2

0 .0 4

0 .0 6

0 .0 8

0 .1

t [s ]

0 .0 2

0 .0 4

0 .0 6

0 .0 8

0 .1

t [s ]

Fig. 7. Estimated fault resistance.

Fig. 4. Estimated fault distance

5
4 .5

T w o po rt
O ne po rt

4 .5

3 .5
3

3 .5

1 .5
1

2 .5

U [kV]

2 .5
a

U [kV]

0 .5

1 .5

0 .0 2

0 .0 4

0 .0 6

0 .0 8

0 .1

t [s ]

Fig. 8. Estimated arc voltage magnitude for a 90 km arcing fault.

1
0 .5
0

0 .0 2

0 .0 4

0 .0 6
t [s ]

Fig. 5. Estimated arc voltage magnitude.

0 .0 8

0 .1

The introduction of arc voltage into the consideration

improved the accuracy of the fault locator. In addition, it
opened a way how to detect arcing faults and to design an
adaptive autoreclosure. Algorithms not taking arc into account
are less accurate and less flexible.

2.1
0 .4

2.05

0 .2

R []

U [kV]

0 .3

0 .1

-0 .1

0 .0 2

0 .0 4

0 .0 6

0 .0 8

1.95

0 .1

t [s ]

1.9

Fig. 9. Estimated arc voltage magnitude for a 90 km arcless fault.

1.85
0

C. Sensitivity to the Arc Voltage Wave Form

0.02

0.04
t [s]

0.06

0.08

Fig. 11. Estimated tower footing resistance ( = 20 s).

10
8
6
4

U [kV]

The real nature of the fault arc is not exactly known. Thus, the
arc voltage can have different characteristics. The algorithm
presented assumes a pure rectangular arc voltage wave formsee equation (1). The reason for such a selection is its
simplicity and because the fault model is linear. The
introduction of nonlinear arc models consequently makes the
fault model non-linear, so the non-linear estimation methods
should be used. This would be essentially a much more
complex problem for practical realisation.
By processing voltages and currents for the case of a 10 km
arcing fault over tower footing resistance RF = 2 , and by
changing the arc characteristics, the sensitivity to the arc
voltage wave form is investigated. In Figs. 10 and 11 the
estimated fault distance and tower footing resistance for an arc
with = 20 s are respectively presented.
For the above case, in Fig. 12 the estimated arc voltage
amplitude and the arc voltage wave form are presented
respectively.
For the same fault conditions, but with the changed arc
voltage wave form, in Fig. 13 the estimated arc voltage
amplitude for = 55 E-5 s is presented.

2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8

Estimated
Real

-10
0

0.02

0.04
t [s]

0.06

0.08

Fig. 12. Estimated arc voltage amplitude and original arc voltage wave form
for = 20 s.

10
8
6
4

l [km]

12

0
-2
-4

11.5

-6

11

-8

Estimated
Real

-10
0

0.02

0.04
0.06
0.08
t [s]
Fig. 13. Estimated arc voltage amplitude and original arc voltage wave form
for = 550 s.

10.5
10
0

U [kV]

12.5

0.02

0.04
t [s]

Fig. 10. Estimated fault distance ( = 20 s).

0.06

0.08

In Table I a detailed sensitivity to arc voltage waveform is

presented.

6
Table I Sensitivity to arc voltage wave form.

[9]

Case

10-5 s

RF

Uarc
kV

Lfault
km

Err RF
%

Err Uarc
%

2
1

55
2

2
2

5.2
5.2

10
10

3.9061
0.0872

-20.2923
-1.2109

Err
Lfault
%
2.6677
0.4482

From Table I it is obvious that for arc wave forms deviating

from the pure rectangular form, much more inaccurate
estimates are obtained.

[10]

[11]
[12]
[13]

VI. CONCLUSION
In the paper, a new time domain adaptive estimation
numerical algorithm for overhead line protection, based on
synchronized phasors technology and implementation of
parameter estimation theory, is presented. The algorithm was
used as an example for discussing modelling, simulation,
testing and algorithm aspects in developing modern fault
locators. It is shown that through realistic arcing fault
modelling, the accuracy of fault locators can be improved.
Simultaneously it was shown that by introducing arc in the
design of fault locators, the adaptive autoreclosing schemes
can be designed. On the other hand it was shown that testing
procedures must include the essential components related to
the physical nature of line faults. In this sense, the critical
point of arc modelling was investigated and it was proved that
realistic arc modelling can improve the quality of fault
locators.

[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]

[22]

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VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Vladimir Terzija (M95, SM2000) is the EPSRC Chair Professor in Power
System Engineering at the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
The University of Manchester, UK.
Nagy I. Elkalashy (S06) is a PhD student at the Helsinki University of
Technology, Helsinki, Finland.
Gary Preston is an MSc student at the School of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, The University of Manchester, UK.
Vladimir Stanojevi is a PhD student in the Control and Power Group at
Imperial College, London, UK.
Goran trbac (M94) is a Professor in the Control and Power Group at
Imperial College, London, UK.