mega (M)106

kilo (k) 10
hecto (h) 10
deca (da) 101
1.0
deci (d) 10-1
centi (c) 10-2
milli (m) 10-3
micro () 10-6
nano (n) 10-9
pico (p) 10-12
SI Basics:
Mass(kg) length(m) time(s) temp(k) amount(mol) e-current(A:ampere), energy(J), vol(L), L-intensity(cd)
J=(kgm2)/s2=Nm
E= (hc)/

(m)= wl

h= Planck: 6.626 E-34Js

c: Speed of Light= 2.998E8m/s

1L=(1dm)3

D=m(g)/v(cm3)(g/cm3)

1mol=6.022E23

1 angstrom =1.0E-10 m

i.e. 1L= (10cm)31000cm3

(1mol amu= 6.022E23 amu = 1g)

TC = (TF - 32F) (5C/9F)

=0.1nm

1cm3= 1mL

1amu= 1g/mol (atomic mass u)

k = C + 273.15

F = C + 32

Measurement- quantitative amount observed (composed of # & a scale or unit))

Accuracy- agreement of measurement w/ true value
Precision- degree of agreement btwn repeated measurements
Random err- varying magnitude, measurement of being h or l
Systematic err- occurs in same direction & amount each time (ruler)
Zeros: Leading: 0.0252sf

Captive:1.08-3sf)

Trailing:101sf &10.2sf

Exact #s: sig figs (i.e: counting #s, 1in=2.54cm, & 2r)
1cm3 = 1mL, 1dm3 = 1L, 1 Angstrom ()= 1.0 10-10 m
1mol= 6.022 E23 units, (1 mol amu= 6.022 E23 amu = 1 g), so 1amu = 1g/mol
C + 273.15 = k, F= C + 32,
(TF - 32F) 5 C/9F=TC,
D=m/v (g/cm3)

Mixtures: Homogenous (vis. indistinguish) & hetero (vis. distinguish)

Chemistry: how 1 substance changes to another

Science: understand nature & explain phenomena of physical world

Scientific method: process at center of scientific inquiry:
1. Observe: collect data 2. Predict: hypoth 3. Experiment: test hypoth
Observations: Qualitative no #, Quantitative- involves # & a unit
Hypothesis: possible explanation for an observation, educated guess
Theory/model: set of tested hypothexplanation of natural phenomena
Law- summary of observed; same observ applies to diff systems
Pure substance: constant composition. can be isolated by distil, filter, & chrom
Compound: thing w/ constant comp. can be chem broken into elements
i.e. electrolysis of H2OH & O
Physical change: change in form of substance but not in chemical composition
Chemical change: substancenew substance(s) w/ diff properties & composition
Law of conservation of mass- total mass of materials is not affected by a chemical change
R=PV/T for gas constant (R), pressure (P), volume (V), & temperature (T).
law of definite prop- A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass.
law of multiple proportions: when 2 elements form a series of compounds, ratios of masses of 2nd
element that combine w/ 1 gram of 1st element can always be reduced to small whole #s
Daltons Atomic Theory:
1. Each element is made of atoms.
2. The atoms of an element= identical; atoms of diff elements= diff in fundamental way(s)
3. Chem cmpnds form when atoms of diff elements combine w/ eachother. A given cmpnd alwys has same
rel. #s & types of atoms.
4. Chem reaction involves reorganizing atoms, changing way bound together). atoms are not changed in
chemical reaction.

Avogadros hypothesis- at same temp & pressure, equal vol of diff gases contain same # of particles. 2H +
1O 2H20
charge-to-mass ratio: of an electron: e/m=-1.76 E8C/g [e= charge on electron (C) & m=electron mass(g)]
1) As you move down a group, atomic radius increases. The number of energy levels increases as
you move down a group as the number of electrons increases. Each subsequent energy level is
further from the nucleus than the last. Therefore, atomic radius increases as the group & energy
levels increase.
2) As you move across a period, atomic radius decreases. As you go across a period, electrons are
added to the same energy level. At the same time, protons are being added to the nucleus. The
concentration of more protons in the nucleus creates a "higher effective nuclear charge.

1) Anions (negative ions) are larger than their respective atoms. Electron-electron repulsion forces
them to spread further apart. e- outnumber p+; protons cannot pull extra electrons as tightly toward nucleus.
2) Cations (positive ions) are smaller than their respective atoms. There is less electron-electron
repulsion, so they can come closer together. Protons outnumber electrons; the protons can pull the fewer
electrons toward the nucleus more tightly.
First Ionization Energy: The energy required to remove the outermost (highest energy) electron from a
neutral atom in its ground state.
As you move down a group, first ionization energy decreases. Electrons are further from the nucleus and
thus easier to remove the outermost one. "SHIELDING" - Inner electrons at lower energy levels
essentially block the protons' force of attraction toward the nucleus. It therefore becomes easier to remove
the outer electron
As you move across a period, first ionization energy increases. As you move across a period, the atomic
radius decreases, that is, the atom is smaller. The outer electrons are closer to the nucleus and more
strongly attracted to the center. Therefore, it becomes more difficult to remove the outermost electron.
Exceptions to First Ionization Energy Trends:
1) Xs2 > Xp1 e.g. 4Be > 5B The energy of an electron in an Xp orbital is greater than the energy of an
electron in its respective Xs orbital. Therefore, it requires less energy to remove the first electron in a p
orbital than it is to remove one from a filled s orbital.
2) Xp3 > Xp4 e.g. 7N > 8O After the separate degenerate orbitals have been filled with single electrons,
the fourth electron must be paired. The electron-electron repulsion makes it easier to remove the
outermost, paired electron.
Hund's Rule)

Second and Higher Ionization Energies

Definition: Second Ionization Energy is the energy required to remove a second outermost electron from a
ground state atom.
Subsequent ionization energies increase greatly once an ion has reached the state like that of a noble
gas. In other words, it becomes extremely difficult to remove an electron from an atom once it loses
enough electrons to lose an entire energy level so that its valence shell is filled.
Ionization Energies (kJ/mol)
Element

1st IE

2nd IE

3rd IE

4th IE

Na

495.8

4562.4

6912

9543

Mg

737.7

1450.6

7732.6

10,540

Al

577.6

1816.6

2744.7

11,577

Electron Affinity- The energy given off when a neutral atom in the gas phase gains an extra electron to
form a negatively charged ion.1)

As you move down a group, electron affinity decreases. 2) As you move across a period, electron
affinity increases.
Exceptions:
Among nonmetals, however, the elements in the first period have lower electron affinities than the
elements below them in their respective groups.
Elements w/ electron configurations of Xs2, Xp3, & Xp6 have electron affinities less than zero because
they are unusually stable. In other words instead of energy being given off, these elements actually require
an input of energy in order to gain electrons. i.e. Be, N, Ne
WHY??? B/C Electron affinities are all much smaller than ionization energies.
1. Xs2 < 0: Stable, diamagnetic atom w/ no unpaired electrons.
2. Xp3 < 0: Stable atom w/ 3 unpaired p-orbital electrons each occupying its own subshell.
4. Xp6 < 0: Stable atom w/ filled valence (outermost) shell.
mass of the electron = 9.11 E-31kg
nuclear atoman atom w/ a dense center of + charge (the nucleus) w/ electrons moving around the
nucleus at a distance that is large relative to nuclear radius.
Isotopes- atoms with the same # of protons but different #s of neutrons.
Atomic number Z (# of protons) is written as subscript, & mass number A (total # of protons & neutrons)
is written as a superscript.
Share electrons- covalent bond
Ion: is an atom or group of atoms that has a net + or - charge.
nonmetals appear in the upper-right corner of the table
alkali metals, members of Group 1Alithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium
(Cs), and francium (Fr)are very active elements that readily form ions with a 1 charge when they react
with nonmetals.
alkaline earth metals- The members of Group 2Aberyllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca),
strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra. They all form ions with a 2 charge when they react with
nonmetals.
Halogens- members of Group 7Afluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At)
all form diatomic molecules. Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine all react with metals to form salts
containing ions with a 1- charge (F-, Cl-, Br-, and I-).
The members of Group 8Ahelium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon
(Rn)are known as the noble gases. They all exist under normal conditions as monatomic (single-atom)
gases and have little chemical reactivity.
The SI def of mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many entities as there are in exactly 12 g of
carbon-12.

Avogadros number is 6.022 E23.

1 mol of anything- 6.022 E 23 units of that substance.