Regulation of pesticides in Australia: The Great Barrier Reef as a case study for
evaluating effectiveness
Juliette King a , Frances Alexander b , Jon Brodie b,
a
b
WWF-Australia, Ground level, 129 Margaret Street Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia
Catchment to Reef Research Group, Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Research, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 22 February 2011
Received in revised form 25 May 2012
Accepted 1 July 2012
Available online 2 August 2012
Keywords:
Pesticide
Regulation
Australia
Diuron
Atrazine
Great Barrier Reef
Coral reefs
a b s t r a c t
Globally coral reefs are at threat from land-sourced pollution. In Australia it is well established that the
largest reef system in the world, the Great Barrier Reef, has been seriously damaged by land-sourced pollution primarily from agricultural activities. The Great Barrier Reef is Australias best documented case of
contamination of an ecosystem by pesticides. We describe Australias current regulatory arrangements
for managing pesticide risks to the environment at both national and state level and evaluate the regulatory response to pesticide pollution of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and its catchments as a case study. It
is argued that the relatively advanced state of knowledge about the problem and the Great Barrier Reefs
World Heritage status means that it presents the best case scenario for Australias ability to respond to
pesticide risks to the environment. Yet the only regulatory action taken to date restricted conditions
of use for particular chemical products introduced by the Queensland Government has occurred outside of the dedicated regulatory regime for managing pesticide risks. Other lower prole and less-studied
Australian water bodies are likely to be even less protected. The ad hoc, case-by-case and very slow chemical review process administered by Australias national pesticide regulator has not effectively assessed
or addressed chemical risks to the GBR. Some failures of the current system would be addressed by a
systematic re-registration program of the kind in place in the European Union and United States. We
conclude that to adequately protect the GBR, given its marine protected area and World Heritage status,
both the special management provisions for the area already existing plus an effective national pesticide
regulatory regime of the standard of the European Union are the minimum requirements.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) lies along the north eastern coast of
Australia (Fig. 1) and was designated as a marine protected area by
the Australian Government in 1975 (the Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park (GBRMP)) with an Authority set up to manage the Park (the
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)) under the
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 (Cth). It was included on the
World Heritage List in 1981 (the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage
Area (GBRWHA)). The extent of the two areas is generally similar
with notable differences along the coast. The GBRMP extends up
to the low water mark generally but with numerous exclusions in
port areas and in enclosed waters whereas the GBRWHA extends
completely to the high water mark along the whole coast thus
including estuarine areas. The GBRWHA contains more than 3000
coral reefs but also extensive areas of seagrass meadows, mangrove forests, soft bottom communities and open water ecosystems
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 7 4781 6435; fax: +61 7 4781 5589.
E-mail address: jon.brodie@jcu.edu.au (J. Brodie).
0167-8809/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2012.07.001
55
Fig. 1. The Great Barrier Reef and catchment area showing the Wet Tropics, Burdekin and Mackay-Whitsunday regions.
Water quality issues for the GBR arising from discharge of pollutants from the adjacent catchment areas (known as the Great
Barrier Reef Catchment Area (GBRCA)) have long been recognised,
see for example Brodie and Fabricius (2008), Brodie et al. (2001a,
2008a,b, 2011a, 2012), Death and Fabricius (2010), Furnas (2003),
Waterhouse et al. (2009). Water quality issues are recognised as one
of the main contributing factors to the loss of coral cover on the GBR.
The weight of scientic evidence of the severity of the issue (e.g.
Brodie et al., 2001b; Furnas, 2003) eventually led the Australian
and Queensland Governments to develop the Reef Water Quality
Protection Plan (Anon., 2003), updated in 2009 (Anon., 2009), to
halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the GBR from
non-point sources of pollution. The Australian Government initiated the Reef Rescue program in 2008 which provides nancial
incentives for farmers to adopt improved management practices,
while the Queensland Government introduced its Reef Protection
56
57
58
Mller, 2005), the review did not specically consider risks to the
GBR. The GBR is not mentioned in any of the APVMAs atrazine
review reports. Two years into the review the APVMA introduced a
number of new conditions for atrazine products designed to reduce
chemical handling by workers and as well as drift and runoff into
water bodies. They included reduced application rates, a ban on
use in channels and drains and on waterlogged soil and if heavy
rains or storms likely to cause surface runoff are forecast within
two days of application (NRA, 1997). Two further amendments
were introduced in 2008 including a ban on its use in drainage
lines and in areas susceptible to run-off where drainage results in
rapid entry into waterways (APVMA, 2008, p. 20). These additional
conditions were designed to reduce the risk of atrazine contamination of waterways (APVMA, 2008), although were not intended to
address risks to the GBR specically.
A review of diuron was initiated by the APVMA in 2002 and
is ongoing, partly in response to concerns raised that its use in
agriculture, particularly sugarcane, could cause damage to marine
environments such as the GBR (NRA, 2002). In conducting that
review, the APVMA has considered impacts on GBR marine species
including corals and seagrass. In July 2005, the APVMA made preliminary review ndings that the risk posed by diuron to the GBR
was unacceptable because of likely impacts on juvenile marine
organisms, seagrasses and therefore also, dugongs (APVMA, 2005).
The preliminary report stated that diuron adsorbed to the suspended sediments and carried by rivers to the inshore reefs was
considered to impact on the inshore reefs and that due to the
high conservation values within the [GBRMP], the level of diuron
in inshore regions is unacceptable (APVMA, 2005, p. 25). It concluded that a 75% reduction in the maximum annual application
of diuron in sugarcane crops is needed to reduce the environmental load to an acceptable level (APVMA, 2005, p. 36). Incidentally,
the APVMA found that there are unacceptable risks to the environment associated with 12 of diurons 22 other registered uses,
including on cotton, apples and pears, bananas, citrus, coffee, pawpaws, pineapples, bore drains, irrigation channels and commercial
and industrial areas (APVMA, 2005). As this paper was in the nal
stages of preparation the APVMA announced, on 15 July 2011, a proposed suspension of all uses of diuron (except for antifouling paints
and algal control products) pending the completion of its review.
The proposal followed release of its environmental risk assessment
report (APVMA, 2011a,b) which concluded that diurons current
uses pose some unacceptable risks to the environment including
acute risks to birds and to algae and aquatic plants in primary
streams, but not to the GBR. In contrast to the APVMAs 2005 preliminary ndings, its 2011 report states that the presence of diuron
in coastal waters is considered undesirable because of its persistence and very high toxicity, but is acceptable due to dilution
of diuron in the ocean (APVMA, 2011a,b, p. 75). It appears no
account was taken in the report (APVMA, 2011a,b) of the extensive research on diuron carried out and published (or known to
be in pre-publication stage) over the last three years (20092011)
(e.g. Packett et al., 2009; Davis et al., 2012, 2013; Shaw et al., 2010;
Lewis et al., 2009, 2012; Kennedy et al., 2012a; Magnusson et al.,
2010, 2012; Negri et al., 2011) or the existence of the GBRMPA
2009 guidelines. The APVMA allowed a 30-day period for the registrants and users of diuron to show cause as to why the APVMA
should not suspend the registration of diuron products on the basis
of the environmental concerns but since extended that period to
30 September 2011. A nal decision was still pending as this paper
was being nalised in November 2011.
A review of 2,4-D has been ongoing since 1995, again in part
because of concerns over its potential risk to the environment,
including its potential to contaminate waterways and pose a hazard to non-target animals and plants (APVMA, 2003). The APVMA
has not specically considered risks to the GBRMP as part of its
59
60
Table 1
Length of chemical reviews in Australia.
Chemical
Review commenced
2,4-D
H; OH&S; E
1995
Azinphos-methyl
Carbaryl
Tox; H; OH&S; E; R; T
H; R
2006
2004 (for home uses); 2006 (for
agricultural uses)
Carbendazim
H; OH&S; R
2007
Chlorfenvinphos
OH&S; E
1996
1999; 2000
Chlorpyrifos
Tox; OH&S; H; E
1996
2000; 2009
Diazinon
H; OH&S; E; T
1996
Dichlorvos
Dimethoate
Diquat
Diuron
Fenamiphos
Fenitrothion
H; OH&S; E; R; T
Tox; OH&S; R; T
H; OH&S; E; R
Tox; E
H; OH&S; E; R
OH&S; E
1996
2004 (nominated 1995)
1997
2002
2003 (nominated 1994)
1996
2000; 2008
Fenthion
H; OH&S; E; R
1994
Fipronil
Macrolide antibiotics
Maldison (malathion)
Methamidophos
Methidathion
Methiocarb
Molinate
Neomycin
Omethoate
Paraquat
Parathion-methyl
Tox; OH&S
Efcacy; H
Tox; H
Tox; H
Tox; H; OH&S; R
H; OH&S; E; R
Tox; OH&S; E
R; T
Tox; OH&S; R; T
OH&S; E
Tox; OH&S; E; R
2003
2001
2003 (nominated 1995)
2002 (nominated 1995)
2002 (nominated 1995)
1995
2003
2007 (nominated 2002)
2004 (nominated 1995)
1997
1996
Polihexanide
Procymidone
H
H; OH&S
2005
2004
Sheep ectoparasiticides
OH&S; E; T
1999
2005
1999; 2004
2005
1999
2006
Tox = toxicity; H = public health; OH&S = occupational health and safety; E = environment; R = residues; T = trade.
61
62
Table 2
Some of the chemicals registered for use in Australia that are no longer authorised by the European Union.
Chemical
Relevant EU legislation
1,3-Dichloropropene
Acephate
Aldicarb
Ametryn
Amitraz
Atrazine
Azamethiphos
Azinphos-methyl
Benazolin
Bendiocarb
Bensulide
Bifenthrin
Bioallethrin
Bitertanol
Bromacil
Bromopropylate
Bronopol
Butralin
Cadusafos (aka ebufos)
Carbaryl
Carbofuran
Carbosulfan
Cetrimide
Chlorfenapyr
Chlorfenvinphos
Chloruazuron
Cyanazine
Diazinon
Dichlobenil
Dichlouanid
Dichlorophen
Dichlorprop
Dichlorvos
Dicofol
Dimethipin
Dimethirimol
Dinocap
Endothal
Ethion (aka diethion)
Fenarimol
Fenitrothion
Fenthion
Flocoumafen
Furalaxyl
Furathiocarb
Hexaconazole
Hexaumuron
Hexazinone
Imazapyr
Imazethapyr
Methabenzthiazuron
Methamidophos
Methidathion
Methoprene
Methyl bromide
Mevinphos
Naptalam
Omethoate
Oxadixyl
Oxycarboxin
Oxydemeton-methyl
Paraquat
Permethrin
Phorate
Procymidone
Profenofos
Prometryn
Propachlor
Propanil
Propargite
Propazine
Propetamphos
Propoxur
Prothiofos
Pyraclofos
Quinclorac
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approveda
Not Approveda
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approveda
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approveda
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approveda
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approveda
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
2011/36
03/219
03/199
2002/2076
04/141
04/248
2002/2076
Regulation 1335/2005
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2009/887
2002/2076
2008/934
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2008/819
2007/428
2007/355
2007/416
2007/415
2002/2076
01/697
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2007/393
2011/234
2002/2076
2005/303
2002/2076
2007/387
2008/764
2007/553
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2006/134
2007/379
04/140
2004/129
2002/2076
2002/2076
2006/797
2004/129
2002/2076
2002/2076
2004/129
2006/302
2006/131
2004/129
2002/2076
2011/120
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2007/392
00/817
2002/2076
(2006/132
2002/2076
2002/2076
2008/742
2008/769
2008/934, Regulation 943/2011
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2004/129
63
Table 2 (Continued)
Chemical
Relevant EU legislation
Sethoxydim
Siduron
Simazine
Tebuthiuron
Temephos
Terbacil
Terbufos
Terbutryn
Tetrachlorvinphos
Tetradifon
Tetramethrin
Thiazopyr
Thidiazuron
Thiobencarb
Thiodicarb
Thiometon
Tolyluanid
Triadimefon
Trichlorfon
Triuralin
Triforine
Vernolate
Zineb
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approveda
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approveda
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
Not Approved
2002/2076
2002/2076
04/247/EC
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2002/2076
2008/296
2008/934
2007/366
2002/2076
2010/20
2004/129
2007/356
2010/355
2002/2076
2002/2076
01/245
2003). Some work has also been carried out on the effects of atrazine
in Australian conditions but principally its toxicity to animals (e.g.
Davies et al., 1994), with little attention to herbicidal effects on
aquatic plants, and some consideration also on its possible role as
an endocrine disrupting substance (Hyne et al., 2009). Experimental
studies to assess toxicity and likely effects are generally still sourced
from overseas and thus may not be entirely relevant for Australias
unique environmental conditions, for example tropical rather than
temperate climates (Kookana and Simpson, 2000; Damm and Van
den Brink, 2010); temperate marine ecosystems versus coral reefs;
highly variable hydrological regimes and intermittently wet/dry
wetlands; very high rainfall regimes in, for example, the Wet Tropics and western Tasmania; and unique species assemblages and
species life cycle styles. Another consequence of the lack of monitoring and publically funded ecotoxicology studies is that most of
the data relied on by the APVMA are provided by pesticide registrants and regarded as condential. This lack of transparency and
the reliance on industry data also contribute to effectiveness of
Australias regulatory system for protecting the environment.
6. Implications for other Australian water bodies
Australias pesticide regulatory system has failed to adequately
respond to pesticide pollution of the GBR despite the very large
body of published and mostly peer-reviewed research undertaken
to understand the problem. But the GBR arguably presents the best
case scenario for the Australian systems ability to respond to pesticide risks to the environment. Other Australian ecosystems which
are lower prole and less studied (or unstudied) are likely to be even
less protected because they will not attract the special management
attention that the GBR has. Even in the Moreton Bay Marine Park
(an important large marine embayment and ecosystem adjacent to
the city of Brisbane and immediately to the south of the GBR), for
example, pesticides are not currently included in the monitoring
program for that area (Healthy Waterways, 2009). In the Ramsarlisted Bowling Green Bay site south of Townsville evidence showing
extensive pesticide contamination is available (Davis et al., 2008,
2012, 2013; Smith et al., 2012; Davis unpublished data) however
although some of this data has been available to the Australian
Government (responsible for the management of Ramsar sites) for
several years no action or further ofcial risk assessments have
been undertaken.
64
7. General discussion
The Great Barrier Reef is Australias best documented case
of contamination of an ecosystem by pesticides. The relatively
advanced state of knowledge about the problem, as well as the
GBRs ecological and economic importance and iconic status mean
that it arguably presents the best case scenario for Australias ability to respond to pesticide risks to the environment. Yet the only
regulatory action taken to date in the form of the Queensland
Governments Reef Protection Package has occurred independently of the formal APVMA processes designed to manage risks
posed by existing chemicals and can arguably be seen as a necessary intervention in those processes. The ad hoc, case-by-case and
very slow Chemical Review Program administered by the APVMA
has not effectively assessed or addressed chemical risks to the GBR.
The APVMA has considered the risks to the GBR posed by only one
chemicaldiuron. Despite making strong statements in its preliminary review ndings (APVMA, 2005) regarding hazard to the GBR
after four years of review, no immediate action was taken and it
took a further six years for the APVMA to propose suspension of
the chemical (APVMA, 2011a). But reference to the GBR concerns
was omitted its latest report and the assessment on which the suspension proposal was made (APVMA, 2011b) while dated July 2011
appears to only be current to about 2009 (based on the literature
cited), thus disregarding the large body of work specically relevant
to the GBR published (or available in pre-publication forms) in the
period between 2009 and 2011 (Bainbridge et al., 2009; Davis et al.,
2012, 2013; Packett et al., 2009; GBRMPA, 2009b; Lewis et al., 2012;
Rohde et al., 2008; Shaw et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2012; Kennedy
et al., 2012a; Magnusson et al., 2008, 2010; van Dam et al., 2012;
Negri et al., 2011). Almost ten years since its commencement, a
nal decision on the review of diuron is still pending. In addition
to the other chemicals of concern to the GBR that have not been
reviewed, the APVMA has also not considered their potential cumulative effects, which in the case of PS-II herbicides are known to be
additive.
The tightened restrictions on the use of chemical products
introduced by the Queensland Government in 2009 resulted from
the considerable research attention and investment the GBR has
received, but other lower prole and less studied ecosystems in
Australia are unlikely to receive the same protection. Outside of
the GBRMP and GBRCA there is very little monitoring of pesticides residues in Australian rivers, streams, wetlands and marine
environments but the few properly designed and implemented
monitoring studies have found that they are ubiquitous in water
bodies where pesticides are used. There is clearly a need for better
monitoring of pesticide residues in Australian environments, more
independent studies on their toxicity to local species as well as the
collection of usage data to inform research and monitoring priorities. Lack of adequate monitoring in Australia means it is difcult to
verify the effectiveness of chemical label conditions in preventing
contamination of the environment. This is particularly concerning
in the context of the APVMAs tendency to add increasingly complex label conditions rather than deregister chemicals (such as in
the case of atrazine), as well as the difculty of properly enforcing
product label conditions. Whilst it may be possible to manage the
use of certain chemicals to prevent farm runoff, in the absence of
veriably effective conditions of use and their proper enforcement,
deregistration will denitely lead to reduced presence in water
bodies.
Whist the Queensland Government is not the rst Australian
state to have introduced its own restricted conditions for the use of
certain pesticides, the APVMA is, and should be, principally responsible for restricting and removing access to dangerous chemicals.
It is essential for the proper protection of all Australian ecosystems
to have an independent national pesticide regulator that responds
quickly and decisively to implement effective management action
when unacceptable risks are identied (including suspending or
cancelling chemical registrations when necessary). This remains
true for the protection of the GBR, even given its unique position
having been the subject of extensive pesticide monitoring over
many years, extensive toxicity testing on local species and special management consideration through specic Commonwealth
and Queensland legislation. A systematic re-registration program
of European standard is the minimum requirement as it would at
least ensure regular reviews of the environmental risks of currently
registered pesticides. For the GBR, this would ensure the continued
review of the chemicals restricted by the Queensland Government
such as ametryn and hexazinone (and the effectiveness of those
restrictions in reducing runoff to the GBR), as well as the systematic review of other chemicals that are of concern now (such as
simazine) or become so in the future.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Stephen Lewis, Aaron Davis and Martin
Taylor for comments on the paper. Stephen Lewis and Jane Waterhouse helped with the production of Fig. 1. We also acknowledge
two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and the Special Editor Peter Thorburn for his patience in getting this paper in a
form suitable for this particular journal.
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