UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, SYDNEY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

48550 Electrical Energy Technology

Transformers
Topics to cover:
1. Introduction
2. Equivalent Circuit of Single Phase Transformers
3. Experimental Determination of Equivalent
Circuit Parameters
4. Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
5. Three Phase Transformers

Introduction
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one
AC system at one voltage to another at a different voltage, usually
without any electric connection between the two systems.
In electric power generation and distribution systems, transformers
are used to
make electricity generation possible at the most economic generator
voltage;
make electric power transmission take place at the most economic
trasmission voltage;
supply electric power to users at a safe/suitable voltage.

In electronic and communication systems, transformers are used to:

match impedance for maximum power transfer;
isolate two electrical systems;
transfer signals.

Electrical Energy Generation

Electrical Energy Generation

- Conventional Methods: Thermoelectric

- Conventional Methods: Thermoelectric

Introduction

Introduction

- A typical Power Transmission System

- Power Transmission System in NSW

Electrical Power Transmission

Introduction

- Substation

- Transformers in Power Generation and Trsnmission

Introduction

Introduction

- Transformers in Electronic Systems

- Transformers for Measurement

Introduction

Introduction

- Transformers for Measurement (Cont.)

- Transformers Core and Coil Arrangement

Ideal Transformer - Cont.

Ideal Transformer

Since the power losses are ignored, the input power must be equal
to the output power:

A transformer is an alternating current device that transforms

voltages, currents and impedances. For ideal transformers, we
assume that the permeability of the core approaches infinity, and
that all power losses in the windings and the core are ignored.
Thus, by the Amperes law, we have
i1
v1

i1 N2
=
i2 N1

v N v N
RL' = 1 = 1 2 = 1 RL
i1 N2 i2 N2

i2

N1

v1 i2 N1
= =
v2 i1 N2

or

For resistance transform, we can write

l
N1i1 N2i2 = 0
A
or

v1i1 = v2i2

N2

v2

For impedance, we have

i1

i2

N1

N2

N
Z = 1 ZL
N2
'
L

R'L

v1

v2

RL

Practical Transformers
Practical Transformers
- Factors Need to be Considered
The ideal transformer is not a sufficiently accurate model for all
purposes. A better model should include:
(1) Winding resistances,
(2) Leakage fluxes,
(3) Effects of limited magnetic permeability of the core material,
(4) Core losses,
(5) Stray capacitances due to the electrical coupling between
windings (significant at high frequency)

- Circuit Equations
Consider a single phase transformer as shown below. The circuit equations
for the primary and secondary sides are
d 1
and
dt
1 = N 1 ( l 1 + m ) and
v 1 = R 1 i1 +

where

d 2
dt
2 = N 2 ( l 2 + m )
v 2 = R 2 i2 +

Practical Transformers

Practical Transformers

- Circuit Equations

- T Equivalent Circuit
For transformers with sinusoidal excitation, phasor expressions can be
used and the d/dt operator is replaced by j in steady state.

Therefore,

d l1
d m
di
d im
+ N1
= R 1i1 + L l 1 1 + L m
dt
dt
dt
dt
d l 2
N 2 d m
d i2
N
di
v 2 = R 2 i2 N 2
+
= R 2 i2 L l 2
+ 2 Lm m
dt
N 1 dt
dt
N1
dt
N1
N 1i m
N 1i1 N 2 i 2
i m = i1
i
a s m =
=
N2 2
Rm
Rm
v 1 = R 1i1 + N 1

and

where Rm is the magnetic reluctance to the mutual flux m.

Practical Transformers
- T Equivalent Circuit
When core loss is considered, as illustrated in the electrical circuit
model for magnetic cores, a resistor standing for the core loss should
be placed in parallel to the magnetization reactance. Therefore, we
obtain a complete equivalent circuit model refered to the primary side
of a single phase transformer, known as the T equivalent circuit.

Practical Transformers
- Approximate Equivalent Circuits
Approximate equivalent circuits can be obtained by ignoring the effects
of some part of the T equivalent circuit, where Req = R1 + R2 ' and Xeq = Xl1 + Xl 2 '

Parameter Identification

Parameter Identification

- Open Circuit Test

- Short Circuit Test

In the short circuit test, we

In the open circuit test, we

A p p ly V s c s u c h th a t I 2 = I 2 r a te d
M e a s u r e : V s c , I s c a n d Ps c
P
V
 R e q = R 1 + R 2 ' = s2c a n d Z s c = s c
I sc
I sc

A p p ly V o c = V 1 r a te d a n d I 2 = 0
M e a s u r e : I o c a n d Po c
Po c
 c o s oc =
I o cV o c
V oc
V oc
and X m =
Rc =
I o c c o s o c
I o c s in o c

eq

= X

l1

+ X

l2

'=

Z s2c R e2q a n d X

l1

= X

l2

'=

eq

Parameter Identification

Steady State Operation

- Winding Resistance Test

The winding resistances are measured by DC resistance test using the
V-A method.
I
I
A
A

- Phasor Diagram
The phasor diagram of the T equivalent circuit can be drawn according
to the circuit equations.
I 2 ' = V2 ' Z L '
V1
E1 = E2 ' = ( R2 '+ jXl 2 ')I2 '+V2 '
I1 R 1
j I 1 Xl 1 I m = E1 jX m , I c = E 1 R c
E1
Ic
I e = I m + I c , I1 = I e + I 2 '
j I'2 X'l 2
2
V'2
I'2 R'2
V1 = E1 + ( R1 + jXl1 )I1
I'2 1
Im Ie
I1

Vs

Winding

Vs

(a)

Winding

(b)

(a) for R >> RA and (b) for R comparable to RA, where R is the
winding resistance and RA the resistance of the ammeter. The
resistance of a winding is

R =V I

Steady State Operation

Steady State Operation

- Voltage Regulation
At full-load, the transformer should supply the rated votlage to the load,
and when the load is disconnected from the secondary side, the
percentage of variation of the secondary voltage is defined as the
voltage regulation.

- Voltage Regulation (Cont.)

We calculate the voltage regulation by the approximate equivalent
circuit as shown below.
N1
N1
V V2 FL
N
VR = 2 NL
= 2
V2 rated

V
V 2 FL
VR = 2 N L
V 2 rated

V2 NL

N2

V2 rated

N1
V
N 2 2 rated

jX eq

V1 V2 ' rated
V2 ' rated

R eq

I1

In terms of the equivalent circuit parameters, it can be expressed as

VR

Z eq
ZL'

cos eq 2

V1

This is to be shown in the next slide.

V'2

Steady State Operation

Steady State Operation

- Voltage Regulation (Cont.)

According to the phasor diagram, we can write

- Power Flow and Efficiency

I1

V1 V2 ' rated = AD AC = AB + BC = Req I 2 ' cos 2 + X eq I 2 ' sin 2

VR =

I 2 ' Req cos 2 + X eq sin 2

Z eq
V1 V2 ' rated
cos eq 2
=
=
V2 ' rated
V2 ' rated
ZL '

V1
Pin =V 1 I 1 cos

2
I 1 =I'2

V'2

2
R eqI 1

Z eq

C
F

X eq
eq

Req

R'2

jX l1

Pc =

E 21
Rc

jX'l2

I'2

Pcu2 =I' 22 R'2

jX m

Rc

V'2
Pout =V'2 I'2 cos

E1

The efficicency of a transformer is defined as the ratio between the

output power and the input power, or

E
jX eqI 1 2
B

R1
Pcu1 =I 21 R 1

where Z eq = R eq2 + X eq2 , cos 2 = Req Z eq , and Z L ' = V2 ' rated I 2 '
V1

R eq = R1 + R 2 ' a n d X eq = X l1 + X l 2 '

w here

Pout
P + Pcu 2 + Pc
Pout
= 1 cu 1
=
Pin
Pin
Pout + Pcu 1 + Pcu 2 + Pc

Approximately,

kPrated
kPrated + k 2 Psc + Poc

where k =

Pout
Prated

High Frequency Transformers

When the operational frequency of a transformer increases, the
volume of the transformer can be reduced since V=E=4.44fN , and
hence the power density of the trnasformer is increased.
To avoid heavy eddy current loss, magnetic materials of high
resistivities, such as soft ferrites, glassy metal, and other amorphous
materials, are used as the core materials.
At high frequencies, the effects
of electrical couplings between
C 12
the different truns of a winding
L l1
L l2
i1 R 1
R'2 i'2
and between different windings
become significant. Therefore,
V1
C2
C1
Lm
V'2
Rc
stray capacitances are introduced
into the equivalent circuit.

Three Phase Transformers

- Structure
Evolution of the three
phase core type
transformers, which
are commonly used in
electrical power
transmission systems.

Auto-Transformers
Auto-transformers are widely used for adjustable voltage transform.
The weight of an auto-transformer is much less than that of a normal
transformer since less copper and a smaller core are used.
There is no isolation between the primary and secondary sides.
The T equivalent circuit can still be used for auto-transformers.
I1
Approximately,
V1 I 2
N
=
= 1
V2
I1
N2
I 3 = I 2 I1 =

I2
N1 N 2
I1
N2

V2 I 2 = V2 I 1 + V2 I 3

V1

N1

N2
I3

The electrical energy is transformed from the primary side to the secondary
side by both electrical conduction, V2I1 , and magnetic coupling, V2I3.

Three Phase Transformers

- Structure (Cont.)
Cut away view of a three phase core type transformers

V2

Three Phase Transformers

- Structure (Cont.)
Common three phase transformer connections

Three Phase Transformers

- Analysis Procedure
Transfer line-line quantities into per phase quantities, i.e. One three
phase into three single phase;
Analyze a single phase transformer by the T equivalent circuit;
Transfer per phase results back into the three phase system, if required.
Transform between line-line quntities and per phase quatities:
(1) Delta () connection I l =

3 I ph

and

V ll = V ph

V ll =

3V p h

and

I l = I ph

(2) Star (Y) connection

(3) Power is the same for both connections

P = 3V p h I p h co s =

3V ll I l co s

AC Circuit Analysis

AC Circuit Analysis

- Balanced Three Phase Circuits

- Balanced Three Phase Circuits (Cont.)

I al

Il
Ia

Va = Vph 0

Three

Vab
Vb = Vph 120

Vca

Va
Vab

Vca

Phase

Va = Vph 0

Vc = Vph
240

Load

Load

Ic

Vb
Vbc

Vbc

Vab = Va Vb = V ph 0 o V ph 120 o

Va (t), Vb (t), Vc (t)

3V ph 30 o =

3Va 30 o

Ib

I bl

Vb = Vph 120

I cl

-1

I bl
Ib

Ic
I cl

I al = I a I c = I ph i I ph i 240 o

i a (t), i b (t), i c (t)

3 I ph 30 o =

3I a 30 o

0.5

V ab =
-0.5

Ia
I al

Phase

0.5

Three
Vll

Vc
Vc = Vph 240

/2

3 / 2

3 V a 30 o =

3V ph 30 o

Vbc =

3 Vb 30 o =

3V ph 90 o

V ca =

3 V c 30 o =

3V ph 210 o

-0.5

-1

/ 2

3 / 2

I al =

3 I a 30 o =

3 I ph i 30 o

I bl =

3 I b 30 o =

3 I ph i 150 o

I cl =

3 I c 30 o =

3 I ph i 270 o

AC Circuit Analysis
- Balanced Three Phase Circuits (Cont.)
Ia

I al
Ic

Three

Va = Vph 0

ZY

Three

Vab

Phase

Vc = Vph 240

Supply

ZY
Vb = Vph 120

Ic

ZY =
=

Ia

V a
3 I al 3 0 o

V
Z
= a =
o
I
3
3
3 30
a

I bl

Ib

V aY
V 30o
= ab
=
I aY
3 I al
3 I al

Vc = Vph
240

Phase

Vb = Vph 120

I cl

V a

Vll

Supply

ZY

Ib

Va = Vph 0

Therefore,

ZY =

Z
3