The integrity of an overhead transmission line is directly related to the mechanical and electrical quality of the

insulators that keep the line in the air. Insulators account for only 5% to 8% of the direct capital cost of the line, yet
are associated with more than 70% of line outages and up to 50% of line maintenance costs. They fail most commonly
from surface contamination, aging, manufacturing defects and damage due to mishandling.
The United States is one of the few countries with the benefit of extensive service experience with all three prevailing
insulator technologies: porcelain, toughened glass (ceramic) and nonceramic (NCI, which is also known as composite
and polymer).
These technologies can be compared by selection criteria, service experience, reliability and maintenance. The user,
and the customer, is the ultimate beneficiary if the selection is done on a technical level. Each technology has distinct
technical advantages and limitations. The demands of reliability are the highest at transmission voltages of 69 kV and
higher.
In a recent Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) study, annual losses
resulting from system outages were shown to be as much as the sum of the losses caused by hurricanes and
earthquakes, and these outages have been increasing at an alarming rate.
The fact that the bulk of the transmission line infrastructure in this country is more than 30 years old is worrisome.
While most utilities have not yet adopted a proactive approach to insulator replacements, some are looking at longterm implications for system reliability.

Insulator History
Before the 1950s, insulator technology was largely limited to porcelain. In the early 1950s, toughened-glass insulators
were introduced in Europe and achieved rapid expansion worldwide. This technology was introduced in North
America between 1950 and 1960 and rapidly gained popularity in the 1960s through 1980s, as major high-voltage
grids were still being completed. During the 1970s, NCI insulators were introduced, and gained rapid growth and
acceptance in the 1980s.
The relatively quick adoption of composites in the United States was facilitated by the specific topology of the
transmission network, which uses post-type line construction to a much larger extent than most other countries. In
fact, the United States quickly became the largest world market for composite insulators, while a more conservative
approach to their introduction was adopted in Canada, Europe and the rest of the world.
According to the EPRI/DOD survey, the most common reason given by users in the United States for NCI use was
their light weight. The survey also revealed the average age of composite insulators in the United States is seven years.

Thus, it should not be surprising that many users still consider NCIs to be new technology, especially when compared
to the service experience of more than 30 to 40 years obtained with porcelain and toughened glass.

Selecting the Right Insulator Type

The table above lists some of the most significant properties of the three technologies. Some of these differ from what
they were perceived to be when the technologies were first introduced.
There are several situations for which the selection of a particular insulator technology is not difficult. In locations
where contamination is not a problem, all three technologies will work well. In such cases, life-cycle cost
considerations become important in determining which insulator type would be most economical. Longevity and ease
of inspection over the life of the line also become important criteria.
In locations with little rain but heavy contamination problems, experience has shown that composite insulators can
provide superior contamination performance because of the hydrophobic property of the housing material.
Other situations in which the choice might not be as straightforward include selecting insulators for critical
transmission lines where maintenance has to be performed under energized (live/hot line/bare-hand work)
conditions. This choice is also difficult in contaminated locations with frequent wetting, where the hydrophobicity
advantage of composite insulators can be quickly lost. Making decisions on replacing aged insulators is another
instance.
Commonly Accepted Advantages and Limitations of Different Insulator Technologies
Insulator
Type

Advantages

Long history of use

Performance quantified
Porcelain
Easily interchangeable
Reduced right of way with line posts
Long history of use
Performance quantified
Toughened Glass
Damaged units easy to spot
Easily interchangeable
Reduced right of way with line posts
Good contamination performance
Lightweight
Composite/NCI Reduction in installation costs, but inspection
is desirable after installation
Perception that it is less attractive to and not
easily damaged by vandals

Limitations
Weight
Hidden defects
Susceptible to vandalism
In-service defect detection techniques not yet foolproof
Negative perception that glass is fragile
Weight
Attractive to vandals
Brittle fracture remains an issue
Aging due to the organic nature of components
Not easily interchangeable due to multitude of designs,
manufacturing techniques and corona rings
Can have hidden defects
Live-line techniques not yet developed

Tens of millions of such insulators are on our lines that were built mostly in the 1960s and 1970s. Which ones should
be replaced and which ones can be left as is, and for how long? What would it cost to perform a field test, assuming
there is a method for testing each unit to determine whether the insulator is healthy or defective? In this regard,
fundamental differences exist among the three basic insulator technologies, which result in significant variations in
inspection-practices costs.

The high-voltage transmission network in the country is heavily loaded with many lines already close to full capacity.
Although desirable, working under de-energized conditions may no longer be an option on many lines. This means
that maintenance work involving insulators must be performed under hot or energized conditions. Therefore, workers
will need to be assured there will be no chance of insulator failure while they are working on the lines.
One of the greatest needs facing insulator technology today is a quick and economic method for detecting defective
insulators in service. There are substantial technological gaps among the three basic insulator technologies.
Utilities have access to recommended work practices and standards for live-line work with porcelain and glass
insulators. These require the establishment of a minimum number of healthy bells in a suspension string.
With porcelain insulators, internal cracks and punctures are known to propagate without initial visible manifestations
to the outside observer. These cracks can seriously degrade the electrical and mechanical properties of the unit.
Available hot line tools can detect certain types of internal defects in porcelain, especially under dry conditions, which
is when most maintenance would most likely be performed.
For glass insulation, establishing if a bell insulator is healthy or defective can be done with the unaided eye. If the
dielectric shell is intact, the unit is good. Internally defective units are weeded out in the manufacturing process, and
any harm done by vandals or from internal sources (inclusions or impurities that can lead to shattering in the early
stages of life) is evident by noting the missing bells; there is no room for confusion.
Thus, for porcelain insulators, it is not possible to ascertain the presence of defective units in a string with the same
level of confidence as glass.
For composite insulators, we are significantly behind with regard to spotting defective units. Defects can arise during
the manufacturing process prior to energization, because of faulty work practices, and during service. Degradation
during service (aging) could be accelerated because of improper design and application of corona rings. Due to the
multitude of corona ring designs and attachment procedures that exist, the rings could be installed incorrectly.
Many design and manufacturing techniques change over time; consequently, the flaws of insulators out in the field
might not be consistent with the flaws of NCI units now being installed. There is a need to inspect not only insulators
in service, but also new installations for potential problems. Accurate inspection of NCIs remains a technical
challenge. The photos above show an instance where the core of the composite insulator is exposed and an example of
a mechanical failure resulting in a dropped line because of brittle fracture or rod burning is a possibility.

Northwestern Energy

Northwestern Energy (Sioux Falls, South Dakota, U.S.) uses toughened-glass insulators almost exclusively at 500 kV.
Porcelain insulators dominate the 230-kV system, and composite insulators are used extensively on its
subtransmission lines at voltages of 161 to 69 kV (161, 115 and 100 kV).
Toughened-glass insulators were first used for the 500 kV in 1979. Most of the service territory for this voltage can be
classified as light pollution (IEC Level 1). A few locations have contamination problems from bird droppings. Unless
they are washed off by rain, they may require removal by dry cleaning methods using baking soda.
The utility does bare-hand maintenance on its 500-kV lines. This is the main reason for choosing glass insulators, as
it is easy to detect which units need removal. Insulators located near cooling towers of power plants are also subjected
to pollution problems and require washing on an annual basis. The utility uses 22 standard suspension bells on each
of the V strings.
Vandalism is a problem for a small area of about 1 sq mile (2.5 sq km), in which insulators are routinely shot. The
utility performs helicopter patrol of its 500-kV lines four times a year.
On 500-kV lines, the utility can tolerate up to 10 missing bells. This number has been established by experience. Two
factors permit this large number of broken units in a string: With a glass insulator, if the bell is defective or shot, the
whole shell is missing. The relatively low level of contamination can be withstood even with a significant reduction in
the leakage distance.
The photo of the 500-kV insulator string shows an extreme situation where, in a V-string, one string has a large
number of bells that have been damaged by vandals. The other string has only a few that have been shot and is
therefore not a concern. Obviously, this string can flashover under wet conditions because of the remarkable
reduction in the leakage distance. However, due to the low level of contamination in this area, this has not happened.
There have been no line drops, even under the most extreme case. This is not surprising given the fact that the
residual strength of toughened-glass insulators remains around the rated mechanical strength of a new unit.
The utility follows the same care when storing, handling and installing glass insulators as with porcelain. It has been
Northwestern's experience that glass insulators do not chip, unlike porcelain. Due to the ease of visual detection of
failed units, there is no need to do any further tests to establish the functionality of the unit and string.
The 230-kV system is much older than the 500-kV system. The system was built with porcelain insulators. The
experience has been positive. Composite insulators are used for replacements and for building new lines at this
voltage and at the lower voltages (161 and 69 kV).
Composite insulators have been used for about 25 years in this service territory. The main impediments for using
composite insulators at higher voltages are the lack of methods for live-line working and the inability to identify faulty
insulators.

Pacific Gas and Electric Co.

PG&E (San Francisco, California, U.S.) uses both porcelain and glass insulators for its 500- and 230-kV network. On
500-kV lines, 34 bells of standard leakage distance units are used for noncontaminated areas. In contaminated areas
using 34 units, a fog-type unit increases the leakage distance of the strings. The utility has used NCIs at 500 kV in
coastal areas but discontinued its use in those applications because of some early failures. Presently in these areas,
fog-type bells coated with a silicone product are now used. NCIs are limited to vandalism areas on the 500-kV line.
Vandalism is a problem particular only to a few locations and is not widespread.
At 230 kV, composite insulators are also used in coastal locations with contamination problems. Composite insulators
are used extensively at voltages below 230 kV. Contamination in the form of salt-fog is an issue for lines close to the
coast, whereas for most inland locations, the contamination level is fairly low and corresponds to IEC Level 1.
The photo shows a 230-kV structure in a coastal location with glass and porcelain insulators on the same tower. The
utility follows the same care when storing, handling and installing glass insulators as with porcelain.
The utility is presently studying the use of composite insulators at 500 kV.

Bonneville Power Administration

BPA (Portland, Oregon, U.S.) is part of the U.S. Department of Energy and has lines that traverse the states of
Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana and sections of Wyoming, Utah, Nevada and California. The 500-kV network
was constructed more than 25 years ago with almost equal numbers of porcelain and glass insulators. Vandalism is a
major concern, as it is widespread in its service territory. The utility is not using any glass insulators as replacements
or for new construction at 500 kV because of the vandalism problem. Composite insulators are being used in these
areas and in areas with high contamination.
The 230-kV network predominantly uses porcelain insulators. A 60-mile (97-km) section of 230-kV lines has been
built with composite insulators in an effort to gain more experience with this technology. The service experience with
composite is less than three years. Most of the service areas are clean, and sufficient rain allows for natural cleaning of
the insulators. A major concern with composite insulators is longevity and lack of methods for hot-line working.
Service Experience Among Participating Utilities
Circuit Miles of
Description of Service Area for
Utility
State(s) Served
Transmission Lines
Contamination and Vandalism
Montana, Nebraska
Mostly clean (IEC Level 1), very few locations
Northwestern Energy
500 at 500 kV; 1000 at 230 kV
South Dakota
with vandalism
Pacific Gas and Electric
1328 at 500 kV; 5300 at 230 Mostly clean (IEC Level 1), few locations with
California
Co.
kV
vandalism
Bonneville Power
Oregon, Washington,
7000 at 500 kV; 1500 at 230 Mostly clean (IEC Level 1), vandalism is fairly
Administration
Idaho, Wyoming
kV
widespread
Oklahoma Gas and
Oklahoma and Eastern
Mostly clean (IEC Level 1), very few locations
2400 at 345 kV; 150 at 500 kV
Electric Co.
Arkansas
with vandalism

Oklahoma Gas and Electric Co.

Oklahoma Gas and Electric Co.'s (Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, U.S.) 500-kV system uses almost all porcelain
insulators. At 345 kV, porcelain insulators account for about 80%, and the rest are composite insulators. The service
area is characterized by light pollution (IEC Level 1). Composite insulators are used extensively for subtransmission
and distribution, and account for all new construction and replacement since 1995.
Vandalism is limited to a few isolated locations. In one river crossing location, the utility has had to change out the
porcelain insulators on a regular basis, at least once a year. The good news is that the line has not dropped. The utility
does not want to use composite insulators in these locations because of a fear that damaged insulators would be hard
to spot and could result in dropping the conductor. However, it is not possible to tell by a simple visual inspection if
the remaining porcelain bells are electrically and mechanically sound or defective.
In an interesting move, the utility plans on using toughened-glass insulators in these locations for several reasons.
The transparent nature of glass makes it a harder target than porcelain. The utility has evidence from experience that
missiles from small weapons damage porcelain more easily than glass, and damaged units are easy to identify and
replace, thus removing the guesswork. The insulators exhibit a safe behavior even when damaged.

Positioned for the Future

Since the introduction of NCI insulators nearly 30 years ago, U.S. utilities have been quick to adopt this technology.
Today, in a context of growing concerns over the condition and reliability of our transmission grid, the industry is
therefore well positioned to derive maximum advantage from actual service experience acquired with all three
technologies porcelain, glass and NCI which are available for one of the most critical elements of high-voltage
line: insulators.
Since no single technology provides the magic solution to high-voltage line insulation selection, utilities should
carefully evaluate the actual performance experience of each technology and weigh them on their own merits. The
experiences of a typical cross-section of U.S. utilities shows that sometimes diametrically opposite approaches can
solve similar problems.
The authors are industry experts and utility engineers with decades of practical experience. They have agreed to pool
their experiences on high-voltage insulators and share their findings with the industry at large. The authors can be
contacted at the institutions listed below.
Ravi Gorur, professor of electrical engineering, Arizona State University;ravi.gorur@asu.edu
David Shaffner, senior consulting electrical engineer, Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
Richard Vinson, senior designer, OG&E Electric Services; vinsonjr@oge.com
Wayne Clark, 500-kV bare-hand trainer, Northwestern Energy

Don Ruff, senior structural engineer, BPA; dlruff@bpa.gov