Eukaryotic microalgae are highly suitable biological indicators of environmental changes because they are exposed
to extreme seasonal uctuations. The biochemical and
molecular targets and regulators of key proteins involved in
the stress response in microalgae have yet to be elucidated.
This study presents morphological and biochemical evidence
of programmed cell death (PCD) in a low temperature
strain of Chlorella saccharophila induced by exposure to
NaCl stress. Morphological characteristics of PCD, including
cell shrinkage, detachment of the plasma membrane from
the cell wall, nuclear condensation and DNA fragmentation,
were observed. Additionally, a signicant production of H2O2
and increase in caspase 3-like activity were detected. We
demonstrated that singly applied environmental stresses
such as warming or salt stress trigger a pathway of PCD.
Intriguingly, the prior application of salt stress seems to
reduce heat shock-induced cell death signicantly, suggesting
a combined effect which activates a defense mechanism in
algal cells. These results suggest that C. saccharophila can
undergo PCD under stress conditions, and that this PCD
shares several features with metazoan PCD. Moreover, the
simultaneous exposure of this unicellular chlorophyte to
different abiotic stresses results in a tolerance mechanism.
Keywords: Chlorella saccharophila Heat shock Programmed
cell death Salt stress Tolerance.
Abbreviations: DCF, 2,7-dichlorouorescein; H2DCFDA, 2,7dichlorouorescein diacetate; HO, Hoechst 33342; HS, heat
shock; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; PCD, programmed cell
death; rbcL, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase
(Rubisco) large subunit; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TdT,
terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase; TEM, transmission
electron microscopy; TUNEL, terminal deoxynucleotidyl
tranferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling.
Introduction
Salt stress is one of the major abiotic stresses affecting plant
growth and crop production. A high salt content of the environment of terrestrial or aquatic plants hampers water as well as
Plant Cell Physiol. 51(6): 884895 (2010) doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq069, available online at www.pcp.oxfordjournals.org
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884
Plant Cell Physiol. 51(6): 884895 (2010) doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq069 The Author 2010.
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Regular Paper
Dipartimento di Biologia, Universit di Padova, via U. Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy
Corresponding author: E-mail, zuppini@bio.unipd.it; Fax, +39-049-8276280
(Received April 1, 2010; Accepted May 2, 2010)
Results
Salt treatment reduces cell growth and induces cell
death in Chlorella saccharophila
Chlorella saccharophila vegetative cells are ellipsoids of
5 m 2 m. After this stage cells increase their dimension to
reach a size of about 5 m 9 m, with a parallel extension of
the cell wall thickness (data not shown), corresponding to
the autospore mother cell (Fig. 1A). The number of daughter
cells formed depends upon cell size at initiation of division
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Plant Cell Physiol. 51(6): 884895 (2010) doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq069 The Author 2010.
885
A. Zuppini et al.
Vegetative cells
A
Autospore
mother cell
5 m
B
5 m
10 m
30
25
20
15
b
b
b b
b a,b
36
48
10
5
Co
24
Vegetative cells
Control
Autosporangia
Control
0.2 M
5.0
0.2 M
0.7
0.3 M
4.5
4.0
0.3 M
0.6
72
Autosporangium
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
a a
5 m
0.2 M
0.3 M
35
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
24
48
72
96
24
48
72
96
Fig. 1 (A) Chlorella saccharophila life cycle (A, vegetative cells; B, autospore mother cell; C, autosporangium; D, autospores). (B) Cell viability of
the untreated cell population (Co) and NaCl-treated cells (0.2 M, 0.2 M NaCl-treated cells; 0.3 M, 0.3 M NaCl-treated cells); the 100% value
corresponds to cells treated for 10 min at 100C. Bars labeled with a different letter differ signicantly (P < 0.05) by Students t test. (C, D) Number
of vegetative cells (C) and autosporangia (D) in control (white bars), 0.2 M NaCl-treated (grey bars) and 0.3 M NaCl-treated (black bars) cell
populations. Values are the mean SD of three independent experiments.
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Autospores
40
Co
0.2 M
0.3 M
Light
500
450
350
Control
H2O2 (mM)
50
0.2 M
40
30
0.3 M
400
60
0.3 M
a
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
300
250
Co
200
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H2DCFDA
0.2 M
150
20
100
10
50
0
Co
10
15
30
45
60
75
90
10
20
30
40
500
Proc3
Control
50
60
70
80
Time (min)
kDa
34
Co 0.2 0.3
0.2 M
400
0.3 M
h,d
Cas3
300
h,d,c
d,c
200
f
100
0
Ac-DEVD
12
a a
a,f
a,f
a,f
a
g
a,g
a,g
a,g
-+
- + - +
- + - +
- + - +
- + - +
- + - +
- + - +
Co
24
36
48
72
Fig. 2 Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and caspase 3-like activity upon salt stress. (A) Time course of H2O2 production; insert, light
and uorescence (H2DCFDA) representative images of control cells (Co) and cells incubated for 10 min with NaCl at a concentration of 0.2 and
0.3 M, stained with 2,7-dichlorouorescein diacetate (H2DCFDA). The histogram represents the uorescence analysis of images with ImageJ
software; data are the mean SD of three independent experiments. White bar, control; gray bars, 0.2 M NaCl-treated cells (0.2 M); black bars,
0.3 M NaCl-treated cells (0.3 M). Scale bar: 5 m. (B) H2O2 release in the culture medium in untreated (Co) and NaCl-treated cells (0.2 and 0.3 M
NaCl); values are normalized per g of fresh weight. (C) Time course of caspase 3-like activity in control cells (Co, white bars) and cells treated with
0.2 M NaCl (0.2 M, gray bars) and 0.3 M NaCl (0.3 M, black bars) assayed at different time points, in the absence () and presence (+) of the specic
caspase 3 inhibitor Ac-DEVD-CHO (20 M). Data are means SD of three independent experiments. Bars labeled with a different letter differ
signicantly (P < 0.05) by Students t-test. (D) Western blot analysis of total protein extracts (30 g) from control cells (Co) and cells treated for
8 h with 0.2 M (0.2) and 0.3 M (0.3) NaCl using an antibody raised against human caspase 3. Proc3, procaspase 3; Cas3, active caspase 3.
(HO) staining and TUNEL [terminal deoxynucleotidyl tranferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick end labeling] assay. Intense
uorescence staining nuclei (HO positive) show chromatin
condensation (Fig. 3B); an increased number of HO-positive
Plant Cell Physiol. 51(6): 884895 (2010) doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq069 The Author 2010.
887
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Hoechst negative
120
Light
Hoechst
Light
Hoechst
Co
Hoechst positive
80
24h
60
24h
40
20
0
Co
24 36 48 72
48h
24 36 48 72
0.2 M NaCl
48h
Vegetative cells
0.3 M NaCl
60
Co
Autosporangia
Treated cells
0.2M
0.3M
Light
50
b
30
b
b
b
20
TUNEL
AI (%)
40
Co
24 36 48 72
24 36 48 72
0.2 M NaCl
0.3 M NaCl
DAPI
10
Fig. 3 Chromatin condensation (A, B) and DNA fragmentation (C, D) in C. saccharophila cells. Untreated and NaCl-treated cells were stained with
Hoechst 33342 (HO) and observed under a uorescence microscope. (A, C) Time course of the percentage of cells displaying chromatin
condensation (A, HO positive) and DNA strand breaks (C). (B, D) Examples of typical light and uorescence (UV) images of the same cells stained
with HO (B) and 4,6 diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) (D) and assayed for TUNEL positivity (D). Co, untreated cells; 24 h, cells treated for 24 h
with 0.2 M NaCl; 48h, cells treated for 48 h with 0.2 M NaCl. Bar: 5 m (B), 20 m (D).
nuclei was observed in cells treated with 0.2 and 0.3 M NaCl
for 24, 36 and 48 h, compared with the control (Fig. 3A).
The number of stained nuclei increased from 10% of the
control to 2040% in cells treated with 0.2 and 0.3 M NaCl,
respectively (Fig. 3A). DNA fragmentation is a specic morphological feature of PCD, and it can be identied in situ by TUNEL
analysis. This assay was employed to establish whether DNA
fragmentation occurs in salt-treated cell populations. To avoid
false-positive/negative staining, positive and negative labeling
control reactions were performed (data not shown). The
obtained results highlighted a signicant increase in DNA
fragmentation in cells treated for 24, 36 and 48 h with 0.2 and
0.3 M NaCl (Fig. 3C, D).
To acquire greater cellular detail on the effects of salt stress
treatment, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis
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Treated cells
100
pi
py
pi
chl
py
chl
nu
nu
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nu
chl
nu
cc
E
cc
pm
de
nu
de
cw
nu
cc
cc
cc
Fig. 4 Effect of salt stress on C. saccharophila cell ultrastructure. (A) Control cell; (BD) cells treated with 0.2 M NaCl for 24 h; (EG) cells treated
with 0.2 M NaCl for 48 h. Arrows indicate the nuclear shrinkage. cc, condensed chromatin; chl, chloroplast; cw, cell wall; de, detachment of the
plasma membrane from the cell wall; nu, nucleus; pi, pyrenoid; pm, plasma membrane; py, pyrenoglobuli. Bar: 1 m.
Photosynthetic pigments (Chla, Chlb and carotenoids) exhibited a similar trend in variation upon 0.2 and 0.3 M NaCl
treatment (Fig. 5A, B). The total Chl content (Chl a + b)
decreased at 4, 8, 24 and 36 h of NaCl treatment, compared
with the control (Fig. 5A, B). However, the decrease in Chl
(a + b) content is signicantly different from that of the
control only in 0.3 M NaCl-treated cells from 4 to 36 h (Fig. 5B).
The highest drop in Chl concentration occurred after 24 h of
exposure to 0.3 M NaCl (Fig. 5B). The carotenoid contents
in 0.2 M NaCl-treated cells was comparable with those of the
control cell population (Fig. 5A), whereas these pigments
decreased signicantly after 8 h of 0.3 M NaCl treatment,
dropping from a value of about 0.4 0.06 mg g FW1 in the
untreated cells to 0.2 0.05 mg g FW1 in the cells treated
for 8 h (Fig. 5B).
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1.8
mg g.f.w.-1
1.6
1.4
a
a
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Chl (a+b)
carotenoids
24
36
Discussion
48
72
1.8
1.6
Chl (a+b)
carotenoids
mg g.f.w.-1
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
b
c
b
d
b
c
0.2
0
Co
24
36
48
72
890
Cold ecosystems occupy >70% of the earth and are often dominated by microorganisms which represent the most abundant
cold-adapted life forms at the level of species diversity and biomass (Feller and Gerday 2003, Hoham et al. 2007). Snow is the
most conspicuous part of this system and provides a habitat for
microbial communities, typically dominated by green algae
(Hoham and Ling 2000, Remias and Ltz, 2007, Leya et al. 2009)
or bacteria (Carpenter et al. 2000). The microorganisms that
thrive in these extreme habitats are still poorly understood:
this makes low-temperature environments an interesting unexplored frontier. We utilized a snow strain of C. saccharophila,
a unicellular chlorophyte collected in the Antelao glacier
(Venetian Dolomites, Italy), as a model system for biochemical
and morphological studies on the stress response. Eukaryotic
microalgae are highly suitable biological indicators of environmental changes because they are exposed to extreme seasonal
uctuations. The primary goal of this study was to investigate
the activation and execution of PCD in C. saccharophila and to
clarify the responses of this psychrophilic alga to a combination
of environmental conditions. NaCl has been shown to induce
PCD in higher plants (Lin et al. 2006, Shabala et al. 2007, Jiang
et al. 2008) and more recently in the unicellular green alga
M. denticulata (Affenzeller et al. 2009a, Affenzeller et al. 2009b).
Our results show that no signicant alterations in cell growth
and cell death can be induced with 0.05 and 0.1 M NaCl treatments, about 120 and 240 times higher than normal growth
conditions. Whereas treatments of cell cultures with 0.2 and
0.3 M NaCl triggered a signicant increase in cell death within
the rst 24 h of treatment, longer treatments seem to lead to
acclimation to the new growth conditions. Enhanced salinity is
experienced as a stress condition in this microalga since it
induces changes in the growth rate and cell death. A certain
portion of the C. saccharophila cell population showed PCD
features such as chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation,
nuclear shrinkage, caspase 3-like activity, decrease in pigment
contents and detachment of the plasma membrane from the
cell wall. These data support our previous ndings on the occurrence of PCD in the unicellular C. saccharophila, which belongs
to one of the primary lineages of photosynthetic eukaryotes
(Delwiche 1999), with features resembling metazoan apoptosis.
Although it has been assumed that PCD was developed by
multicellular organisms to regulate growth and development,
recent reports also recognized a role for PCD mechanisms in
unicellular algae (Zuppini et al. 2007, Affenzeller et al. 2009a,
Affenzeller et al. 2009b, Zuppini et al. 2009). Evidence for a cell
suicide pathway in unicellular organisms has been shown
during stress response to light deprivation, CO2, ROS, UV-C
radiation, heat shock and salt stress (Vardi et al. 1999, Segovia
et al. 2003, Moharikar et al. 2006, Zuppini et al. 2007,
Plant Cell Physiol. 51(6): 884895 (2010) doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq069 The Author 2010.
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Co
S
S
+H
+H
3M
2M
.
.
0
0
Co
24
24
HS (2h/44C)
90
80
rbcL
70
60
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100
50
b
40
30
20
PR
a a
a
a a
Proc3
10
0
0
Co
24
48
PR
1.0
3.0
0.2 M NaCl (24 h) + HS (2h/44C)
2.0
0.6
1.5
0.4
2.5
0.8
1.0
0.2
0.5
Co
0
24
48
Co
24
48
Fig. 6 Effect of combined stresses on C. saccharophila cells. (A) Cell viability of the untreated cell population (Co); heat shock (HS)-treated (44C
for 2 h) cells (black bars) analyzed immediately after the HS (0) and at 4, 24 and 48 h after the treatment; NaCl-treated cells (0.2 and 0.3 M for 24 h)
subjected to a subsequent HS (0.2 M, white bars; 0.3 M, gray bars) and analyzed immediately after the HS (0) and at 4, 24 and 48 h after the
treatment; the 100% value corresponds to cells treated for 10 min at 100C. Bars labeled with a different letter differ signicantly (P < 0.05) by
Students t-test. (B) Immunoblot analysis of total protein extracts (1030 g) from control cells (Co) and cells treated for 24 h with 0.2 or 0.3 M
NaCl followed by HS (0.2 M + HS, 0.3 M + HS) and analyzed at 4 and 24 h after the HS using an antibody raised against the Rubisco large subunit
(rbcL) and procaspase 3-like (Proc3) proteins. Co, untreated cells; PR, Ponceau red staining. (C) Time course of the pigment contents in untreated
cells (Co) and cells treated with 0.2 M (white bars) and 0.3 M (gray bars) NaCl followed by an HS (44C for 2 h) and analyzed immediately after the
HS (0) and after 4, 24 and 48 h; chl, total chlorophyll amount; data are means SD of ve independent replicates.
Plant Cell Physiol. 51(6): 884895 (2010) doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq069 The Author 2010.
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892
Overall, we can conclude that NaCl treatment induces activation of the PCD process and, at least in part of the cell population, it prompts acclimation competence.
Psychrophilic communities include organisms that experience the simultaneous occurrence of several abiotic stresses
in their environment rather than a single stress condition.
Chlorella saccharophila has a widespread distribution mainly
in extreme environments (Huss et al. 2002), and the snow strain
used in this work turned out to be particularly resistant to light,
temperature (Zuppini et al. 2007) and salinity variations.
Salinity is considered to be one of the most important constraints on species diversity and productivity of natural populations of algae (Booth and Beardall 1991). Despite the existence
of studies on the effect of single abiotic stresses on microorganisms, there are few data on the effects of co-occurrence of
different stresses (Skandamis et al. 2008, Gustavs et al. 2009).
In the present work we tried to analyse the effect of a combination of environmental conditions on C. saccharophila. We used
two abiotic stresses, salt stress and HS, to analyse the response
of a unicellular chlorophyte to environmental changes. The
typical HS regime that works well with this snow strain of
C. saccharophila is 44C for 2 h (Zuppini et al. 2007). Our data
reveal the occurrence of a heat-induced PCD-like process
which is completely inhibited by a preliminary administration
of a salt stress, highlighting a probable cross-talk between
the two signaling pathways. The application of these subsequent conditions abolished alterations in chloroplast pigment
content, Rubisco degradation and caspase 3-like activation,
features occurring during the application of the single HS.
Thus, the NaCl-treated cell population seems to tolerate HS.
Tolerance to a combination of different stresses in plants is
likely to be a complex mechanism involving cross-talk between
different sensors and signal transduction pathways (Mittler
2006). The receptors for abiotic stresses have not been identied yet, neither have the intermediates of the signal transduction pathways (Chinnusamy et al. 2004). However, it is likely
that some signaling and transduction pathways are unique for
a specic stress, whereas for abiotic stresses a stress-mediated
cross-talk between the different signaling pathways could exist.
Our data show that the tolerance is induced by NaCl treatment
for 24 h but not by longer NaCl incubation (data not shown),
suggesting that the possibility of inducing the cross-tolerance
between the two signaling pathway is time limited. These
ndings prompt the idea that different stresses can result in the
activation of overlapping stress response pathways that culminate either in PCD, acclimation or the so-called cross-tolerance.
Due to the importance of salt-induced PCD in unicellular
organisms for maintenance of population integrity and in plants
for tolerance induction (Huh et al. 2002), unraveling the components of this model will enable future molecular dissection of
the heat tolerance mechanism. Moreover, given the signicance
of microalgae communities in maintaining glacier ecosystems,
future studies will provide a comprehensive paradigm of
how algae will integrate the responses to changes in global
environment.
Plant Cell Physiol. 51(6): 884895 (2010) doi:10.1093/pcp/pcq069 The Author 2010.
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Pigment concentration
HO staining
Control and treated cell suspensions were stained (10 min
at room temperature) with 8 g ml1 HO (Sigma-Aldrich,
St Louis, MO, USA). Chromatin uorescence was observed
under a UVlight microscope. About 600 cells were analyzed
for each experiment and cells which had undergone PCD
were morphologically dened by cytoplasmic and nuclear
shrinkage and chromatin condensation. HO experiments
were conducted in triplicate. The cells from ve random
microscopic elds were counted to determine the number of
stained nuclei.
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A. Zuppini et al.
Statistical analysis
Values were expressed as the mean SD of 35 independent
experiments, using the Students t-test to analyze the differences between the control and treated group. Statistical
signicance was set at P < 0.05.
Funding
This work was supported by the University of Padova, Progetto
di Ateneo CDPA075925/07 (to B.B.).
Acknowledgments
We thank C. Andreoli (Padova, Italy) for kindly providing
C. saccharophila cells, and N. La Rocca (Padova, Italy) for the
kind gift of Rubisco large subunit antibody.
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