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Journal of Child Sexual Abuse

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Sexual Abuse Histories of Young Women in the U.S.

Child Welfare System: A Focus on Trauma-Related
Beliefs and Resilience
Angela L. Breno & M. Paz Galupo PhD
Published online: 11 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: Angela L. Breno & M. Paz Galupo PhD (2007): Sexual Abuse Histories of Young Women in the U.S. Child
Welfare System: A Focus on Trauma-Related Beliefs and Resilience, Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 16:2, 97-113
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Sexual Abuse Histories of Young Women

in the U.S. Child Welfare System:
A Focus on Trauma-Related Beliefs
and Resilience
Angela L. Breno
M. Paz Galupo

ABSTRACT. This research provides descriptive data regarding sexual abuse histories of high-functioning women (N = 84; 18-25 years old)
previously in the child welfare system. Placement histories of foster youth
who were sexually abused were distinct. Girls with a history of sexual
abuse were more likely to have been in restrictive housing and changed
placements twice as often as girls with no history of sexual abuse.
Trauma-related beliefs (TRB) subsequent to sexual abuse varied depending upon where sexual abuse occurred. TRB scores were negatively correlated with resilience and positively correlated with number of sexual
abusers. Powerlessness was found to make a significant contribution to
resiliency scores above and beyond foster care and abuse demographics.
doi:10.1300/J070v16n02_06 [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth
Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <docdelivery@
haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com> 2007 by The
Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Sexual abuse, foster care, trauma-related beliefs, powerlessness, self-blame, resilience
Address correspondence to: M. Paz Galupo, PhD, Towson University, 8000 York
Road, Towson, MD 21252.
The author would like to thank the Orphan Foundation of America for their partnership in this research. In particular, without the support of Eileen McCaffrey and Tina
Raheem, this research would not have been possible.
Submitted for publication 3/15/2006; accepted 11/18/2006.
Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, Vol. 16(2) 2007
Available online at http://jcsa.haworthpress.com
2007 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1300/J070v16n02_06

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JOURNAL OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE

Although the foster care system is designed to provide safety for children,
upon entering the system, children and youth are placed at increased risk
for abuse (Benedict, Zuravin, Brandt, & Abbey, 1994). Within the general
population, physical abuse is twice as likely to occur as sexual abuse (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). A different pattern
emerges, however, when considering abuse within the family foster care
system. The rate of substantiated allegations of child sexual abuse in foster
care is higher than that of physical abuse (Benedict, Zuravin, Somerfield, &
Brandt, 1996; Rosenthal, Motz, Edmondson, & Groze, 1991). In addition, while there are no significant sex differences for physical abuse or
neglect, girls are at increased risk for sexual abuse within child welfare
system (Benedict et al., 1996; Dubner & Motta, 1999).
Research directly addressing sexual abuse occurring in the child
welfare system is limited (Benedict et al., 1996). However, research on
other at-risk populations has indirectly revealed important outcome considerations for youth who were previously part of the child welfare system. A common thread throughout this literature base is the occurrence
of sexual abuse in the foster care population, linking a history of sexual
abuse to negative outcomes for foster youth.
Negative Outcomes for Former Foster Youth:
A Focus on Sexual Abuse Histories
Information regarding potential negative outcomes of former foster
youth can be indirectly gleaned from research on at-risk populations
where former foster youth are disproportionately over-represented. For
example, a study of death row inmates in California investigating precursors of lethal violence found that 81% of the cases included men
who were severely physically and/or sexually abused while residing
in the foster care system or under state youth authority jurisdiction
(Freedman & Hemenway, 2000). Former foster youth are highly visible
within the homeless population (Zugazaga, 2004), where it is estimated
that between 9 and 38% of homeless people were in foster care as children (Piliavin, Matsueda, Sosin, & Westerfelt, 1990; Roman & Wolfe,
1995). In a study on the stressful life events of homeless adults, it was
found that homeless women who had children were likely to have been
in foster care compared to homeless women without children and homeless men (Zugazaga, 2004). In their explanation for the close connection
between foster care and homelessness, Roman and Wolfe (1995) include concerns regarding the way in which physical and sexual abuse

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are addressed within the foster care system, as well as concerns regarding abuse that is perpetrated by foster care providers themselves.
When examining the lives of women prostitutes, former foster youth
again emerge (Nixon, Tutty, Downe, Gorkoff, & Ursel, 2002). These
women report a high prevalence of sexual abuse usually by a family
member or by caretakers while in foster care. In addition, foster youth
surface when investigating the population of sexual offenders. In a study
on the demographic and parental correlates of young sexual offenders,
it was found that the majority of pedophilic youth were living in foster
care (Graves, Openshaw, Ascione, & Ericksen, 1996).
Although this research literature focuses almost exclusively on negative outcomes or problem populations, it highlights the important issue
of sexual abuse within the foster care system. It is clear that more research is needed to better understand the abuse experiences of foster
youth, their experiences in the child welfare system, and how these are
related to the short and long-term psychological impact of abuse.
Relation Between Girls Sexual Abuse Histories
and Experiences Within the Foster Care System
While the research on sexual abuse in foster youth is limited, a history
of sexual abuse has been shown to relate to specific experiences within
the foster care system for girls (Benedict et al., 1996). Research has focused largely on how placement experiences differ between individuals
with, and without, a history of sexual abuse. Edmond, Auslander, Elze,
McMillen, and Thompson (2002) found that sexually abused girls and
teens are more likely than their non-abused counterparts to live in a group
home or residential treatment center setting. Furthermore, girls with a history of sexual abuse averaged twice as many congregate placements compared to girls with no history of abuse. In addition, Romansky, Lyons,
Lehner, and West (2003) found that children living in congregate care
settings were at the highest risk for readmission to psychiatric hospitals.
Psychological Correlates of Sexual Abuse
Within the Foster Care System
The psychological implications for victims of sexual abuse are complex. This complexity is compounded in abuse cases within the child
welfare system given that (1) many children enter the system because
of abuse in their families of origin; (2) foster youth may experience further abuse within the system and are at an increased risk for sexual

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JOURNAL OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE

abuse; and (3) youth with a history of sexual abuse have unique placement experiences within the child welfare system.
Previous research has considered the psychological consequences
of sexual abuse in foster youth. Although the research on the relation
between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and sexual abuse in the
general population has yielded mixed results, Dubner and Motta (1999)
found that within the foster care population, PTSD was prevalent in both
sexually and physically abused children and adolescents. This research
found that PTSD rates were highest among girls. While this research explores the psychological consequences of abuse within the foster care
population, it does so by focusing on strict criterion for symptoms of
a diagnosable disorder. Finkelhor and Brownes (1986) model of the
traumagenic dynamic suggests that changes in beliefs subsequent to sexual
abuse contribute to psychological and behavioral problems in adulthood.
These changes in cognitive and affective orientations occur across four
dimensions: (1) self-blame/stigmatization, (2) betrayal, (3) powerlessness, and (4) traumatic sexualization. Self-blame in particular, is related
to maladaptive behaviors and/or symptomatology (Conte & Scherman,
1987; Hazzard, Celano, Gould, Lawry, & Webb, 1995; Shapiro, Leifer,
Martone, & Kassem, 1992). Trauma-related beliefs (TRB) related to
sexual abuse, however, have not yet been investigated within a foster
care context. Understanding factors influencing TRB within this population, then, represents an important area for future research.
In addition, research is needed to understand abusive experiences
of foster youth without emphasizing problem populations. Investigating the experiences of high-functioning youth who have successfully
transitioned out of foster care is of particular interest and would provide
a balance to previous research. Research including high-functioning populations is critical in identifying positive factors and outcomes associated
with foster care experiences.
Overview of the Current Study
The purpose of the current study was two-fold. First, this research
provides descriptive data regarding the sexual abuse experiences of
a high-functioning population of girls formerly in foster care. A focus
on girls experiences in this case is appropriate given that girls are
at greater risk for sexual abuse within the foster care system (Benedict
et al., 1996) and because girls make up the majority of the high-functioning population from which this sample is drawn (e.g., former foster
youth who are scholarship recipients for post-secondary education).

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Second, this research investigates the psychological correlates of sexual

abuse. Through an anonymous online survey, participants answered
questions regarding their history of abuse within and outside the foster
care system and completed surveys related to current trauma-related
beliefs and resilience. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25 years and
were asked about their childhood experiences of abuse as well as their
placement history within the foster care system.
The following hypotheses were made: (1) Participants with a history
of sexual abuse would have higher placement ratios (placements per
year) compared to participants who did not have a history of sexual
abuse; (2) Participants with a history of sexual abuse would be significantly more likely to have been in at least one restrictive placement as
compared to participants without a history of sexual abuse; (3) There
would be a significant difference in TRB across sexual abuse settings
(abuse prior to entering the foster care system, abuse within foster care
system, abuse in both settings); (4) TRB would be positively correlated
with current levels of resilience; and (5) TRB would be a significant
predictor of resilience scores.
METHOD
Participants
Due to the Orphan Foundation of Americas (OFA) visibility and
reputation in serving this population, their partnership in identifying
potential participants was crucial to the success of the study. Participants were recruited through an e-mail sent to all current scholarship recipients at the OFA. Because participants were OFA students, the
following demographic information was known to be consistent across
participants: (1) Participants were under the age of 25 as of March 31,
2004; (2) Participants had completed high school or high school equivalency tests (GED) and were currently enrolled in an accredited postsecondary school or vocational program at an undergraduate level;
(3) Participants had been in public or private foster care for a minimum
of 12 months at the time of their 18th birthday; and (4) Participants were
not adopted following their tenure in foster care.
Participants included 84 young women who were in the custody of
the child welfare system during their teenage years. Participants ranged
in age from 18 to 25 (M = 20.56, SD = 1.58). Participants represented a
geographically diverse area, residing in 35 states in the United States.

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Within the sample, 85.7% (n = 72) identified as heterosexual, 7.1% lesbian

(n = 6), 6% bisexual (n = 5), and 1.2% questioning (n = 1). The racial/
ethnic composition of the sample was relatively diverse where participants
self-identified as 60.7% (n = 51) White, 20.2 % (n = 17) Black, 6% (n = 5)
Hispanic, 2.4% (n = 2) Asian American, 1.2% (n = 1) Native American,
and 9.5% (n = 8) identified as Other.

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Materials
The Trauma-Related Beliefs Questionnaire (TRB). The TRB Questionnaire (Hazzard, 1993) was used to assess the cognitive and affective orientations accompanying sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence. The
TRB comprises four sub-scales each assessing a different dimension
of TRB including Self-Blame/Stigmatization, Betrayal, Powerlessness,
and Traumatic Sexualization. The TRB consists of 56 items, each rated on
a five-point Likert-type scale. Participants indicated their response on individual items from 0 (Absolutely untrue) to 4 (Absolutely true) and
possible total scores ranged from 0 to 224 where higher scores indicate
more maladaptive responses. The TRB has high internal reliability with an
alpha of .93.
The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). The CD-RISC
(Connor & Davidson, 2003) was used to measure resilience. The CDRISC comprises 25 items, all rated on a five-point Likert-type scale
(0-4). Possible scores range from 0 to 100 with higher scores reflecting
greater resilience.
History of Sexual Abuse. Participants answered a series of questions
in order to establish a history of sexual abuse. Questions included number of abusers, age abuse began and ended, relationship to the abuser,
frequency of abuse, placement where the abuse occurred, and placement following the abuse.
Experiences in Foster Care. Participants answered a series of questions related to their experiences in the foster care system. These included age when entering and exiting foster care, number of foster care
placements, and placement types.
Placement Ratio. A placement ratio was calculated for each participant by dividing the total number of foster care placements by the number of years spent in the foster care system. This number represents the
stability of placements where higher numbers represent more movement within the system. For example, a placement ratio of 3.0 would
represent an average of three foster care placements per year (Rela-

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tively unstable) and a placement ratio of .5 would represent one

placement in two years (Relatively stable).
Placement Restrictedeness. Placement restrictedness was determined
by whether or not participants were ever in a restrictive placement
during the time spent in the child welfare system. Restrictive placements
included residential treatment centers (both locked and unlocked),
detention centers, jail, and psychiatric hospitals. Non-restrictive placements included foster homes, kinship care, and group homes. Restrictive
placements allowed for lower levels of freedom and required higher levels of supervision than non-restrictive placements.
Procedure
The current study was designed as an online survey to circumvent
tracking issues and to ensure the complete anonymity of OFAs
scholarship recipients. Participants were recruited through an e-mail
sent directly from an OFA staff member. The e-mail contained a letter
explaining the study and included a link to a secure server that directed
individuals to the study. Prior to consenting to participate in the study,
individuals were informed of their rights as participants and were
informed of the study requirements. Completion of the study required
a maximum of 20 minutes. Participants were treated in accordance
with the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association
(APA; see Principles 6.1-6.20 in the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct APA, 1992).
RESULTS
Consistent with the two goals for this research, analyses were conducted to (1) allow for a description of sexual abuse experiences for this
population of former foster youth; and (2) to better understand TRB subsequent to sexual abuse, in undergraduate women who were once foster
children.
Descriptive Statistics Related to Sexual Abuse Experiences
Comparison of Participant Experience Across History of Sexual
Abuse. Of the total sample (N = 84) the majority of women (65.5%,
n = 55) reported a history of sexual abuse. The foster care experiences

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JOURNAL OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE

of participants who did have a history of sexual abuse versus those who
did not, were different on an important number of indices. These findings followed the predicted pattern. Participants with a history of sexual
abuse had higher placement ratios (M = 1.43) when compared with participants who did not have a history of sexual abuse (M = .63), t (82) =
2.67, p < .01. Additionally, participants with a history of sexual abuse
(34.5%) were significantly more likely to have experienced a restrictive
placement while in foster care when compared with participants without a history of sexual abuse (10.5%), 2(1, N = 84) = 5.75, p < .05.
Table 1 provides a summary of these results.
Descriptive Results Related to Sexual Abuse Experiences. Of the 55
participants who reported having been sexually abused, 12 individuals
did not complete the section in the survey detailing the specifics of sexual abuse and were therefore not included in the remaining analyses.
The remainder of the analyses reported here includes 43 participants
with a complete history of abuse noted. Table 2 provides comparative
data regarding sexual abuse histories and foster care experiences of
these participants. Experiences are provided for three groups of participants on the basis of the placement where sexual abuse occurred:
(1) Participants who were abused prior to entering foster care; (2) Participants who were abused while in foster care; and (3) Participants who
were abused in both settings. It is noteworthy that a total of 34.9% of the
participants reported sexual abuse occurring within the foster care
system.
Four one-way ANOVAs were conducted to investigate whether there
was a difference across the three abuse placement groups for (1) age
TABLE 1. Foster Care Placements Differed for Participants Across History of
Sexual Abuse
History of Sexual Abuse
Participants % (n)
Placement Ratio*
Restrictive Placement* %

65.50 (55)

No History of Sexual Abuse

34.50 (29)

1.43

0.63

34.50

10.30

Note. *= Significant differences found at the .05 level.

Participants withversus withouta history of sexual abuse differed in their foster care experiences. Specifically, 34.5% of participants with a history of sexual abuse had been in at least one restrictive placement
during foster care and averaged 1.43 placements per year. In contrast, only 10.3% participants with no history of sexual abuse experienced a restrictive placement within foster care and averaged 0.63 placements
per year.

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TABLE 2. Participant Experiences Across Placements Where Sexual Abuse

Occurred
Abuse Prior to
Entering Foster Care

Abuse in Foster Care

Setting

Abuse in Both
Settings

Participants (%)

65.10

14.00

20.90

Current Age

20.75

21.50

20.89

Age at First Sexual

Abuse

7.45

9.00

8.17

Age When Entered

Foster Care*

12.79

6.33

8.78

Age When Leaving

Foster Care

18.32

19.00

18.67

Number of Sexual
Abusers*

2.14

2.17

3.44

Note. * = Significant differences found at the .05 level.

of first sexual abuse; (2) age when entering foster care; (3) age when
leaving foster care; and (4) number of sexual abusers. There were no
significant difference across abuse placements for the age when participants were first sexually abused F (2, 39) = 3.19, p > .05, or the age upon
leaving foster care F (2, 39) = 0.06, p > .05. There was, however, a
significant difference in age upon entering foster care across the three
groups, F (2, 40) = 6.85, p < .01. Post hoc Bonferroni tests indicated
that participants who were abused prior to entering foster care were
significantly older when entering foster care (M = 12.79) than participants abused within the foster care system (M = 6.33). The age upon
entering foster care for participants abused in both settings (M = 8.78)
did not differ from either of the other two groups. There was also a significant difference in the number of sexual abusers across the three
groups, F (2, 40) = 3.40, p < .05. Post hoc analyses indicated that those
participants abused in both settings had significantly more sexual abusers (M = 3.44) than those abused prior to entering foster care (M = 2.14).
The number of sexual abusers for participants abused within the foster
care system (M = 2.17) did not significantly differ from either of the
other two groups.
In general, physical abuse rates within this sample were high, with
83.7% reporting having a history of physical abuse. A Chi-Squared analysis was conducted and found no significant difference in physical abuse
rates across the three groups.

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Assessing Trauma-Related Beliefs in Former Foster Girls:

Internal Reliability Analysis
The TRB measure (Hazzard, 1993) has been shown to be a reliable
measure of beliefs for sexual abuse survivors, yielding an overall internal
reliability coefficient alpha of .93. Sub-scale reliability coefficients also
indicated a high degree of reliability: (1) Self-Blame/Stigmatization .89;
(2) Betrayal .86; (3) Powerlessness .78; and (4) Traumatic Sexualization
.87. The original reliability analysis was conducted using 56 adult women
sexual abuse survivors between the ages of 20 to 55 (M = 39.0). There
was little racial diversity within this sample, with only 4% identifying as
racial minorities.
As the population demographics were distinct from the original sample, a preliminary analysis was conducted in order to establish whether
the TRB is a reliable measure for this population of former foster youth.
By comparison, the current sample included women, ranging in age
from 18 to 25 (M = 20.6) with 39.3% identifying as racial minorities and
14.3 as sexual minority. Results indicate a comparable reliability coefficient with Hazzards original analysis (1993) alpha was .93 for the overall scale. Sub-scale reliability was also similar to Hazzards original
scores: (1) Self-Blame/Stigmatization .86; (2) Betrayal .86; (3) Powerlessness .79; and (4) Traumatic Sexualization .93.
Trauma-Related Beliefs in Relation
to Placement During Abuse
Table 3 provides a summary of participants trauma-related beliefs
across the three placement groups. A one-way ANOVA covaried for age
when the participant entered foster care and the number of sexual abusers
revealed a significant difference in overall TRB across abuse placement
for sexual abuse, F (2, 40) = 3.46, p < .05. TRB were highest for participants who had been sexually abused both outside and within the foster
care system (M = 143.00), followed by participants who were abused
within foster care (M = 122.83), and participants who were abused prior
to entering foster care (M = 117.39). Post hoc analyses revealed that TRB
were significantly higher ( p < .05) for participants abused in both settings
when compared to either of the other two groups.
Additional analyses were conducted for each of the TRB sub-scales.
The age at which participants entered foster care and the number of
sexual abusers were covaried out of the analysis. Scores on the SelfBlame/Stigmatization sub-scale differed significantly across the three

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107

TABLE 3. Trauma-Related Beliefs (TRB) and Abuse Placements

Abuse Prior to
Abuse in Foster
Entering Foster Care
Care Setting
TRB Total*
Self-Blame/Stigmatization*

122.83

143.00

58.11

63.17

73.00

26.25

27.17

31.67

3. Powerlessness

21.82

23.50

24.67

4. Traumatic Sexualization

11.21

9.00

13.67

1.

2. Betrayal

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117.39

Abuse in Both
Settings

Note. * = Significant differences found at the .05 level.

groups, F (2, 40) = 3.83, p < .05. Self-Blame/Stigmatization was highest

for participants who had been sexually abused both outside and within
the foster care system (M = 73.00), followed by participants who were
abused within foster care (M = 63.17), and participants who were only
abused prior to entering foster care (M = 58.11). Post hoc analyses revealed that Self-Blame/Stigmatization scores were significantly higher
(p < .05) for participants abused in both settings when compared to
either of the other two groups. No significant differences were found for
the other three TRB sub-scales where F (2, 40) = 2.62, p > .05 for
Betrayal; F (2, 40) = 1.60, p > .05 for Powerlessness; and F (2, 40) =
1.06, p > .05 for Traumatic Sexualization.
Correlates of Trauma-Related Beliefs
Intercorrelations between TRB, resilience, placement ratio, age
when first sexually abused and number of abusers (both sexual and
physical) are presented in Table 4. Results support predicted correlational
patterns between TRB and resilience scores where TRB scores were
negatively correlated with resilience (.541, p < .01). TRB scores were
significantly, positively correlated with number of sexual abusers (.283,
p < .05). There were no significant correlations between TRB and the
remaining variables.
Predicting Resiliency: A Preliminary Analysis
A hierarchical regression was conducted for resilience to test
whether trauma-related beliefs (specifically Self-Blame and Powerlessness) would make a significant contribution to resilience scores independent of placement ratio, age when entered foster care, age of first

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TABLE 4. Correlates of Trauma-Related Beliefs

The 6 parameters measured

1. Trauma-Related
Belief Total

0.541**

0.146

2. Connor-Davidson
Resilience Scale

0.024

3. Placement Ratio

4
0.283*

6
0.193

0.020

0.110

0.112

0.262*

0.329*

0.156

0.164

0.243

0.337*

4. Number of (Sexual)
Abusers

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5
0.210

5. Age when First

Sexually Abused

6. Number of (Physical)
Abusers
Note.** = significant at the 0.01 level; * = significant at the 0.05 level.

sexual abuse, number of abusers for sexual abuse, and number of abusers for physical abuse. Table 5 provides a summary of this analysis.
Powerlessness (but not Self-Blame) was found to make a significant
contribution to resiliency scores above and beyond foster care and
abuse demographics (p < .001).
DISCUSSION
This research provides the first descriptive data regarding sexual
abuse histories in the child welfare system that exclusively considers
high-functioning individuals. This research focused on the experiences
of girls who spent their teen years in the foster care system and are currently enrolled at post-secondary educational institutions. Focusing on
the sexual abuse histories of girls in the foster care system was appropriate given that past research has indicated that while physical abuse rates
across sex in family foster care are similar, women are at increased risk
for sexual abuse within the foster care setting (Benedict et al., 1996;
Rosenthal et al., 1991). Past research on former foster youth has focused
disproportionately on negative outcomes. By considering a high-functioning population of former foster youth, it is possible to consider
foster care outcomes from a unique vantage point. Participants were recruited from a pool of scholarship recipients from the oldest and largest
organization providing scholarships to former foster youth, The Orphan
Foundation of America (OFA). A focus on girls experiences is also ap-

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109

TABLE 5. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Trauma-Related

Beliefs Predicting Resiliency

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Variable
Step 1
Age When Entered Foster Care
Placement Ratio
Number of Abusers for Sexual Abuse
Age when First Sexual Abuse
Number of Abusers for Physical Abuse
Step 2
Powerlessness
Self- Blame

SE B

0.16
1.41
0.95
0.60
1.90

0.71
2.30
1.98
0.79
3.47

0.05
0.14
0.10
18.00
0.12

1.40
0.01

0.32
0.14

0.701**
.00

Note. R = .001 for Step 1; R = .398 for Step 2. **p .001.

propriate with this population, as the majority of applicants for OFA

scholarships are women. The current study reveals that even among this
high-functioning population the majority of individuals entering foster
care had a history of sexual abuse and that significant additional abuse occurred while under the custody of the child welfare system.
Consistent with past research (Edmond et al., 2002) the placement histories of foster youth who were sexually abused were distinct. Women
with a history of sexual abuse changed placements within the child welfare system twice as often as women with no history of sexual abuse and
were more likely to have been housed in a restrictive placement.
For participants with a history of sexual abuse, some experiences
differed across the placement where sexual abuse occurredoutside
the foster care system, within the foster care system, and within both
settings. Although the age of first sexual abuse did not differ across the
three groups, women who were sexually abused within foster care were
significantly younger when they entered foster care. In addition, women
who reported sexual abuse in both settings had significantly higher
numbers of sexual abusers than women in the other two groups. Rates of
physical abuse were high, but did not significantly differ across groups.
Trauma-Related Beliefs in Sexually Abused Girls
Formerly in the Foster Care System
This research is the first to assess trauma-related beliefs associated with
sexual abuse within the foster care system. At the outset, this research

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provides a psychometric analysis of the TRB Scale (Hazzard, 1993) and

establishes its use as a reliable measure within this specialized population of former foster youth.
TRB were shown to vary within this population depending upon
where sexual abuse occurred and were independent from the age at which
they entered foster care and how many sexual abusers they had. TRB
scores were highest for participants who reported abuse across both settings (within and prior to entering the child welfare system). Participants in this group, however, reported a significantly higher number of
sexual abusers, which could account for the higher TRB scores. TRB
and number of sexual abusers were positively correlated.
Among the four sub-scales, a significant difference emerged for SelfBlame/Stigmatization scores in a pattern that mirrored the overall TRB
scores across placement where sexual abuse occurred. This finding within
the foster care context, coupled with the emphasis on self-blame in the
general literature (Conte & Schuerman, 1987; Shapiro et al., 1992) indicate that understanding factors related to self-blame may represent an
important direction for future research within the foster care population.
Trauma-Related Beliefs and Resilience
Investigating this high-functioning population of former foster youth
provides a unique opportunity for considering predictors of resilience. In
an exploratory regression analysis, powerlessness emerged as a significant predictor of resilience (accounting for nearly 40% of the variance), over and above foster care variables (i.e., age when entering foster
care and placement ratio), abuse demographics (number of abusers for
sexual abuse, age at first sexual abuse and number of abusers for physical
abuse) and Self-Blame. This finding for Powerlessness as a significant
predictor of resilience is supported by retrospective qualitative research
on resilience and sexual abuse within the general (non-foster care) population (Valentine & Feinauer, 1993). Resilience, for these participants
was related to recognizing personal power and to an internal locus of
control. The role of powerlessness is further supported by a prospective
study of girls between ages 8 to 13 who were victims of sexual abuse.
Powerlessness was the most important predictor of overall maladjustment
(Hazzard et al., 1995). The importance of powerlessness in these studies
supports theoretical conceptualizations (Finkelhor & Browne, 1985) that
a sense of control or power during recovery leads to less negative effects.
In addition to powerlessness, Valentine and Feinauer (1993) also focused on the role of self-blame in resilience. Self-Blame did not emerge

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in the current study as a significant predictor of resilience. This difference

may be related to the way in which resilience is operationalized. Many
studies define lower levels of symptomatology as resiliency (Feinauer &
Stuart, 1996). Resilience, in this study, was assessed using a self-report
measure (Connor & Davidson, 2003) that focused on resilient characteristics rather than presenting behaviors. Participants were asked to rate
how true each statement is for their circumstance. Items included resilient
characteristics such as Able to adapt to change, Coping with stress
strengthens, and Strong sense of purpose. The relation between resiliency scores when measured by self-report and by the presence/absence
of symptomatology is not entirely clear.
The present finding, that Self-Blame was not a significant predictor of
resilience, is not entirely surprising especially in the context of Feinauer
and Stuarts (1996) more complex notion of blame attribution. Instead of
focusing solely on self-blame, blame was considered along four possible
dimensions: (1) Blame Self, (2) Blame Fate, (3) Blame Both, and (4)
Blame Perpetrator. Rates of resilience were highest (indicated by lowest
levels of symptomatology) for individuals who blamed the perpetrator.
Within Feinauer and Stuarts framework of blame (1996) individuals low
in self-blame could fall within one of the three remaining categories. Future research on sexual abuse within the foster care system should integrate more complex notions of blame. It is possible, for example, that
given abuse occurring within foster care, an additional conceptualization
of blaming the system may manifest. Overall, documenting predictive
factors for resiliency represents an important area for future research and
would provide an opportunity to further explore variables related to positive outcomes for former foster youth.
Directions for Future Research
The present study provides a framework for considering sexual abuse
in the foster care system. As it took a retrospective approach, sexual
abuse experiences were identified through self-report methods. Retrospective approaches to understanding childhood maltreatment have
been shown to complement prospective studies, and are of particular
importance when studying issues such as sexual abuse, that are associated with secrecy and shame (see Kendall-Tackett & Becker-Blease,
2004 for a full discussion). Future research on sexual abuse within the
child welfare system should allow for multiple measures, including an
analysis of substantiated versus unsubstantiated reports of abuse.

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Additional factors related to experiences within the child welfare

system were not investigated in this research. Specific factors related to
abuse experiences should be considered in the future. These factors include (1) relationship of abuser to participant, (2) whether abuse was reported, (3) response of the child welfare system to reports of abuse, and
(4) placement decisions subsequent to reported abuse. Of particular interest is the relation between TRB and these within-system variables related to sexual abuse experiences within the child welfare system.
Importantly, this research represents the first study to consider the
psychological correlates of sexual abuse within a high-functioning population of foster youth. Future research should build upon this study
specifically by comparing experiences between distinct populations
within the former foster care population.
AUTHOR NOTE
Angela L. Breno, MA, (angie@orphan.org), received her masters degree in Experimental Psychology from Towson University. She is currently a researcher with the
Ophan Foundation of America. Her research interests include experiences and outcomes
of the child welfare system, women and lesbian health issues, and queer studies.
M. Paz Galupo, PhD, (pgalupo@towson.edu), is Professor of Psychology and
Director of the Multicultural Institute at Towson University. Her research interests focus on understanding social and interpersonal relationships in the context of race, sex/
gender, and sexual orientation.

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doi:10.1300/J070v16n02_06