DEFENCE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

ORGANISATION
SUMMER TRAINING PROJECT REPORT ON
GAS FEEDING SYSTEM

Under the guidance of: VINOD SIR, (scientist at DRDO, lastec )

Name-Shyam Singh
Placement Dicector: K K Tiwari,sir
College: R D Engineering college, (Ghaziabad)
Email: shyamchauhan1593@gmail.com

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Third year internship training is an indispensable part of any
engineering curriculum. It provides the students an opportunity to
gain experience on the practical application of their technical
knowledge.

I would like to thanks HR Department of DRDO, Metcalfe

house, Delhi, for giving me this opportunity to work on this project in
LASTEC LAB (COIL GROUP) . I would like to thank R. K. Tyagi
sir, Gaurav sir, Vinod sir, Sanjeev Sir, Veerander sir and all the staff
members at DRDO who have helped me at every juncture of my
project. I have no doubt that this project has helped me a lot. Here I
gain much practical knowledge and the experience which is unique.

Guides technical help and goal oriented approach has

been unique and a stepping stone towards the successful completion
of my project.

INDEX

1. About DRDO & its labs.

2. Introduction to Coil Group, Lastec Lab.
3. Nomenclature used.
4. List of figure & graphs.
5. Theory.
a) Velocity of sound.
b) Sonic & Supersonic flow.
c) Stagnation properties.
d) Ideal gas results.
e) Effect of area change on flow parameters.
f) Study of Nozzle & diffuser.
g) Mass flow rate when nozzle is choked.
h) Normal shocks.
6. Design of orifice.
7. Report Summary.

ABOUT DRDO AND ITS LABS

Laser Science and Technology Centre (LASTEC), Delhi has its origin as Defence
Science Laboratory (DSL) established as a nucleus laboratory of DRDO in 1950.
In the beginning DSL operated from National Physical Laboratory ( NPL )
building. Later , in 1960 ,it was shifted to Metcalfe House. IN 1982, the DSL
moved to its new technical building in Metcalfe House complex and was renamed
as Defence Science Centre (DScC).In 1999, in view of the R&D thrust shifting to
development of Lasers and Optoelectronics systems and related technologies, the
laboratory was rechristened as Laser Science and Technology Centre (LASTEC).
With time, many of the DSL activities were given to newly formed,
specialised DRDO laboratories. DSL has seeded as many as 15 present DRDO
labs, which includes DRDL, SSPL, INMAS, FRL, ISSA, DESIDOC, CFEES,
SAG and ITM. To start with, in 1950s, the research activities of the laboratory
were mainly confined to operational research and ballistics. Electronics and
communications, explosives, physiology, nuclear medicine research and food
technology were added to its areas of research and study in 1960s. In 1970s the
laboratory consolidated its R&D activities towards more specific and application
oriented areas, such as liquid fuel technology, spectroscopy, crystallography and so
on. The laboratory contributed significantly in missile programme in the areas of
G-fuel and UDMH (for long and short range guided missiles), trajectory modeling
and Joule-Thomson mini cooler and IR dome material, Polyurethane for potting of
electronic circuits, microphone grid (for locating gun position by sound ranging
methods), air ventilated suits etc. In 1982, DScC was given a new charter of duties
with its major thrust on lasers. In 1986, the centre was made responsible for the
development of lasers for directed energy applications as one of its major missions.
LASTEC has since established itself as a centre of excellence for the development
of high power laser sources and related technologies, electro-optic countermeasure
equipment and battlefield optoelectronic systems. Presently, the laboratory has
manpower strength of 446 comprising of 162 DRDS scientists, 138 DTRC officers
and staff and 146 administrative and allied services officers and staff working on
various multi-disciplinary projects in the field of lasers and optoelectronics.

COIL GROUP (LASTEC LAB)

Chemical oxygen iodine laser, or COIL, is an infrared chemical laser. As

the beam is infrared, it cannot be seen with the naked eye. It is capable of
output power scaling up to megawatts in continuous mode. Its output
wavelength is 1.315 m, a transition wavelength of atomic iodine.
The laser is fed with gaseous chlorine, molecular iodine, and an aqueous
mixture of hydrogen peroxide and potassium hydroxide. The aqueous
peroxide solution undergoes chemical reaction with chlorine, producing heat,
potassium chloride, and oxygen in excited state, singlet delta oxygen.
Spontaneous transition of excited oxygen to the triplet sigma ground state is
forbidden giving the excited oxygen a spontaneous lifetime of about 45
minutes. This allows the singlet delta oxygen to transfer its energy to the
iodine molecules injected to the gas stream; they are nearly resonant with the
singlet oxygen, so the energy transfer during the collision of the particles is
rapid. The excited iodine then undergoes stimulated emission and lases at
1.315 m in the optical resonator region of the laser.
The laser operates at relatively low gas pressures, but the gas flow has to be
nearing the speed of sound at the reaction time; even supersonic flow designs
are described. The low pressure and fast flow make removal of heat from the
lasing medium easy, in comparison with high-power solid-state lasers. The
reaction products are potassium salt, water, and oxygen. Traces of chlorine
and iodine are removed from the exhaust gases by a halogen scrubber.
COIL was developed by the US Air Force in 1977, for military purposes.
However, its properties make it useful for industrial processing as well; the
beam is focusable and can be transferred by an optical fiber, as its
wavelength is not absorbed much by fused silica but is well absorbed by
metals, making it suitable for laser cutting and drilling. Rapid cutting of

stainless steel and hastelloy with a fiber-coupled COIL has been

demonstrated.[1] In 1996, TRW Incorporated managed to get a continuous
beam of hundreds of kilowatts of power that lasted for several seconds
RADICL, Research Assessment, Device Improvement Chemical Laser, is a
20 kW COIL laser tested by the United States Air Force in around 1998.[2]
COIL is the main weapon laser for the military airborne laser and advanced
tactical laser programs. On February 11, 2010, this weapon was successfully
deployed to shoot down a missile off the central California coast in a test
conducted with a laser aboard a Boeing 747 that took off from the Point
Mugu Naval Air Warfare Center (for more details, see Boeing YAL-1.)
All gas-phase iodine laser (AGIL) is a similar construction using all-gas
reagents, more suitable for aerospace applications.
The ElectricOIL, or EOIL, offers the same iodine lasing species in an
alternate gas-electric hybrid variant.

FIGURE : Chemical oxygen iodine laser

NOMENCLATURE
A

Area

velocity of sound

Ratio of specific heats

Mach Number

Pressure

Gas constant

Absolute Temperature

Velocity

mass flow rate

Mach Number

Density

M* Dimensionless speed
()o

Stagnation State

()*

State at which the mach number is unity

()1

Condition upstream side of normal shock

()2

condition downstream side of normal shock

LIST OF FIGURES AND GRAPHS

1. Diagram illustrating sonic velocity. (a) Stationary observer. (b) Observer
traveling with wave front.
2. Mach number Flow Regimes
3. pressure field produced by a point source of disturbance moving at uniform
speed Leftward.
4. shows how static parameter converted to stagnation.
5. show difference between isentropic & actual stagnation state.
6. Variation of mass flow rate with pressure ratio.
7. Variation of area ratio to mach number.
8. Maximum mass flow at critical pressure ratio(choke flow ).
9. Flow thorough the converging-diverging nozzle.
10. Flow through normal shock wave.

1. VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AN IDEAL GAS

When a pressure disturbance occurs in a compressible fluid, the disturbance travels
with a velocity that depends on the state of the fluid. A sound wave is a very small
pressure disturbance; the velocity of sound, also called the sonic velocity, is an
important parameter in compressible-fluid flow. We proceed now to determine an
expression for the sonic velocity of an ideal gas in terms of the properties of the
gas.
Let a disturbance be set up by the movement of the piston at the end of the tube,
Fig. 1. A wave travels down the tube with a velocity c, which is the sonic velocity.

FIGURE .1
Diagram illustrating sonic velocity. (a) Stationary observer. (b) Observer traveling
with wave front.

Assume that after the wave has passed the properties of the gas have changed an
infinitesimal amount and that the gas is moving with the velocity dV toward the
wave front.
In Fig. 1.b this process is shown from the point of view of an observer who travels
with the wave front. Consider the control surface shown in Fig. 1.b. From the first
law for this steady-state process we can write
h + c2/2 = (h+dh) + (c-dv)2/2
dh-cdv=0.1
From the continuity equation we can write
Ac=(+d)A(c-dv)
cd-dv=02
Consider also the relation between properties
T ds =h-(dp/)
If the process is isentropic, ds = 0, and this equation can be combined with Eq.3 to
give the relation

-cdv=0.3

This can be combined with Eq. 2 to give the relation

2
=c

Since we have assumed the process to be isentropic, this is better written as a

partial derivative.

s=c

An alternate derivation is to introduce the momentum equation. For the control

volume the momentum equation is
PA-(P+dP)A= (c-Dv-c)=AC(C-dV-C)
dP=cdV5
On combining this with Eq. 2 we obtain Eq. 4.

s=

c2

It will be of particular advantage to solve Eq. 4 for the velocity of sound in an

ideal gas. When an ideal gas undergoes an isentropic change of state, for this
process, assuming constant specific heat

-k

=0

Substituting this equation in Eq. 4, we have an equation for the velocity of sound in
an ideal gas,
C2=kp/.6
Since for an ideal gas

= RT

this equation may also be written

c2 =kRT 7

2. Mach Number and Sonic Flows

Mach number (M) is defined as the speed of an object to the speed of sound. M can
range from 0 to , but this broad range is broken up into several flow regimes.
These regimes are subsonic, transonic, supersonic, hypersonic, and hypervelocity
flow. For instance, in air at room temperature, the speed of sound is about 340 m/s
(760 mph). The figure below illustrates the spectrum of Mach number flow
regimes.

Figure 2: Mach number Flow Regimes

As an object accelerates from subsonic toward supersonic speed, certain regimes of
wave phenomena occur. To illustrate these changes, the figure below shows a
stationary point (M=0) that emits symmetric sound waves. One can think of this
point as a boom box floating in the air and projecting sound waves in all
directions. From this stationary point, the boom box begins to accelerate to a
subsonic speed. As the boom box accelerates, the sound waves it creates pile up in
the direction of motion and stretch out in the opposite direction. When the boom
box reaches sonic speed (M=1), it is travelling at the same speed as the sound
waves it creates. Therefore, an infinite number of these waves stack up in the
direction of motion to form a shock wave. Upon achieving supersonic flow, the
boom box leaves its pressure waves behind. When this occurs, the pressure waves
create an angle known as the Mach wave angle (or Doppler angle), :
..8

where a represents the speed of sound in air and V represents the velocity of the
object. Although named for Austrian physicist Ernst Mach, these oblique waves
were actually first discovered by Christian Doppler.

Figure 3 : pressure field produced by a point source of disturbance moving at

uniform speed Lefdward.

3. Isentropic Relations
For an isentropic flow all the static properties such as

and s when expressed

as a ration of their stagnation values become functions of Mach Number, M and

alone. This can be shown as below. Recall the energy equation,

Eliminating T using the equation for speed of sound (still not proved),
,
we have

where a0 is the stagnation speed of sound. The above equation simplifies to

Multiplying throughout by

yields,

Thus we have a relationship which connects temperature ratio with Mach

Number. Assuming isentropy and using the relation,
expressions for pressure and density as,

we can derive

..9

10

11

12

It may be pointed out a sonic point need not be present in the flow for the above
equations to be applicable.
Mass Flow Rate
Now derive an equation for mass flow rate in terms of Mach Number of flow.
Denote the area in an isentropic flow where the Mach Number becomes 1, as A*.
We have for mass flow rate,

For an isentropic flow

It follows by noting that

13

Substituting for terms such as

etc and simplifying one obtains,

14

This is a very useful relation in Gas dynamics, connecting the local area and local
Mach Number. Tables in Appendix also list this function, i.e., A/A* as a function
of Mach Number. It helps one to determine changes in Mach Number as area
changes.

4. Stagnation Properties
Consider a fluid flowing into a diffuser at a velocity , temperature T, pressure P,
and enthalpy h, etc. Here the ordinary properties T, P, h, etc. are called the static
properties; that is, they are measured relative to the flow at the flow velocity. The
diffuser is sufficiently long and the exit area is sufficiently large that the fluid is
brought to rest (zero velocity) at the diffuser exit while no work or heat transfer is
done. The resulting state is called the stagnation state.

Figure 4: shows how static parameter converted to stagnation

We apply the first law per unit mass for one entrance, one exit, and neglect the
potential energies. Let the inlet state be subscripted and the exit or stagnation
states have the subscript o.

qnet

2
2
V
V
h
wnet ho o
2
2

.15

Since the exit velocity, work, and heat transfer are zero,

ho h

2
V
2

16

The term ho is called the stagnation enthalpy (some authors call this the total
enthalpy). It is the enthalpy the fluid attains when brought to rest adiabatically
while no work is done. If, in addition, the process is also reversible, the process is
isentropic, and the inlet and exit entropies are equal.

so s
The stagnation enthalpy and entropy define the stagnation state and the isentropic
stagnation pressure, Po. The actual stagnation pressure for irreversible flows will
be somewhat less than the isentropic stagnation pressure as shown below.

Figure.5: show difference between isentropic & actual stagnation state.

5. Ideal Gas Result
Rewrite the equation defining the stagnation enthalpy as

ho h

2
V
2

For ideal gases with constant specific heats, the enthalpy difference becomes

C P ( To T )

2
V
2

where To is defined as the stagnation temperature.

To T

2
V
2C P

For the isentropic process, the stagnation pressure can be determined from

Or

Using variable specific heat data

PR @To
Po Po / Pref

P
P / Pref
PR @T

..17

6. Effect of Area Changes on Flow Parameters

Consider the isentropic steady flow of an ideal gas through the nozzle shown
below.
Air flows steadily through a varying-cross-sectional-area duct such as a nozzle at a
flow rate of 3 kg/s. The air enters the duct at a low velocity at a pressure of 1500
kPa and a temperature of 1200 K and it expands in the duct to a pressure of 100
kPa. The duct is designed so that the flow process is isentropic. Determine the

pressure, temperature, velocity, flow area, speed of sound, and Mach number at
each point along the duct axis that corresponds to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.
Since the inlet velocity is low, the stagnation properties equal the static properties.

To T1 1200 K , Po P1 1500 kPa

After the first 200 kPa pressure drop, we have

P
(1300kPa )
kJ

3
RT (0.287 kJ )(11519
m
. K ) kPa
kg K
kg
3.932 3
m

kg
s

m
104 cm2
A
V (3.9322 kg )(310.77 m ) m2
m3
s
24.55cm2
m2
1000 2
kJ
s
C kRT 14
. (0.287
)(11519
. K)
kJ
kg K
kg
680.33

m
s

Now let's see why these relations work this way. Consider the nozzle and control
volume shown below.

310.77 m
V
s 0.457
M
C 680.33 m
s

The first law for the control volume is

dh VdV 0
= AV

The continuity equation for the control volume

dA dV

A V

..18

Also, we consider the property relation for an isentropic process

Tds dh
and the Mach Number relation

dP

2
dP
V
C2 2
d
M

Putting these four relations together yields

dA
dP
2 (1 M 2 )
A V

.19

Lets consider the implications of this equation for both nozzles and diffusers.
A nozzle is a device that increases fluid velocity while causing its pressure to drop;
thus, d > 0, dP < 0.
Nozzle Results

dA
dP
2 (1 M 2 )
A V
Subsonic: M 1 dP (1 M 2 ) 0

dA 0

Sonic: M 1 dP (1 M 2 ) 0

dA 0

Supersonic: M 1 dP (1 M 2 ) 0

dA 0

To accelerate subsonic flow, the nozzle flow area must first decrease in the flow
direction. The flow area reaches a minimum at the point where the Mach number
is unity. To continue to accelerate the flow to supersonic conditions, the flow area
must increase.
The minimum flow area is called the throat of the nozzle.
We are most familiar with the shape of a subsonic nozzle. That is, the flow area in
a subsonic nozzle decreases in the flow direction.
A diffuser is a device that decreases fluid velocity while causing its pressure to
rise; thus, d < 0, dP > 0.

Diffuser Results

dA
dP
2 (1 M 2 )
A V
Subsonic: M 1 dP (1 M 2 ) 0

dA 0

Sonic: M 1 dP (1 M 2 ) 0

dA 0

Supersonic: M 1 dP (1 M 2 ) 0

dA 0

To diffuse supersonic flow, the diffuser flow area must first decrease in the flow
direction. The flow area reaches a minimum at the point where the Mach number
is unity. To continue to diffuse the flow to subsonic conditions, the flow area must
increase.
We are most familiar with the shape of a subsonic diffuser. That is the flow area in
a subsonic diffuser increases in the flow direction.
Now let's make a plot of mass flow rate versus the static-to-stagnation pressure
ratio.
0.16
0.14

m [kg/s]

0.12
0.10

Dia.=1 cm
To=1200 K

0.08
0.06

Po=1500 kPa

0.04
0.02
0.00
0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

P*/Po

FIGURE 6 : Variation of mass flow rate with pressure ratio.

1.00

P/Po

This plot shows there is a value of P/Po that makes the mass flow rate a maximum.
To find that mass flow rate, we note

The result is

20
So the pressure ratio that makes the mass flow rate a maximum is the same
pressure ratio at which the Mach number is unity at the flow cross-sectional area.
This value of the pressure ratio is called the critical pressure ratio for nozzle flow.
For pressure ratios less than the critical value, the nozzle is said to be choked.
When the nozzle is choked, the mass flow rate is the maximum possible for the
flow area, stagnation pressure, and stagnation temperature. Reducing the pressure
ratio below the critical value will not increase the mass flow rate.
6. What is the expression for mass flow rate when the nozzle is choked?
Using

21
The mass flow rate becomes

When the Mach number is unity, M = 1, A = A*

Taking the ratio of the last two results gives the ratio of the area of the flow A at a
given Mach number to the area where the Mach number is unity, A*.
Then

22

4.0
3.5

A/A*

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

FIGURE 7 : Variation of area ratio to mach number

From the above plot we note that for each A/A* there are two values of M: one for
subsonic flow at that area ratio and one for supersonic flow at that area ratio. The
area ratio is unity when the Mach number is equal to one.

FIGURE 8 : Maximum mass flow at critical pressure ratio(choke flow )

1. Pb = Po, Pb /Po = 1. No flow occurs. Pe = Pb, Me=0.
2. Pb > P* or P*/Po < Pb /Po < 1. Flow begins to increase as the back pressure
is lowered. Pe = Pb, Me < 1.

3. Pb = P* or P*/Po = Pb /Po < 1. Flow increases to the choked flow limit as

the back pressure is lowered to the critical pressure. Pe = Pb, Me=1.
4. Pb < P* or Pb /Po < P*/Po < 1. Flow is still choked and does not increase as
the back pressure is lowered below the critical pressure, pressure drop from
Pe to Pb occurs outside the nozzle. Pe = P*, Me=1.
5. Pb = 0. Results are the same as for item 4.

FIGURE 9 : Flow thorough the converging-diverging nozzle .

7. Normal Shocks
In some range of back pressure, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the
throat of a converging-diverging nozzle and is accelerating to supersonic velocities
in the diverging section experiences a normal shock. The normal shock causes a
sudden rise in pressure and temperature and a sudden drop in velocity to subsonic
levels. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be
approximated as isentropic. The properties of an ideal gas with constant specific
heats before (subscript 1) and after (subscript 2) a shock are related by

FIGURE 10 : Flow through normal shock wave.

We assume steady-flow with no heat and work interactions and no potential

energy changes. We have the following
Conservation of mass

1 AV1 2 AV2
2V2 2V2

Conservation of energy
2

V
V
h1 1 h2 2
2
2
ho1 ho 2

for ideal gases : To1 To 2

Conservation of momentum

A( P1 P2 ) m(V2 V1 )
s2 s1 0

Increase of entropy

Thus, we see that from the conservation of energy, the stagnation temperature is
constant across the shock. However, the stagnation pressure decreases across
the shock because of irreversibilities. The ordinary (static) temperature rises
drastically because of the conversion of kinetic energy into enthalpy due to a
large drop in fluid velocity.
We can show that the following relations apply across the shock.

T2 1 M 12 (k 1) / 2

T1 1 M 22 (k 1) / 2
2
P2 M 1 1 M 1 (k 1) / 2

P1 M 2 1 M 22 (k 1) / 2

M 12 2 /(k 1)
M
2 M 12 k /(k 1) 1
2
2

23

24

25

The entropy change across the shock is obtained by applying the entropy-change
equation for an ideal gas, constant properties, across the shock:

DESIGN OF ORIFICE

INPUT PARAMETERS:

Mass flow rate : = 2mole/sec.

N2 cylinder-40l at 150 bar.
Temperature = 300K
Dia of holes on pipe is = 0.5mm

OUTPUT PARAMETERS: stagnation pressure at inlet of chamber is 40 torr.

SOLUTION:
1 mole of N2 = 28gm
2 mole/sec =56gm/sec or 0.056kg/sec,
= 0.056kg/sec
Gas constant R for N2 = 296.8 J/kgk.
Ratio of specific heats, k =1.4
Now , since gas in cylinder is stationary so at this time its parameter are stagnation
parameter.
temperature To = 300k
Now let us use a pressure regulator which reduce the stagnation pressure to 25bar
pressure Po = 25bar,
Since, smallest area in the flow is at orifice ,therefore at this stage Mach no(M) =1
we can use equation,

)max =

=( (2/ k+1)(k+1/k-1))0.5 * (P0/

)(a)

Putting the values in eq (a),

)max =

=(

(2/ 1.4+1)(1.4+1/1.4-1))0.5 * (25*105/

Therefore, A* = 9.76*10-6 m2
d* = 3.525*10-3 m or 3.525mm

Standard pipe size:

1. outer dia = 0.540 inches
Thickness = 0.088 inches
internal dia = 0.54-(2*0.088)
= 0.364 inches or 9.245mm

2. outer dia = 0.675 inches

Thickness = 0.091 inches
internal dia = 0.54-(2*0.091)
= 0.493 inches or 12.53mm
3. outer dia = 0.840 inches
Thickness = 0.109 inches
internal dia = 0.54-(2*0.109)
= 0.622 inches or 15.798mm
Now taking the area ratios with respect to A*
A1/A* = 6.9
A2/A* = 12.67
A3/A* = 20.1422
Therefore most suitable area ratio is 6.9
Therefore, corresponding value of mach no. in isentropic is M = 0.08(subsonic)
Now using eq 21 we can find p,

(25*105/ Psub)= 1+(1.4-1/2)0.082(1.4/1.4-1)

Psub = 16.4 bar
Similarly, we can find To,

= 1+ (k-1/2)M2(k/k-1)

(300/Tsub) = 1+ (1.4-1/2)0.082(1.4/1.4-1)
Tsub = 265.95K
Now for same area ratio, i.e 6.9 mach no in isentropic flow is M1=3.5 (supersonic)
Now, pressure between orifice & shock wave is P1, which can be determine by eq

= 1+ (k-1/2)

(k/k-1)

(25*105/Psup)= 1+ (1.4-1/2)

(1.4/1.4-1)

Psup = 0.327bar
Now, value of mach no. after shock is subsonic, which can be determine from eq

+ (2/k-1)(2k/k-1

-1

+ (2/1.4-1)(21.4/1.4-1

-1

M2 = 0.45 (SUBSONIC)
Pressure at this stage is given by equation,

(P2/P1) = M1 1+(k-1/2)M120.5
(P2/0.327) = 3.5 1+(1.4-1/2)3.520.5
P2 = 4.63bar
Now, stagnation pressure at this point is Po2;
Po2/P1=16.242

M2 1+(k-1/2)M22 0.5
0.45 1+(1.4-1/2)0.452 0.5

Now , we already calculate P1;

So,

Po2 = 5.31 bar,

Which is much greater than 40torr i.e 5.33N/m2 , so our design is correct .
Now again using equation (a), corresponding to stagnation pressure after shock

)max =

=( (2/ k+1)(k+1/k-1))0.5 * (P0/

total Area of holes on pipe required is,

)max =

=(

(2/ 1.4+1)(1.4+1/1.4-1))0.5 * (5.31*105/

area , Ah* = 4.59*10-5 m2.

Since , dia of holes is 0.5 mm i.e 0.5*10-3m2
Therefore no of holes required on pine is n.

Ah* = n*(/4)*d2
4.59*10-5 = n* (/4)*( 0.5*10-3)2
n = 234(holes)
Now we know that , outer dia of pipe is = 0.54 inches or 13.71mm
Therefore, circumference of pipe = 3.14*13.71
= 43mm
Now, keeping centre distance of holes equal to dia of holes maximum number of
holes along curve surface is 13. Therefore , number of holes along pipe length is 18

REPORT SUMMARY
1. COMPESSIBLE FLOW: Compressible flow means variation in the density
through out the flow field. Due to change in density there is change of pressure.
2. SPEED OF SOUND: Speed of sound,
C = (d/dp)20.5 .for real gas
C = (kRT)0.5 ..for ideal gas.
3. Gas with smaller molecular weight have large velocity as compare to heavy
molecules.
4. Classification of Compressible flow:
a) incompressible flow:

v<<<<C,

b) subsonic compressible flow: v<C,

c) transonic flow: v~C,

d) sonic : V= C,

e) super sonic : V>C,

f) hypersonic: V>>>>C,

5. Relation between mass flow rate and stagnation pressure & temp.

)max =

=( (2/ k+1)(k+1/k-1))0.5 * (P0/

6. Stagnation parameter during isentropic flow.

= 1+ (k-1/2)M2(k/k-1)
7. Normal shock eq between M1 & M2.

+ (2/k-1)(2k/k-1

-1