Complex functions

Sets. Neighborhoods

If z1 , z2 C, then |z1 z2 | = dist (z1 , z2 ). Indeed, if z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 , then

q
|z1 z2 | = |(x1 x2 ) + i (y1 y2 )| = (x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 = dist (z1 , z2 ) .
Notations 1.1 For every z0 = x0 + iy0 and r, r1 , r2 > 0, we denote

C (z0 , r) = {z C : |z z0 | = r} -the circle with center z0 and radius r,

D (z0 , r) = {z C : |z z0 | < r} -the open disc with center z0 and radius r,
D (z0 , r) = D (z0 , r) C (z0 , r)
= {z C : |z z0 | r} -the closed disc with center z0 and radius r
D (z0 , r1 , r2 ) = {z C : r1 < |z z0 | < r2 }
-the open annulus with center z0 and radii r1 , r2 .
We also denote
C = C {} .
Definition 1.1 A set V C is a neighborhood of a point z C if there is r > 0 such
that D (z, r) V . A neighborhood of is a set V which contains the exterior of a
circle C (0, r).
Remark 1.1 D (z, r), D (z, r) are neighborhoods of z.
Definition 1.2 An open set is a set which is a neighborhood for all its points.

Limits of complex functions. Continuous complex

functions

A complex function is a mapping f : D C, where D C. Denote

f (z = x + iy) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y)
and P, Q : D R2 R are called
P = Re f -the real part of f ,
Q = Im f -the imaginary part of f .
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Remark 2.1 We have:

and thus

z = x + iy

z = x iy

f (z) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y) = P

z+z zz
,
2
2i

x=
y=

z+z
2
zz
2i

+ iQ

z+z zz
,
2
2i

= f (z, z) .

Definition 2.1 An accumulation point of a set D C is a point z C with the

following property: for every neighborhood V of z it holds that (V \ {z}) D 6= .
Definition 2.2 Let f : D C C, let z0 C be an accumulation point of D and let
l C. We say that the function f has limit l at the point z0 provided that for every
neighborhood V of l, there is a neighborhood U of z0 such that f (z) V for every
z (U \ {z0 }) D. We write this as
lim f (z) = l.

zz0

Remark 2.2 The limit is unique (if it exists).

Remark 2.3 If z0 , l C (i.e. z0 , l are finite), then
lim f (z) = l () > 0, () > 0 such that () z D with 0 < |z z0 | <

zz0

it holds that |f (z) f (z0 )| < .

Theorem 2.1 If z0 = x0 + iy0 , l = a + ib, f (z) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y), then
lim f (z) = l

zz0

lim

(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )

P (x, y) = a,

lim

(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )

Q (x, y) = b.

Definition 2.3 Let D C, f : D C and z0 D. We say that the complex function

f is continuous at the point z0 , provided that for every neighborhood V of f (z0 ), there
is a neighborhood U of z0 such that f (z) V for every z U D.
Theorem 2.2 If z0 D is an accumulation point of D, then
f is continuous in z0 lim f (z) = f (z0 ) .
zz0

Theorem 2.3 If z0 = x0 + iy0 , f (z) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y), then

f is continuous in z0 P, Q are continuous in (x0 , y0 ) .

Derivable complex functions

Throughout this section, D C will be an open set, f : D C will be a complex

function,
f (z = x + iy) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y) ,
2

P, Q : D R2 R.

Definition 3.1 We say that the function P : D R2 R is differentiable at the point

(x0 , y0 ) D, provided that there is R : D R such that
P
P
(x0 , y0 ) (x x0 ) +
(x0 , y0 ) (y y0 )
x
y
+R (x, y) () (x, y) D,
R (x, y)
q
= 0.
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2
P (x, y) = P (x0 , y0 ) +

Definition 3.2 A complex function f : D C is said to be derivable at the point

z0 D, provided that the limit
f (z0 ) = lim

zz0

f (z) f (z0 )
z z0

exists and is finite. The complex number f (z0 ) is called the derivative of f at z0 . If f
is derivable at every z D, then f is called holomorphic in D. In this case, the function
f : D R,

z D 7 f (z) C,

is well defined and is called the derivative of f . If f is holomorphic in C, then f is called

entire.
Theorem 3.1 If f is derivable at z0 , then f is continuous at z0 .
Remark 3.1 The elementary complex functions are derivable in their domains, the
differentiation rules and the table of elementary derivatives are the same as for the
corresponding real functions:
(z n ) = nz n1 , (ez ) = ez , (sin z) = cos z, (cos z) = sin z,
1
(sh z) = ch z, (ch z) = sh z, (ln z) = .
z
Theorem 3.2 (The Cauchy-Riemann relations) Let D C be an open set, let
f : D C be a complex function, f (z) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y) and let z0 = x0 + iy0 D.
The following assertions are equivalent:
(i) f is derivable at z0 ;
(ii) P, Q are differentiable at (x0 , y0 ) and the Cauchy-Riemann relations holds:
(
P
(x0 , y0 ) = Q
(x0 , y0 ) ,
x
y
(C-R)
Q
P
(x0 , y0 ) = x (x0 , y0 ) ,
y
Moreover,
f (z0 ) =

Q
P
(x0 , y0 ) + i
(x0 , y0 ) .
x
x

Remark 3.2 In many exercises, the functions P, Q : D R2 R are elementary

real functions, therefore they are differentiable in D. Consequently, the necessary and
sufficient conditions for f to be derivable at z0 = x0 + iy0 D are the Cauchy-Riemann
relations.
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Example 3.1 Find the points at which the complex function f (z) = x3 2xy +
i (xy 2y) is derivable and then compute the derivatives of f at these points.


Answer. z1 = 1 + 2i, z2 = 23 + 43 i; f (1 + 2i) = 1 + 2i, f 32 + 34 i = 43 + 43 i.

Example 3.2 Find the constants a, b, c R such that the function f (z) = x2 ay 2 +
x + i (bxy + cy) is holomorphic in C. Then write the expression of f with respect to z.

Answer. a = 1, b = 2, c = 1; f (z) = z 2 + z.
Theorem 3.3 (Pompeiu) The function f : D C C is derivable at z0 D if and
only if f
(z0 , z0 ) = 0. Moreover, f (z0 ) = f
(z0 , z0 ).
z
z

Consequences of the Cauchy-Riemann relations

Corollary 4.1 Let D C be an open set, let f : D C be a complex function,

f (z) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y). If f is holomorphic in D, then P, Q C 2 (D) and
P (x, y) = Q (x, y) = 0

() (x, y) D,

i.e. P, Q are harmonic functions in D.

Remark 4.1 P =

2P
x2

2P
y 2

is the laplacian of P .

Corollary 4.2 Let D R2 be a simply connected open set and let P C 2 (D). If
P (x, y) = 0

() (x, y) D,

then there is Q C 2 (D) such that the function

f (z) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y) ,

z = x + iy D,

is holomorphic in D. Moreover, the function Q is unique up to an additive constant.

Remark 4.2 The same statement holds with P replaced by Q and Q replaced by P .
Example 4.1 Let P : R2 R, P (x, y) = x3 3xy 2 . Find the holomorphic function
f (z) = P (x, y) + iQ (x, y) which satisfies f (i) = 0.
Answer. f (z) = z 3 + i
Corollary 4.3 Let D R2 be an open set and f (z) = P (x, y)+iQ (x, y) a holomorphic
function in D. Then the families of curves
P (x, y) = c1 ,
Q (x, y) = c2 ,
are orthogonal.

c1 R,
c2 R,