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Globalization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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g the world as a whole, see Template:globalise.
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Globalization
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v t e
Globalization (or globalisation) is the process of international integration ari
sing from the interchange of world views, products, ideas and other aspects of c
ulture.[1][2] Advances in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure,
including the rise of the telegraph and its posterity the Internet, are major fa
ctors in globalization, generating further interdependence of economic and cultu
ral activities.[3]
Though scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace
its history long before the European age of discovery and voyages to the New Wo
rld. Some even trace the origins to the third millennium BCE.[4][5] In the late
19th century and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies
and cultures grew very quickly.
The term globalization has been increasingly used since the mid-1980s and especi
ally since the mid-1990s.[6] In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) iden
tified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and
investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the dissemination of
knowledge.[7] Further, environmental challenges such as climate change, cross-b
oundary water and air pollution, and over-fishing of the ocean are linked with g
lobalization.[8] Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and w
ork organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, and the natural environme
nt.
Contents [hide]
1 Overview
1.1 Etymology and usage
2 History
2.1 Archaic
2.2 Early modern
2.3 Modern
3 Global business organization
3.1 International trade
3.1.1 Trade agreements, economic blocs and special trade zones
3.2 Tax havens
3.3 International tourism
3.4 International sports
3.5 Illicit international trade
4 Economic globalization
4.1 Global financial system
4.2 Inequality
4.3 Capital flight
4.4 Measuring globalization
4.4.1 Indices
4.4.2 Free trade policies
5 Sociocultural globalization

5.1 Culture
5.1.1 Multilingualism and the emergence of lingua francas
5.2 Politics
5.2.1 Media and public opinion
5.3 Internet
5.4 Population growth
5.4.1 Urbanization
5.5 Health
6 Global natural environment
7 Global workforce
7.1 International migration
8 Support and criticism
8.1 Economic liberalism and free trade
8.2 Global democracy
8.3 Global civics
8.4 International cooperation
8.5 Anti-globalization movement
8.5.1 Movement tactics
8.6 Opposition to capital market integration
8.7 Anti-corporatism and anti-consumerism
8.8 Global justice and inequality
8.8.1 Global justice
8.8.2 Social Inequality
8.9 Anti-global governance
8.10 Environmentalist opposition
9 Key journals
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Overview[edit]
Extent of the Silk Road and Spice trade routes owned by the Ottoman Empire in 14
53 spurring exploration
Humans have interacted over long distances for thousands of years. The overland
Silk Road that connected Asia, Africa, and Europe is a good example of the trans
formative power of translocal exchange that existed in the "Old World". Philosop
hy, religion, language, the arts, and other aspects of culture spread and mixed
as nations exchanged products and ideas. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Europea
ns made important discoveries in their exploration of the oceans, including the
start of transatlantic travel to the "New World" of the Americas. Global movemen
t of people, goods, and ideas expanded significantly in the following centuries.
Early in the 19th century, the development of new forms of transportation (such
as the steamship and railroads) and telecommunications that "compressed" time a
nd space allowed for increasingly rapid rates of global interchange.[9] In the 2
0th century, road vehicles, intermodal transport, and airlines made transportati
on even faster. The advent of electronic communications, most notably mobile pho
nes and the Internet, connected billions of people in new ways by the year 2010.
Eastern Telegraph Company 1901 chart of undersea telegraph cabling, an example o
f modern globalizing technology in the beginning of the 20th century.
Airline personnel from the "Jet set" age, circa 1960.
Etymology and usage[edit]
The term globalization is derived from the word globalize, which refers to the e
mergence of an international network of economic systems.[10] One of the earlies
t known usages of the term as a noun was in a 1930 publication entitled, Towards
New Education, where it denoted a holistic view of human experience in educatio
n.[11] A related term, corporate giants, was coined by Charles Taze Russell in 1

897[12] to refer to the largely national trusts and other large enterprises of t
he time. By the 1960s, both terms began to be used as synonyms by economists and
other social scientists. Economist Theodore Levitt is widely credited with coin
ing the term in an article entitled "Globalization of Markets", which appeared i
n the May June 1983 issue of Harvard Business Review. However, the term 'globaliza
tion' was in use well before (at least as early as 1944) and had been used by ot
her scholars as early as 1981.[13] Levitt can be credited with popularizing the
term and bringing it into the mainstream business audience in the later half of
the 1980s. Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired compet
ing definitions and interpretations, with antecedents dating back to the great m
ovements of trade and empire across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15th cent
ury onwards.[14][15] Due to the complexity of the concept, research projects, ar
ticles, and discussions often remain focused on a single aspect of globalization
.[1]
Roland Robertson, professor of sociology at University of Aberdeen, an early wri
ter in the field, defined globalization in 1992 as:
...the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of
the world as a whole.[16]
Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as:
...all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a
single world society.[2]
In The Consequences of Modernity, Anthony Giddens uses the following definition:
Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social rel
ations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are sha
ped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.[17]
In Global Transformations David Held, et al., study the definition of globalizat
ion:
Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening
and speeding up of global interconnection, such a definition begs further elabo
ration. ... Globalization can be located on a continuum with the local, national
and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economic relations and
networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end
lie social and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider s
cale of regional and global interactions. Globalization can refer to those spati
al-temporal processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organizat
ion of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across reg
ions and continents. Without reference to such expansive spatial connections, th
ere can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory def
inition of globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity (stretch
ing), intensity, velocity and impact.[18]
Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book The Race to the Top: The Real Sto
ry of Globalization, states that globalization:
is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving c
loser. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the
world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the w
orld.[19]
Responding to the many problems with existing definitions of globalization, incl
uding the tendencies to give the impression that spatial distance is being overc
ome, the world is getting smaller or globalization has always been the same kind

of process across human history, Paul James defines globalization with a more d
irect and historically contextualized emphasis:
Globalization is the extension of social relations across world-space, defining
that world-space in terms of the historically variable ways that it has been pra
ctised and socially understood through changing world-time.[20]
The journalist Thomas L. Friedman popularized the term "flat world", arguing tha
t globalized trade, outsourcing, supply-chaining, and political forces had perma
nently changed the world, for better and worse. He asserted that the pace of glo
balization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and pract
ice would continue to grow.[21]
Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined "economic globalization" as the opening and d
eregulation of commodity, capital and labor markets that led toward present neol
iberal globalization. He used "political globalization" to refer to the emergenc
e of a transnational elite and a phasing out of the nation-state. "Cultural glob
alization", he used to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other
of his usages included "ideological globalization", "technological globalization
" and "social globalization".[22]
Manfred Steger, professor of Global Studies and research leader in the Global Ci
ties Institute at RMIT University, identifies four main empirical dimensions of
globalization: economic, political, cultural, and ecological, with a fifth dimen
sion - the ideological - cutting across the other four. The ideological dimensio
n, according to Steger, is filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs, and na
rratives about the phenomenon itself.[23]
In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of
globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migrati
on and movement of people and the dissemination of knowledge.[7] With regards to
trade and transactions, developing countries increased their share of world tra
de, from 19 percent in 1971 to 29 percent in 1999. However, there is great varia
tion among the major regions. For instance, the newly industrialized economies (
NIEs) of Asia prospered, while African countries as a whole performed poorly. Th
e makeup of a country's exports is an important indicator for success. Manufactu
red goods exports soared, dominated by developed countries and NIEs. Commodity e
xports, such as food and raw materials were often produced by developing countri
es: commodities' share of total exports declined over the period.
Paul James argues that four different forms of globalization can also be disting
uished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions.[24] Accor
ding to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalizati
on, the movement of people. A second form is agency-extended globalization, the
circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and polities, in
cluding imperial agents. Object-extended globalization, a third form, is the mov
ement of commodities and other objects of exchange. The transmission of ideas, i
mages, knowledge and information across world-space he calls disembodied globali
zation, maintaining that it is currently the dominant form of globalization. Jam
es holds that this series of distinctions allows for an understanding of how, to
day, the most embodied forms of globalization such as the movement of refugees a
nd migrants are increasingly restricted, while the most disembodied forms such a
s the circulation of financial instruments and codes are the most deregulated.[2
5]
Globophobia has been used incorrectly to refer to the fear of globalization.[26]
[27][28]
History[edit]
Main article: History of globalization

See also: Timeline of international trade

There are both distal and proximate causes which can be traced in the historical
factors affecting globalization. Large-scale globalization began in the 19th ce
ntury.[9]
Archaic[edit]
Animated map showing the development of colonial empires from 1492 to present.
Main article: Archaic globalization
Archaic globalization is seen as a phase in the history of globalization convent
ionally referring to globalizing events and developments from the time of the ea
rliest civilizations until roughly the 1600s. This term is used to describe the
relationships between communities and states and how they were created by the ge
ographical spread of ideas and social norms at both local and regional levels.[2
9]
In this schema, three main prerequisites are posited for globalization to occur.
The first is the idea of Eastern Origins, which shows how Western states have a
dapted and implemented learned principals from the East.[29] Without the traditi
onal ideas from the East, Western globalization would not have emerged the way i
t did. The second is distance. The interactions amongst states were not on a glo
bal scale and most often were confined to Asia, North Africa, the Middle East an
d certain parts of Europe.[29] With early globalization it was difficult for sta
tes to interact with others that were not within close proximity. Eventually, te
chnological advances allowed states to learn of others existence and another pha
se of globalization was able to occur. The third has to do with interdependency,
stability and regularity. If a state is not depended on another then there is n
o way for them to be mutually affected by one another. This is one of the drivin
g forces behind global connections and trade; without either globalization would
not have emerged the way it did and states would still be dependent on their ow
n production and resources to function. This is one of the arguments surrounding
the idea of early globalization. It is argued that archaic globalization did no
t function in a similar manner to modern globalization because states were not a
s interdependent on others as they are today.[29]
Also posited is a 'multi-polar' nature to archaic globalization, which involved
the active participation of non-Europeans. Because it predated the Great Diverge
nce of the nineteenth century, in which Western Europe pulled ahead of the rest
of the world in terms of industrial production and economic output, archaic glob
alization was a phenomenon that was driven not only by Europe but also by other
economically developed Old World centers such as Gujurat, Bengal, coastal China
and Japan.[30]
Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th-century Japanese Nanban art
The German historical economist and sociologist Andre Gunder Frank argues that a
form of globalization began with the rise of trade links between Sumer and the
Indus Valley Civilization in the third millennium B.C.E. This archaic globalizat
ion existed during the Hellenistic Age, when commercialized urban centers envelo
ped the axis of Greek culture that reached from India to Spain, including Alexan
dria and the other Alexandrine cities. Early on, the geographic position of Gree
ce and the necessity of importing wheat forced the Greeks to engage in maritime
trade. Trade in ancient Greece was largely unrestricted: the state controlled on
ly the supply of grain.[4]
Native New World crops exchanged globally: Maize, tomato, potato, vanilla, rubbe
r, cacao, tobacco
Early modern[edit]
Main article: Proto-globalization

'Early modern-' or 'proto-globalization' covers a period of the history of globa

lization roughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800. The concept of 'proto
-globalization' was first introduced by historians A. G. Hopkins and Christopher
Bayly. The term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exch
ange that characterized the period immediately preceding the advent of high 'mod
ern globalization' in the late 19th century.[31] This phase of globalization was
characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 16th and 17th ce
nturies, first the Portuguese and Spanish Empires, and later the Dutch and Briti
sh Empires. In the 17th century, world trade developed further when chartered co
mpanies like the British East India Company (founded in 1600) and the Dutch East
India Company (founded in 1602, often described as the first multinational corp
oration in which stock was offered) were established.[32]
Early modern globalization is distinguished from modern globalization on the bas
is of expansionism, the method of managing global trade, and the level of inform
ation exchange. The period is marked by such trade arrangements as the East Indi
a Company, the shift of hegemony to Western Europe, the rise of larger-scale con
flicts between powerful nations such as the Thirty Year War, and a rise of new c
ommodities
most particularly slave trade. The Triangular Trade made it possible
for Europe to take advantage of resources within the western hemisphere. The tra
nsfer of animal stocks, plant crops and epidemic diseases associated with Alfred
Crosby's concept of The Columbian Exchange also played a central role in this p
rocess. Early modern trade and communications involved a vast group including Eu
ropean, Muslim, Indian, Southeast Asian and Chinese merchants, particularly in t
he Indian Ocean region.
19th century Great Britain was an early global superpower.
Modern[edit]
Main article: History of globalization
During the 19th century, globalization approached its modern form as a result of
the industrial revolution. Industrialization allowed standardized production of
household items using economies of scale while rapid population growth created
sustained demand for commodities. Globalization in this period was decisively sh
aped by nineteenth-century imperialism. In the 19th century, steamships reduced
the cost of international transport significantly and railroads made inland tran
sport cheaper. The transport revolution occurred some time between 1820 and 1850
.[9] More nations embraced international trade.[9] Globalization in this period
was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century imperialism such as in Africa and As
ia. The invention of shipping containers in 1956 helped advance the globalizatio
n of commerce.[33][34]
After the Second World War, work by politicians led to the Bretton Woods confere
nce, an agreement by major governments to lay down the framework for internation
al monetary policy, commerce and finance, and the founding of several internatio
nal institutions intended to facilitate economic growth multiple rounds of trade
opening simplified and lowered trade barriers. Initially, the General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), led to a series of agreements to remove trade rest
rictions. GATT's successor was the World Trade Organization (WTO), which created
an institution to manage the trading system. Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% o
f total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001.[35] The approach of using
global agreements to advance trade stumbled with the failure of the Doha round o
f trade-negotiation. Many countries then shifted to bilateral or smaller multila
teral agreements, such as the 2011 South Korea United States Free Trade Agreement.
Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle classes i
n developed countries. Open skies policies and low-cost carriers have helped to
bring competition to the market. In the 1990s, the growth of low cost communicat
ion networks cut the cost of communicating between different countries. More wor
k can be performed using a computer without regard to location. This included ac

counting, software development, and engineering design.

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world'
s economies and cultures grew very quickly. This slowed down from the 1910s onwa
rd due to the World Wars and the Cold War [36] but picked up again with the neol
iberal policies of the 1980s, perestroika, and the Chinese economic reforms of D
eng Xiaoping opened the old Eastern Bloc to western capitalism.[37] Private capi
tal flows to developing countries soared during the 1990s, replacing "aid" or "d
evelopment assistance" which fell significantly after the early 1980s. Foreign D
irect Investment (FDI) became the most important category. Both portfolio invest
ment and bank credit rose but they have been more volatile, falling sharply in t
he wake of the financial crisis of the late 1990s. The migration and movement of
people can also be highlighted as a prominent feature of the globalization proc
ess. In the period between 1965 90, the proportion of the labor force migrating ap
proximately doubled. Most migration occurred between developing countries and Le
ast Developed Countries (LDCs).[38]
In the early 2000s, much of the industrialized world entered into the Great Rece
ssion,[39] which may have slowed the process, at least temporarily.[40][41][42]
Globalized society offers a complex web of forces and factors that bring people,
cultures, markets, beliefs and practices into increasingly greater proximity to
one another.[43]
Global business organization[edit]
Main article: International business
Global Competitiveness Index (2008 2009): competitiveness is an important determin
ant for the well-being of nation-states in an international environment
With improvements in transportation and communication, international business gr
ew rapidly after the beginning of the 20th century. International business inclu
des all commercial transactions (private sales, investments, logistics, and tran
sportation) that take place between two or more regions, countries and nations b
eyond their political boundaries. Such international diversification is tied wit
h firm performance and innovation, positively in the case of the former and ofte
n negatively in the case of the latter.[44] Usually, private companies undertake
such transactions for profit.[45] These business transactions involve economic
resources such as capital, natural and human resources used for international pr
oduction of physical goods and services such as finance, banking, insurance, con
struction and other productive activities.[46]
International business arrangements have led to the formation of multinational e
nterprises (MNE), companies that have a worldwide approach to markets and produc
tion or one with operations in more than one country. A MNE may also be called a
multinational corporation (MNC) or transnational company (TNC). Well known MNCs
include fast food companies such as McDonald's and Yum Brands, vehicle manufact
urers such as General Motors, Ford Motor Company and Toyota, consumer electronic
s companies like Samsung, LG and Sony, and energy companies such as ExxonMobil,
Shell and BP. Most of the largest corporations operate in multiple national mark
ets.
Businesses generally argue that survival in the new global marketplace requires
companies to source goods, services, labor and materials overseas to continuousl
y upgrade their products and technology in order to survive increased competitio
n.[47] According to a recent McKinsey Global Institute report, flows of goods, s
ervices, and finance reached $26 trillion in 2012, or 36 percent of global GDP,
1.5 times the level in 1990.[48]
International trade[edit]
Main article: International trade

Singapore skyline
Singapore, the top country in the Enabling Trade Index, embraced globalization a
nd became a highly developed country
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across inter
national borders or territories.[49] In most countries, such trade represents a
significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). Industrialization, advanced t
ransportation, multinational corporations, offshoring and outsourcing all have a
major impact on world trade. The growth of international trade is a fundamental
component of globalization.
An absolute trade advantage exists when countries can produce a commodity with l
ess costs per unit produced than could its trading partner. By the same reasonin
g, it should import commodities in which it has an absolute disadvantage.[50] Wh
ile there are possible gains from trade with absolute advantage, comparative adv
antage
that is, the ability to offer goods and services at a lower marginal and
opportunity cost
extends the range of possible mutually beneficial exchanges. In
a globalized business environment, companies argue that the comparative advanta
ges offered by international trade have become essential to remaining competitiv
e.
Trade agreements, economic blocs and special trade zones[edit]
Gross domestic product in 2011 US dollars per capita, adjusted for inflation and
purchasing power parity (log scale) from 1860 to 2011, with population (disk ar
ea) for the US (yellow), UK (orange), Japan (red), China (red), and India (blue)
.[51]
Establishment of free trade areas has become an essential feature of modern gove
rnments to handle preferential trading arrangements with foreign and multination
al entities.[52]
A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a geographical region that has economic and oth
er laws that are more free-market-oriented than a country's typical or national
laws. "Nationwide" laws may be suspended inside these special zones. The categor
y 'SEZ' covers many areas, including Free Trade Zones (FTZ), Export Processing Z
ones (EPZ), Free Zones (FZ), Industrial parks or Industrial Estates (IE), Free P
orts, Urban Enterprise Zones and others. Usually the goal of a structure is to i
ncrease foreign direct investment by foreign investors, typically an internation
al business or a multinational corporation (MNC). These are designated areas in
which companies are taxed very lightly or not at all in order to encourage econo
mic activity. Free ports have historically been endowed with favorable customs r
egulations, e.g., the free port of Trieste. Very often free ports constitute a p
art of free economic zones.
A FTZ is an area within which goods may be landed, handled, manufactured or reco
nfigured, and reexported without the intervention of the customs authorities. On
ly when the goods are moved to consumers within the country in which the zone is
located do they become subject to the prevailing customs duties. Free trade zon
es are organized around major seaports, international airports, and national fro
ntiers areas with many geographic advantages for trade.[53] It is a region where
a group of countries has agreed to reduce or eliminate trade barriers.[54]
A Billboard in Jakarta welcoming ASEAN Summit 2011 delegates.
A free trade area is a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free-trad
e agreement, which eliminates tariffs, import quotas, and preferences on most (i
f not all) goods and services traded between them. If people are also free to mo
ve between the countries, in addition to a free-trade area, it would also be con
sidered an open border. The European Union, for example, a confederation of 27 m
ember states, provides both a free trade area and an open border.

Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) are industrial parks that house manufacturing
operations in Jordan and Egypt. They are a special free trade zones established
in collaboration with neighboring Israel to take advantage of the free trade agr
eements between the United States and Israel. Under the trade agreements with Jo
rdan as laid down by the United States, goods produced in QIZ-notified areas can
directly access US markets without tariff or quota restrictions, subject to cer
tain conditions. To qualify, goods produced in these zones must contain a small
portion of Israeli input. In addition, a minimum 35% value to the goods must be
added to the finished product. The brainchild of Jordanian businessman Omar Sala
h, the first QIZ was authorized by the United States Congress in 1997.
The Asia-Pacific has been described as "the most integrated trading region on th
e planet" because its intra-regional trade accounts probably for as much as 50-6
0% of the region's total imports and exports.[55] It has also extra-regional tra
de: consumer goods exports such as televisions, radios, bicycles, and textiles i
nto the United States, Europe, and Japan fueled the economic expansion.[56]
The ASEAN Free Trade Area[57] is a trade bloc agreement by the Association of So
utheast Asian Nations supporting local manufacturing in all ASEAN countries. The
AFTA agreement was signed on 28 January 1992 in Singapore. When the AFTA agreem
ent was originally signed, ASEAN had six members, namely, Brunei, Indonesia, Mal
aysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Vietnam joined in 1995, Laos and Mya
nmar in 1997 and Cambodia in 1999.
Tax havens[edit]
The ratio of German assets in tax havens in relation to the total German GDP.[58
] The "Big 7" shown are Hong Kong, Ireland, Lebanon, Liberia, Panama, Singapore,
and Switzerland.
Main article: Tax haven
A tax haven is a state, country or territory where certain taxes are levied at a
low rate or not at all, which are used by businesses for tax avoidance and tax
evasion.[59] Individuals and/or corporate entities can find it attractive to est
ablish shell subsidiaries or move themselves to areas with reduced or nil taxati
on levels. This creates a situation of tax competition among governments. Differ
ent jurisdictions tend to be havens for different types of taxes and for differe
nt categories of people and companies.[60] The central feature of a tax haven is
that its laws and other measures can be used to evade or avoid the tax laws or
regulations of other jurisdictions.[61] A 2012 report from the Tax Justice Netwo
rk estimated that between USD $21 trillion and $32 trillion is sheltered from ta
xes in unreported tax havens worldwide.[62]
Tax havens have been criticized because they often result in the accumulation of
idle cash[63] that is expensive and inefficient for companies to repatriate.[64
] The tax shelter benefits result in a tax incidence disadvantaging the poor.[65
] Many tax havens are thought to have connections to "fraud, money laundering an
d terrorism."[66] [67]While investigations of illegal tax haven abuse have been
ongoing, there have been few convictions.[68][69]
International tourism[edit]
Main article: Tourism
Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tour
ism Organization defines tourists as people "traveling to and staying in places
outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisu
re, business and other purposes".[70] There are many forms of tourism such as ag
ritourism, birth tourism, culinary tourism, cultural tourism, eco-tourism, extre
me tourism, geotourism, heritage tourism, LGBT tourism, medical tourism, nautica
l tourism, pop-culture tourism, religious tourism, slum tourism, war tourism, an
d wildlife tourism.

Globalization has made tourism a popular global leisure activity. The World Heal
th Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 500,000 people are in flight at any o
ne time.[71]
Modern aviation has made it possible to travel long distances quickly.
As a result of the late-2000s recession, international travel demand suffered a
strong slowdown from the second half of 2008 through the end of 2009. After a 5%
increase in the first half of 2008, growth in international tourist arrivals mo
ved into negative territory in the second half of 2008, and ended up only 2% for
the year, compared to a 7% increase in 2007.[72] This negative trend intensifie
d during 2009, exacerbated in some countries due to the outbreak of the H1N1 inf
luenza virus, resulting in a worldwide decline of 4.2% in 2009 to 880 million in
ternational tourists arrivals, and a 5.7% decline in international tourism recei
pts.[73] One notable exception to more free travel is travel from the United Sta
tes to bordering countries Canada and Mexico, which had been semi-open borders.
Now, by US law, travel to these countries requires a passport.[74]
In 2010, international tourism reached US$919B, growing 6.5% over 2009, correspo
nding to an increase in real terms of 4.7%.[75] In 2010, there were over 940 mil
lion international tourist arrivals worldwide.[76]
International sports[edit]
wheelchair basketball
Wheelchair basketball teams playing in the 2008 Summer Paralympics
Main articles: Olympic Games and List of world championships
Modern international sports events can be big business for as well as influencin
g the political, economical, and other cultural aspects of countries around the
world. Especially with politics and sports, sports can affect countries, their i
dentities, and in consequence, the world.
The ancient Olympic Games were a series of competitions held between representat
ives of several city-states and kingdoms from Ancient Greece, which featured mai
nly athletic but also combat and chariot racing events. During the Olympic games
all struggles against the participating city-states were postponed until the ga
mes were finished.[77] The origin of these Olympics is shrouded in mystery and l
egend.[78] During the 19th century Olympic Games became a popular global event.
While some economists are skeptical about the economic benefits of hosting the O
lympic Games, emphasizing that such "mega-events" often have large costs, hostin
g (or even bidding for) the Olympics appears to increase the host country's expo
rts, as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when b
idding to host the Games.[79] Moreover, research suggests that hosting the Summe
r Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of co
rporations headquartered in the host city, which seems to benefit the local nonp
rofit sector. This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games a
nd might persist for several years afterwards, although not permanently. This fi
nding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities t
o influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector a
nd civil society.[80] The Games have also had significant negative effects on ho
st communities; for example, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports
that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades, often
disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups.[81]
Globalization has continually increased international competition in sports. The
FIFA World Cup, for example, is the world's most widely viewed sporting event;
an estimated 700 million people watched the final match of the 2010 FIFA World C
up held in South Africa.[82]
According to a 2011 A.T. Kearney study of sports teams, leagues and federations,

the global sports industry is worth between 350 billion and 450 billion (US$480-$
620 billion).[83] This includes infrastructure construction, sporting goods, lic
ensed products and live sports events.
Illicit international trade[edit]
Main articles: Black market and Transnational organized crime
The black market in rhinoceros horn reduced the world's rhino population by more
than 90 percent over the past 40 years.[84]
"Black markets" and organized crime often operate on a transnational basis, with
global sales totaling almost US$2 trillion annually as of 2013.[85]
In 2010, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that the
global drug trade generated more than US$320 billion a year in revenues.[86] The
UN estimated that as of 2000 there were more than 50 million regular users of h
eroin, cocaine, and synthetic drugs worldwide.[87] The international trade of en
dangered species was second only to drug trafficking among smuggling "industries
".[88] Traditional Chinese medicine often incorporates ingredients from all part
s of plants, the leaf, stem, flower, root, and also ingredients from animals and
minerals. The use of parts of endangered species (such as seahorses, rhinoceros
horns, saiga antelope horns, and tiger bones and claws) resulted in a black mar
ket of poachers who hunt restricted animals.[89][90]
Economic globalization[edit]
Main article: Economic globalization
Shanghai has become a symbol of the recent economic boom of China. In 2011, Chin
a had 960,000 millionaires.[91]
Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence of national ec
onomies across the world through a rapid increase in cross-border movement of go
ods, service, technology and capital.[92] Whereas the globalization of business
is centered around the diminution of international trade regulations as well as
tariffs, taxes, and other impediments that suppresses global trade, economic glo
balization is the process of increasing economic integration between countries,
leading to the emergence of a global marketplace or a single world market.[93] D
epending on the paradigm, economic globalization can be viewed as either a posit
ive or a negative phenomenon. Economic globalization comprises the globalization
of production, markets, competition, technology, and corporations and industrie
s.[92] Current globalization trends can be largely accounted for by developed ec
onomies integrating with less developed economies by means of foreign direct inv
estment, the reduction of trade barriers as well as other economic reforms and,
in many cases, immigration.
In 1944, 44 nations attended the Bretton Woods Conference with a purpose of stab
ilizing world currencies and establishing credit for international trade in the
post World War II era. While the international economic order envisioned by the
conference gave way to the neo-liberal economic order prevalent today, the confe
rence established many of the organizations essential to advancement towards a c
lose-knit global economy and global financial system, such as the World Bank, th
e International Monetary Fund, and the International Trade Organization.
As an example, Chinese economic reform began to open China to globalization in t
he 1980s. Scholars find that China has attained a degree of openness that is unp
recedented among large and populous nations, with competition from foreign goods
in almost every sector of the economy. Foreign investment helped to greatly inc
rease product quality and knowledge and standards, especially in heavy industry.
China's experience supports the assertion that globalization greatly increases
wealth for poor countries.[94] As of 2005 2007, the Port of Shanghai holds the tit
le as the world's busiest port.[95][96][97][98]

In India, business process outsourcing has been described as the "primary engine
of the country's development over the next few decades, contributing broadly to
GDP growth, employment growth, and poverty alleviation".[99][100]
Red: U.S. corporate profits after tax. Blue: U.S. nonresidential business invest
ment, both as fractions of GDP, 1989 2012. Wealth concentration of corporate profi
ts in global tax havens due to tax avoidance spurred by imposition of austerity
measures can stall investment, inhibiting further growth.[101]
Global financial system[edit]
Main article: Global financial system
By the early 21st century, a worldwide framework of legal agreements, institutio
ns, and both formal and informal economic actors came together to facilitate int
ernational flows of financial capital for purposes of investment and trade finan
cing. This global financial system emerged during the first modern wave of econo
mic globalization, marked by the establishment of central banks, multilateral tr
eaties, and intergovernmental organizations aimed at improving the transparency,
regulation, and effectiveness of international markets.[102] The world economy
became increasingly financially integrated throughout the 20th century as nation
s liberalized capital accounts and deregulated financial sectors. With greater e
xposure to volatile capital flows, a series of financial crises in Europe, Asia,
and Latin America had contagious effects on other countries. By the early 21st
century, financial institutions had become increasingly large with a more sophis
ticated and interconnected range of investment activities. Thus, when the United
States experienced a financial crisis early in that century, it quickly propaga
ted among other nations. It became known as the global financial crisis and is r
ecognized as the catalyst for the worldwide Great Recession.
Inequality[edit]
Main articles: Economic inequality and International inequality
Increasing international commerce with high barriers to entry, corporate consoli
dation, tax havens and other methods of tax avoidance, and political corruption
have all caused increases in income inequality and wealth concentration: the inc
reasingly unequal distribution of economic assets (wealth) and income within or
between global populations, countries, and individuals. Economic inequality vari
es between societies, historical periods, economic structures or systems (for ex
ample, capitalism or socialism), ongoing or past wars, between genders, and betw
een differences in individuals' abilities to create wealth.[103] There are vario
us numerical indices for measuring economic inequality. A prominent one is the G
ini coefficient, but there are also many other methods.
While within-country income inequality has increased throughout the globalizatio
n period, globally inequality has lessened as developing countries have experien
ced much more rapid growth.[104] Economic inequality varies between societies, h
istorical periods, economic structures or economic systems, ongoing or past wars
, between genders, and between differences in individuals' abilities to create w
ealth.[105] Among the various numerical indices for measuring economic inequalit
y, the Gini coefficient is most often-cited.
Of the factors influencing the duration of economic growth in both developed and
developing countries, income equality has a more beneficial impact than trade o
penness, sound political institutions, and foreign investment.[106]
Economic inequality affects equity, equality of outcome and subsequent equality
of opportunity. Although earlier studies considered economic inequality as neces
sary and beneficial,[107] some economists see it as an important social problem.
[108] Early studies suggesting that greater equality inhibits economic growth di
d not account for lags between inequality changes and growth changes.[109] Later
studies claimed that one of the most robust determinants of sustained economic

growth is the level of income inequality.[106]

International inequality is inequality between countries. Income differences bet
ween rich and poor countries are very large, although they are changing rapidly.
Per capita incomes in China and India doubled in the prior twenty years, a feat
that required 150 years in the US.[110] According to the United Nations Human D
evelopment Report for 2013, for countries at varying levels of the UN Human Deve
lopment Index the GNP per capita grew between 2004 and 2013 from 24,806 to 33,39
1 or 35% (very high human development), 4,269 to 5,428 or 27% (medium) and 1,184
to 1,633 or 38% (low) PPP$, respectively (PPP$ = purchasing power parity measur
ed in United States dollars).[111]
Certain demographic changes in the developing world after active economic libera
lization and international integration resulted in rising welfare and hence, red
uced inequality. According to Martin Wolf, in the developing world as a whole, l
ife expectancy rose by four months each year after 1970 and infant mortality rat
e declined from 107 per thousand in 1970 to 58 in 2000 due to improvements in st
andards of living and health conditions. Also, adult literacy in developing coun
tries rose from 53% in 1970 to 74% in 1998 and much lower illiteracy rate among
the young guarantees that rates will continue to fall as time passes. Furthermor
e, the reduction in fertility rates in the developing world as a whole from 4.1
births per woman in 1980 to 2.8 in 2000 indicates improved education level of wo
men on fertility, and control of fewer children with more parental attention and
investment.[112] Consequentially, more prosperous and educated parents with few
er children have chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give
them opportunities to be educated at school improving the issue of child labor.
Thus, despite seemingly unequal distribution of income within these developing c
ountries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved stan
dards of living and welfare for the population as a whole.
Capital flight[edit]
Main articles: Capital flight and Liquidity crisis
See also: Sudden stop (economics), Tax exporting, Capital strike and Illicit fin
ancial flows
Capital flight occurs when assets or money rapidly flow out of a country because
of that country's recent increase in taxes, tariffs, labor costs, or other unfa
vorable financial conditions such as government debt defaulting, which disturb i
nvestors. This leads to a sometimes very rapid disappearance of wealth and is us
ually accompanied by a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the affected country,
leading in turn to depreciation in a variable currency exchange rate regime or a
forced devaluation under fixed exchange rates. This can be particularly damagin
g when the capital belongs to the people of the affected country, because not on
ly are the citizens now burdened by the loss of faith in the economy and devalua
tion of their currency, but probably also their assets have lost much of their n
ominal value. This leads to dramatic decreases in the purchasing power of the co
untry's assets and makes it increasingly expensive to import goods.
The Argentine economic crisis of 2001 caused in a currency devaluation and capit
al flight which resulted in a sharp drop in imports.
Capital flight can cause liquidity crises in the affected countries from which c
apital is flowing, the countries in which investors are trying to liquidate thei
r assets, and other countries involved in international commerce such as shippin
g and finance. A 2008 paper published by Global Financial Integrity estimated ca
pital flight or illicit financial flows out of developing countries to be at a r
ate of "some US$850 billion to $1 trillion a year."[113] Market participants in
need of cash find it hard to locate potential trading partners to sell their ass
ets. This may result as a consequence of limited market participation or because
of a decrease in cash held by financial market participants. Thus, asset holder
s may be forced to sell their assets at a price below the long term fundamental

price. Borrowers typically face higher loan costs and collateral requirements, c
ompared to periods of ample liquidity, and unsecured debt is nearly impossible t
o obtain. Typically, during a liquidity crisis, the interbank lending market doe
s not function smoothly either.
Capital flight affects advanced economies, as well. A 2009 article in The Times
reported that hundreds of wealthy financiers and entrepreneurs had recently fled
the United Kingdom in response to recent tax increases, relocating in low tax d
estinations such as Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, and the British Virgin Is
lands.[114] In May 2012 the scale of Greek capital flight in the wake of the fir
st "undecided" legislative election was estimated at 4 billion a week[115] and la
ter that month the Spanish Central Bank revealed 97 billion in capital flight fro
m the Spanish economy for the first quarter of 2012.[116]
Measuring globalization[edit]
Indices[edit]
Globalization Index
Main article: Globalization Index
Measurement of economic globalization focuses on variables such as trade, Foreig
n Direct Investment (FDI), portfolio investment, and income. However, newer indi
ces attempt to measure globalization in more general terms, including variables
related to political, social, cultural, and even environmental aspects of global
ization.[117]
One index of globalization is the KOF Index, which measures three important dime
nsions of globalization: economic, social, and political.[118] Another is the A.
T. Kearney / Foreign Policy Magazine Globalization Index.[119]
2014 KOF Index of Globalization
Rank
Country
1
Ireland
2
Belgium
3
Netherlands
4
Austria
5
Singapore
6
Denmark
7
Sweden
8
Portugal
9
Hungary
10
Finland
2006 A.T. Kearney / Foreign Policy Magazine
Globalization Index
Rank
Country
1
Singapore
2
Switzerland
3
United States
4
Ireland
5
Denmark
6
Canada
7
Netherlands
8
Australia
9
Austria
10
Sweden
The Good Country Index
Main article: Good Country Index
The Index is a composite statistic of 35 data points which are mostly generated

by the United Nations. These data points are combined into a common measure whic
h gives an overall ranking and a ranking in seven categories such as Science and
Technology, Culture, International Peace and Security, World Order, Planet and
Climate, Prosperity and Equality, Health and Wellbeing.
2014 Top 10 Overall Rank
2014 Rank
Country or territory
1
Ireland
2
Finland
3
Switzerland
4
Netherlands
5
New Zealand
6
Sweden
7
United Kingdom
8
Norway
9
Denmark
10
Belgium
Free trade policies[edit]
Main article: Global Enabling Trade Report
The Enabling Trade Index measures the factors, policies and services that facili
tate the trade in goods across borders and to destinations. It is made up of fou
r sub-indexes: market access; border administration; transport and communication
s infrastructure; and business environment. The top 20 countries are listed belo
w.
Global Enabling Trade Report 2010[120]
Singapore 6.06
Hong Kong 5.70
Denmark 5.41
Sweden 5.41
Switzerland 5.37
New Zealand 5.33
Norway 5.32
Canada 5.29
Luxembourg 5.28
Netherlands 5.26
Iceland 5.26
Finland 5.25
Germany 5.20
Austria 5.17
Australia 5.13
United Arab Emirates 5.12
United Kingdom 5.06
Chile 5.06
United States 5.03
France 5.02
Global Enabling Trade Report 2014[121]
Singapore 5.9
Hong Kong 5.5
Netherlands 5.3
New Zealand 5.2
Finland 5.2
United Kingdom 5.2
Switzerland 5.2
Chile 5.1
Sweden 5.1
Germany 5.1

Luxembourg 5.1
Norway 5.1
Japan 5.1
Canada 5.0
United States 5.0
United Arab Emirates 5.0
Denmark 5.0
Austria 4.9
Qatar 4.9
Belgium 4.9
Sociocultural globalization[edit]
Shakira, a Colombian multilingual singer-songwriter, playing outside her home co
untry.
Culture[edit]
Main article: Cultural globalization
Cultural globalization has increased cross-cultural contacts but may be accompan
ied by a decrease in the uniqueness of once-isolated communities. For example, s
ushi is available in Germany as well as Japan but Euro-Disney outdraws the city
of Paris, potentially reducing demand for "authentic" French pastry.[122][123][1
24] Globalization's contribution to the alienation of individuals from their tra
ditions may be modest compared to the impact of modernity itself, as alleged by
existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. Globalization has exp
anded recreational opportunities by spreading pop culture, particularly via the
Internet and satellite television.
Religious movements were among the earliest cultural elements to globalize, bein
g spread by force, migration, evangelists, imperialists and traders. Christianit
y, Islam, Buddhism and more recently sects such as Mormonism, which have taken r
oot and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.[125]
Japanese McDonald's
A McDonald's in Osaka, Japan illustrates the McDonaldization of global society
Conversi claimed in 2010 that globalization was predominantly driven by the outw
ard flow of culture and economic activity from the United States and was better
understood as Americanization,[126][127] or Westernization. For example, the two
most successful global food and beverage outlets are American companies, McDona
ld's and Starbucks, are often cited as examples of globalization, with over 32,0
00[128] and 18,000 locations operating worldwide, respectively as of 2008.[129]
The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices including trad
itional music can be lost or turned into a fusion of traditions. Globalization c
an trigger a state of emergency for the preservation of musical heritage. Archiv
ists must attempt to collect, record or transcribe repertoires before melodies a
re assimilated or modified. Local musicians struggle for authenticity and to pre
serve local musical traditions. Globalization can lead performers to discard tra
ditional instruments. Fusion genres can become interesting fields of analysis.[1
30]
Music has an important role in economic and cultural development during globaliz
ation. Music genres such as jazz and reggae began locally and later became inter
national phenomena. Globalization gave support to the World Music phenomenon by
allowing music from developing countries to reach broader audiences.[131] The te
rm "World Music" was originally intended for ethnic-specific music. Now, globali
zation is expanding its scope such that the term often includes hybrid sub-genre
s such as World fusion, Global fusion, Ethnic fusion[132] and Worldbeat.[133][13
4]
A Coca-Cola stall outside the Grand Gateway 66 shopping mall in Xujiahui, Shangh

ai
Bourdieu claimed that the perception of consumption can be seen as self-identifi
cation and the formation of identity. Musically, this translates into each being
having his own musical identity based on likes and tastes. These likes and tast
es are greatly influenced by culture as this is the most basic cause for a perso
n's wants and behavior. The concept of one's own culture is now in a period of c
hange due to globalization. Also, globalization has increased the interdependenc
y of political, personal, cultural and economic factors.[135]
A 2005 UNESCO report[136] showed that cultural exchange is becoming more frequen
t from Eastern Asia but Western countries are still the main exporters of cultur
al goods. In 2002, China was the third largest exporter of cultural goods, after
the UK and US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the European Uni
on's shares of cultural exports declined while Asia's cultural exports grew to s
urpass North America. Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and ar
ea are several times that of North America. Americanization is related to a peri
od of high political American clout and of significant growth of America's shops
, markets and objects being brought into other countries.
Some critics of globalization argue that it harms the diversity of cultures. As
a dominating country s culture is introduced into a receiving country through glob
alization, it can become a threat to the diversity of local culture. Some argue
that globalization may ultimately lead to Westernization or Americanization of c
ulture, where the dominating cultural concepts of economically and politically p
owerful Western countries spread and cause harm on local cultures.
So, globalization, a diverse phenomenon, relates to a multilateral political wor
ld and to the increase of cultural objects and markets between countries. The In
dian experience particularly reveals the plurality of the impact of cultural glo
balization.[137]
Multilingualism and the emergence of lingua francas[edit]
Main articles: Multilingualism, Lingua franca and List of lingua francas
Most people in the world are multilingual.[138][139] Language contact occurs whe
n two or more languages or varieties interact. Language contact occurs in a vari
ety of phenomena, including language convergence, borrowing, and relexification.
The most common products are pidgins, creoles, code-switching, and mixed langua
ges.
Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globali
zation and cultural openness.[140] Thanks to the ease of access to information f
acilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages is becom
ing more and more frequent, triggering, therefore, the need to acquire more and
more languages.
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible
between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third la
nguage, distinct from both mother tongues.[141] Today, the most popular second l
anguage is English. Some 3.5 billion people have some acquaintance of the langua
ge.[142] English is the dominant language on the Internet.[143] About 35% of the
world's mail, telexes, and cables are in English; approximately 40% of the worl
d's radio programs are in English.[144]
While multilingualism is common among individuals, globally the number of spoken
languages is decreasing. The top 20 languages spoken by more than 50 million sp
eakers each are spoken by some 50% of the world's population, whereas many of th
e other languages are spoken in small communities, most with less than 10,000 sp
eakers.[145] Historically, these less widespread languages were afforded protect
ion through geographical isolation. Today, speakers of regional and minority lan
guages are increasingly unable to compete with those who speak dominant language

s such that these languages are now considered endangered languages. The total n
umber of languages in the world is not precisely known and estimates vary depend
ing on many factors. The current estimate is that there are between 6000 and 700
0[146] languages spoken and between 50 90% of those will have become extinct by th
e year 2100.[145]
Politics[edit]
Main article: Global politics
The United Nations Headquarters in New York City.
In general, globalization may ultimately reduce the importance of nation states.
Supranational institutions such as the European Union, the WTO, the G8 or the I
nternational Criminal Court replace or extend national functions to facilitate i
nternational agreement.[147] Some observers attribute the relative decline in US
power to globalization, particularly due to the country's high trade deficit. T
his led to a global power shift towards Asian states, particularly China, which
unleashed market forces and achieved tremendous growth rates. As of 2011, the Ch
inese economy was on track to overtake the United States by 2025.[148]
Increasingly, non-governmental organizations influence public policy across nati
onal boundaries, including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.[149] Phil
anthropic organizations with global missions are also coming to the forefront of
humanitarian efforts; charities such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation,
Accion International, the Acumen Fund (now Acumen) and the Echoing Green have co
mbined the business model with philanthropy, giving rise to business organizatio
ns such as the Global Philanthropy Group and new associations of philanthropists
such as the Global Philanthropy Forum. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation pr
ojects include a current multi-billion dollar commitment to funding immunization
s in some of the world's more impoverished but rapidly growing countries.[150] a
nd hundreds of millions of dollars in the next few years to programs aimed at en
couraging saving by the world's poor.[151] The Hudson Institute estimates total
private philanthropic flows to developing countries at US$59 billion in 2010.[15
2]
As a response to globalization, some countries have embraced isolationist polici
es. For example, the North Korean government makes it very difficult for foreign
ers to enter the country and strictly monitors their activities when they do. Ai
d workers are subject to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places and regi
ons the government does not wish them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave the
country.[153][154]
Media and public opinion[edit]
Main articles: Media (communication) and Public opinion
A 2005 study by Peer Fiss and Paul Hirsch found a large increase in articles neg
ative towards globalization in the years prior. In 1998, negative articles outpa
ced positive articles by two to one.[155] In 2008 Greg Ip claimed this rise in o
pposition to globalization can be explained, at least in part, by economic selfinterest.[156] The number of newspaper articles showing negative framing rose fr
om about 10% of the total in 1991 to 55% of the total in 1999. This increase occ
urred during a period when the total number of articles concerning globalization
nearly doubled.[155]
A number of international polls have shown that residents of Africa and Asia ten
d to view globalization more favorably than residents of Europe or North America
. In Africa, a Gallup poll found that 70% of the population views globalization
favorably.[157] The BBC found that 50% of people believed that economic globaliz
ation was proceeding too rapidly, while 35% believed it was proceeding too slowl
y.[158]
Philip Gordon stated that "[as of 2004] a clear majority of Europeans believe th

at globalization can enrich their lives, while believing the European Union can
help them take advantage of globalization's benefits while shielding them from i
ts negative effects."[159] The main opposition consisted of socialists, environm
ental groups, and nationalists. Residents of the EU did not appear to feel threa
tened by globalization in 2004. The EU job market was more stable and workers we
re less likely to accept wage/benefit cuts. Social spending was much higher than
in the US.[160] In a Danish poll in 2007, 76% responded that globalisation is a
good thing.[161]
Fiss, et al., surveyed U.S. opinion in 1993. Their survey showed that, in 1993,
more than 40% of respondents were unfamiliar with the concept of globalization.
When the survey was repeated in 1998, 89% of the respondents had a polarized vie
w of globalization as being either good or bad. At the same time, discourse on g
lobalization, which began in the financial community before shifting to a heated
debate between proponents and disenchanted students and workers. Polarization i
ncreased dramatically after the establishment of the WTO in 1995; this event and
subsequent protests led to a large-scale anti-globalization movement.[155] Init
ially, college educated workers were likely to support globalization. Less educa
ted workers, who were more likely to compete with immigrants and workers in deve
loping countries, tended to be opponents. The situation changed after the financ
ial crisis of 2007. According to a 1997 poll 58% of college graduates said globa
lization had been good for the U.S. By 2008 only 33% thought it was good. Respon
dents with high school education also became more opposed.[156]
According to Takenaka Heizo and Chida Ryokichi, as of 1998 there was a perceptio
n in Japan that the economy was "Small and Frail". However, Japan was resource-p
oor and used exports to pay for its raw materials. Anxiety over their position c
aused terms such as internationalization and globalization to enter everyday lan
guage. However, Japanese tradition was to be as self-sufficient as possible, par
ticularly in agriculture.[162]
Many in developing countries see globalization as a positive force that lifts th
em out of poverty.[163] Those opposing globalization typically combine environme
ntal concerns with nationalism. Opponents consider governments as agents of neocolonialism that are subservient to multinational corporations.[164] Much of thi
s criticism comes from the middle class; the Brookings Institute suggested this
was because the middle class perceived upwardly mobile low-income groups as thre
atening to their economic security.[165]
Although many critics blame globalization for a decline of the middle class in i
ndustrialized countries, the middle class is growing rapidly in developing count
ries.[166] Coupled with growing urbanization, this leads to increasing dispariti
es in wealth between urban and rural areas.[167] In 2002, in India, 70% of the p
opulation lived in rural areas and depended directly on natural resources for th
eir livelihood.[164] As a result, mass movements in the countryside at times exp
ress objections to the process.[168]
The nonprofit Reporters Without Borders publishes a Press Freedom Index, an annu
al ranking of countries based upon the organization's assessment of the countrie
s' press freedom records in the previous year. It reflects the degree of freedom
that journalists, news organizations, and netizens enjoy in each country, and t
he efforts made by the authorities to respect and ensure respect for this freedo
m.
Internet[edit]
Global Internet usage: Percent of population connected in 2012[169]
Main article: Global Internet usage
See also: List of countries by number of Internet users
Both a product of globalization as well as a catalyst, the Internet connects com

puter users around the world. From 2000 to 2009, the number of Internet users gl
obally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion.[170] By 2010, 22 percent of the w
orld's population had access to computers with 1 billion Google searches every d
ay, 300 million Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily
on YouTube.[171] According to research firm IDC, the size of total worldwide e-c
ommerce, when global business-to-business and -consumer transactions are added t
ogether, will equate to US$16 trillion in 2013. IDate, another research firm, es
timates the global market for digital products and services at US$4.4 trillion i
n 2013. A report by Oxford Economics adds those two together to estimate the tot
al size of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of
global sales.[172]
While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled comme
rce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the internet such as maps and l
ocation-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digita
l divide.[173] Electronic commerce may be partly responsible for consolidation a
nd the decline of mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increase
s in income inequality.[174][175][176]
An online community is a virtual community that exists online and whose members
enable its existence through taking part in membership ritual. Significant socio
-technical change may have resulted from the proliferation of such Internet-base
d social networks.[177]
Population growth[edit]
Main articles: World population and Human overpopulation
The world population has experienced continuous growth since the end of the Grea
t Famine and the Black Death in 1350, when it stood at around 370 million.[178]
The highest rates of growth
global population increases above 1.8% per year
were
seen briefly during the 1950s, and for a longer period during the 1960s and 197
0s. The growth rate peaked at 2.2% in 1963, and had declined to 1.1% by 2011. To
tal annual births were highest in the late 1980s at about 138 million,[179] and
are now expected to remain essentially constant at their 2011 level of 134 milli
on, while deaths number 56 million per year, and are expected to increase to 80
million per year by 2040.[180] Current projections show a continued increase in
population (but a steady decline in the population growth rate), with the global
population expected to reach 7.5 and 10.5 billion by 2050.[181][182]
The head of the International Food Policy Research Institute, stated in 2008 tha
t the gradual change in diet among newly prosperous populations is the most impo
rtant factor underpinning the rise in global food prices.[183] From 1950 to 1984
, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain produc
tion increased by over 250%.[184] World population has grown by about 4 billion
since the beginning of the Green Revolution and without it, there would be great
er famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents (approximately 850 mi
llion people suffering from chronic malnutrition in 2005).[185][186] There is co
ncern about increasing rates of soil erosion due to ever larger square hectares
worked with mechanized equipment and chemical fertilizer and other inputs.[187][
188][189] With human consumption of seafood having doubled in the last 30 years,
seriously depleting multiple seafood fisheries and destroying the marine ecosys
tem as a result, awareness is prompting steps to be taken to create a more susta
inable seafood supply.[190]
Growing populations, falling energy sources and food shortages will create a "pe
rfect storm" by 2030, according to UK chief government scientist John Beddington
, who noted that food reserves were at a 50-year low and the world would require
50% more energy, food and water by 2030.[191][192] The situation in the Sahel r
egion south of the Sahara, in terms of ongoing deforestation and soil erosion, i
s very serious.[193]

The world will have to produce 70% more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2
.3 billion people and as incomes rise, according to the United Nations' Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO).[194] Social scientists have warned of the possi
bility that global civilization is due for a period of contraction and economic
re-localization due to a decline in fossil fuels and resulting crises in transpo
rtation and food production.[195][196][197] Helga Vierich has predicted a restor
ation of sustainable local economic activities based on hunting and gathering, s
hifting horticulture, and pastoralism.[198]
Urbanization[edit]
Main articles: Urbanization and Megacities
Growth in population during the period of rapid industrialization and globalizat
ion in the 20th century was accompanied by increased urbanization on a global ba
sis. By 2011, the majority of the world's population lived in industrialized urb
an areas featuring nearby factories and business offices rather than in traditio
nal rural areas where agricultural activities predominate.[199] Certain cities b
egan to emerge as global cities generally considered to be important centers of
global economic activities. Megacities, cities having a population in excess of
10 million, grew in number from 3 in 1973 to 24 by 2013, with estimates of up to
27 by 2025.[200]
Health[edit]
Main articles: Global health and Globalization and disease
Global health is the health of populations in a global context that transcends t
he perspectives and concerns of individual nations.[201] Health problems that tr
anscend national borders or have a global political and economic impact are emph
asized.[202] It has been defined as 'the area of study, research and practice th
at places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all
people worldwide'.[203] Thus, global health is about worldwide improvement of he
alth, reduction of disparities, and protection against global threats that disre
gard national borders.[204] The application of these principles to the domain of
mental health is called Global Mental Health.[205]
SARS checkpoint at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport's International Arrivals
in Terminal 1
The major international agency for health is the World Health Organization (WHO)
. Other important agencies with impact on global health activities include UNICE
F, World Food Programme (WFP), United Nations University International Institute
for Global Health and the World Bank. A major initiative for improved global he
alth is the United Nations Millennium Declaration and the globally endorsed Mill
ennium Development Goals.[206]
International travel has helped to spread some of the deadliest infectious disea
ses.[207] One example of this occurring is AIDS/HIV.[208] Due to immigration, ap
proximately 500,000 people in the United States are believed to be infected with
Chagas disease.[209] The rate of tuberculosis (TB) among foreign-born persons i
n the United States was 9.5 times that of U.S.-born persons in 2006.[210] Starti
ng in Asia, the Black Death killed at least one-third of Europe's population in
the 14th century.[211] Even worse devastation was inflicted on the American supe
rcontinent by European arrivals. 90% of the populations of the civilizations of
the "New World" such as the Aztec, Maya, and Inca were killed by smallpox brough
t by European colonization.
Global natural environment[edit]
Main articles: Natural environment, Natural resource and Natural capital
See also: Human ecology and Coupled human environment system
The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring n
aturally on Earth or some region thereof. It is an environment that encompasses
the interaction of all living species.[212] The natural environment is contraste

d with the built environment, which comprises the areas and components that are
strongly influenced by humans. It is difficult to find absolutely natural enviro
nments; it is common that the naturalness varies in a continuum, from ideally 10
0% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. More precisely, we can con
sider the different aspects or components of an environment and see that their d
egree of naturalness is not uniform[213] but, instead, there exists a coupled hu
man environment system.
Plot based on the NASA GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (GISTEMP) data set.
Human challenges to the natural environment, such as climate change, cross-bound
ary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasi
ve species require at least transnational and, often, global solutions. Since fa
ctories in developing countries increased global output and experienced less env
ironmental regulation, globally there have been substantial increases in polluti
on and its impact on water resources.[214][215]
State of the World 2006 report said India's and China's high economic growth was
not sustainable. The report states, The world's ecological capacity is simply i
nsufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China, India, Japan, Europe and the Unit
ed States as well as the aspirations of the rest of the world in a sustainable w
ay.[216] In a 2006 news story, BBC reported, "...if China and India were to cons
ume as much resources per capita as United States or Japan in 2030 together they
would require a full planet Earth to meet their needs."[216] In the longterm th
ese effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling resources[217] and in
the worst case a Malthusian catastrophe. International foreign investment in dev
eloping countries could lead to a "race to the bottom" as countries lower their
environmental and resource protection laws to attract foreign capital.[8][218] T
he reverse of this theory is true, however, when developed countries maintain po
sitive environmental practices, imparting them to countries they are investing i
n and creating a "race to the top" phenomenon.[8]
Burning forest in Brazil. The removal of forest to make way for cattle ranching
was the leading cause of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon from the mid-1960
s. Soybeans have become one of the most important contributors to deforestation
in the Brazilian Amazon.[219]
The time between distances is shrinking between continents and countries due to
globalization, causing developing and developed countries to find new ways to so
lve problems on a global rather than regional scale. Agencies like the United Na
tions now must be the global regulators of pollution, whereas before, regional g
overnance was enough.[220] Action has been taken by the United Nations to monito
r and reduce atmospheric pollutants through the Kyoto Protocol, the UN Clean Air
Initiative, and studies of air pollution and public policy.[221] Global traffic
, production, and consumption are causing increased global levels of air polluta
nts. The northern hemisphere has been the leading producer of carbon monoxide an
d sulfur oxides.[222]
Changes in natural capital are beginning to erode the economic logic of one majo
r aspect of economic globalization: an international division of labor and produ
ction based on global supply chains.[223] Planetary boundaries for several key e
nvironmental resources have been reached and others are near their limits. Over
time, peak oil and climate change may result in "peak globalization," measured i
n terms of decreasing ton-miles of freight transported, particularly across ocea
ns and continents. The economic logic of the comparative advantage of global sup
ply chains could be overcome by both increasing transportation costs and interru
ptions and delays in the transit of freight.[223]
China and India substantially increased their fossil fuel consumption as their e
conomies switched from subsistence farming to industry and urbanization.[224][22

5] Chinese oil consumption grew by 8% yearly between 2002 and 2006, doubling fro
m 1996 2006.[226] In 2007, China surpassed the United States as the top emitter of
CO
2.[227] Only 1 percent of the country's 560 million city inhabitants (2007) brea
the air deemed safe by the European Union. In effect, this means that developed
countries may "outsource" some of the pollution associated with consumption in c
ountries where pollution-intensive industries have been moved.
Societies utilize forest resources in order to reach a sustainable level of econ
omic development. Historically, forests in earlier developing nations experience
"forest transitions", a period of deforestation and reforestation as a surround
ing society becomes more developed, industrialized and shift their primary resou
rce extraction to other nations via imports. For nations at the periphery of the
globalized system however, there are no others to shift their extraction onto,
and forest degradation continues unabated. Forest transitions can have an effect
on the hydrology, climate change, and biodiversity of an area by impacting wate
r quality and the accumulation of greenhouse gases through the re-growth of new
forest into second and third growth forests.[228][229] A major source of defores
tation is the logging industry, driven by China and Japan.[230] The global marke
ting of palm oil has led to such a degree of deforestation in Southeast Asia tha
t many species are critically endangered, especially rhinoceros, tigers and oran
g-utans.[231][232]
Without more recycling, zinc could be used up by 2037, both indium and hafnium c
ould run out by 2017, and terbium could be gone by 2012.[233] Other "peak" pheno
mena, such as peak oil, peak coal, peak gas, peak water, and peak wheat, also af
fect the availability and sustainability of natural capital.
In 2003, 29% of open sea fisheries were in a state of collapse.[234] The journal
Science published a four-year study in November 2006, which predicted that, at
the current rate of consumption, supplies of wild seafood will be totally deplet
ed by 2048.[235] Conversely, globalization created a global market for farm-rais
ed fish and seafood, which as of 2009 was providing 38% of global output, potent
ially reducing fishing pressure.[236]
The global trade in goods depends upon reliable, inexpensive transportation of f
reight along complex and long-distance supply chains.[223] Global warming and pe
ak oil undermine globalization by their effects on both transportation costs and
the reliable movement of freight. Countering the current geographic pattern of
comparative advantage with higher transportation costs, climate change and peak
oil would thus result in peak globalization, after which the volume of exports w
ill decline as measured by ton-miles of freight.[237]
Global workforce[edit]
Main articles: Global workforce and New international division of labour
Global workforce refers to the international labor pool of workers, including th
ose employed by multinational companies and connected through a global system of
networking and production, immigrant workers, transient migrant workers, teleco
mmuting workers, and those in export-oriented employment or contingent work and
other precarious employment. As of 2012, the global labor pool consisted of appr
oximately 3 billion workers, around 200 million unemployed.[238]
The global workforce, or international labor, reflects a new international divis
ion of labor that has been emerging since the late 1970s in the wake of other fo
rces of globalization. The global economic factors driving the rise of multinati
onal corporations
namely, cross-border movement of goods, services, technology a
nd capital are changing ways of thinking about labor and the structure of today'
s workforce. With roots in the social processes surrounding the shift to standar
dization and industrialization, post-industrial society in the Western world has
been accompanied by industrialization in other parts of the world, particularly

in Asia. As industrialization takes hold worldwide and more cultures move away
from traditional practices in respect to work and labor, the ways in which emplo
yers think about and utilize labor are changing.
The global workforce is competitive and has been described as "a war for talent.
"[239] This competitiveness is due, in part, to communications technologies that
assist companies to attain multinational status. Communication technologies als
o allow companies to find workers without limiting their search locally, a proce
ss known as global labor arbitrage. An example of this war for talent is the phe
nomenon of foreign executives appointed into headquarter positions of local orga
nisations.[240][241]
However, production workers and service workers in advanced economies have been
unable to compete directly with much lower-cost workers in developing countries.
[242] Low-wage countries gained the low-value-added element of work formerly don
e in rich countries, while higher-value work remained; for instance, the total n
umber of people employed in manufacturing in the US declined, but value added pe
r worker increased.[243]
There are many examples of this movement of labor into developing economies. Two
examples can be found in China and South Africa. Chinese success cost jobs in o
ther developing countries as well as in the West.[244] From 2000 to 2007, the U.
S. lost a total of 3.2 million manufacturing jobs.[245] As of 26 April 2005 "In
regional giant South Africa, some 300,000 textile workers have lost their jobs i
n the past two years due to the influx of Chinese goods".[246]
Nobel Prize winning economist Michael Spence writes, The massive changes in the glo
bal economy since World War II have had overwhelmingly positive effects. Hundred
s of millions of people in the developing world have escaped poverty, and more w
ill in the future. The global economy will continue to grow
probably at least th
reefold over the next 30 years. One person's gain is not necessarily another's l
oss; global growth is not even close to a zero-sum game. But globalization hurts
some subgroups within some countries, including the advanced economies. [247]
Not everyone is so sanguine about the continuation of economic growth into the f
uture. In Indonesia, for instance, "Agustinus Karlo Lumban Raja, head of the Env
ironment and Policy Initiative Department of Indonesian NGO Sawit Watch, notes, T
he proliferation and intensification of horizontal social conflicts over customa
ry land boundaries testifies to the vulnerability of indigenous Malind people wh
ose customary lands are being targeted and developed by the private sector witho
ut adequate and fully representative prior consultation with the various clans a
nd tribes who lay claims to these lands. "[248]
International migration[edit]
Main articles: Human migration, Foreign worker and List of countries by net migr
ation rate
Many countries have some form of guest worker program with policies similar to t
hose found in the U.S. that permit U.S. employers to sponsor non-U.S. citizens a
s laborers for approximately three years, to be deported afterwards if they have
not yet obtained a green card. As of 2009, over 1,000,000 guest workers reside
in the US; the largest program, the H-1B visa, has 650,000 workers in the U.S.[2
49] and the second-largest, the L-1 visa, has 350,000.[250] Many other United St
ates visas exist for guest workers as well, including the H-2A visa, which allow
s farmers to bring in an unlimited number of agricultural guest workers. The Uni
ted States ran a Mexican guest-worker program in the period 1942 1964, known as th
e Bracero Program.
About 85% of Dubai's population consists of migrant workers, a majority of whom
are from India.[251]

An article in The New Republic criticized such guest worker programs by equating
the visiting workers to second-class citizens, who would never be able to gain
citizenship and would have less residential rights than Americans.[252]
Migration of educated and skilled workers is called brain drain. For example, th
e U.S. welcomes many nurses to come work in the country.[253] The brain drain fr
om Europe to the United States means that some 400,000 European science and tech
nology graduates now live in the U.S. and most have no intention to return to Eu
rope.[254] Nearly 14 million immigrants came to the United States from 2000 to 2
010.[255]
Immigrants to the United States and their children founded more than 40 percent
of the 2010 Fortune 500 companies. They founded seven of the ten most valuable b
rands in the world.[256]
Reverse brain drain is the movement of human capital from a more developed count
ry to a less developed country. It is considered a logical outcome of a calculat
ed strategy where migrants accumulate savings and develop skills overseas that c
an be used in their home country.[257]
Reverse brain drain can occur when scientists, engineers, or other intellectual
elites migrate to a less developed country to learn in its universities, perform
research, or gain working experience in areas where education and employment op
portunities are limited in their home country. These professionals then return t
o their home country after several years of experience to start a related busine
ss, teach in a university, or work for a multi-national in their home country.[2
58]
A remittance is a transfer of money by a foreign worker to his or her home count
ry. Remittances are playing an increasingly large role in the economies of many
countries, contributing to economic growth and to the livelihoods of less prospe
rous people (though generally not the poorest of the poor). According to World B
ank estimates, remittances totaled US$414 billion in 2009, of which US$316 billi
on went to developing countries that involved 192 million migrant workers.[259]
For some individual recipient countries, remittances can be as high as a third o
f their GDP.[259] As remittance receivers often have a higher propensity to own
a bank account, remittances promote access to financial services for the sender
and recipient, an essential aspect of leveraging remittances to promote economic
development. The top recipients in terms of the share of remittances in GDP inc
luded many smaller economies such as Tajikistan (45%), Moldova (38%), and Hondur
as (25%).[260]
The IOM found more than 200 million migrants around the world in 2008,[261] incl
uding illegal immigration.[262][263] Remittance flows to developing countries re
ached US$328 billion in 2008 and new projections on remittance flows to developi
ng countries show they are expected to reach US$515 billion in 2015.[264]
A transnational marriage is a marriage between two people from different countri
es. A variety of special issues arise in marriages between people from different
countries, including those related to citizenship and culture, which add comple
xity and challenges to these kinds of relationships. In an age of increasing glo
balization, where a growing number of people have ties to networks of people and
places across the globe, rather than to a current geographic location, people a
re increasingly marrying across national boundaries. Transnational marriage is a
by-product of the movement and migration of people.
Support and criticism[edit]
See also: Criticisms of globalization
Reactions to processes contributing to globalization have varied widely with a h
istory as long as extraterritorial contact and trade. Philosophical differences

regarding the costs and benefits of such processes give rise to a broad-range of
ideologies and social movements. Proponents of economic growth, expansion and d
evelopment, in general, view globalizing processes as desirable or necessary to
the well-being of human society.[265]
Antagonists view one or more globalizing processes as detrimental to social well
-being on a global or local scale;[265] this includes those who question either
the social or natural sustainability of long-term and continuous economic expans
ion, the social structural inequality caused by these processes, and the colonia
l, Imperialistic, or hegemonic ethnocentrism, cultural assimilation and cultural
appropriation that underlie such processes.
Critiques of globalization generally stem from discussions surrounding the impac
t of such processes on the planet as well as the human costs. They challenge dir
ectly traditional metrics, such as GDP, and look to other measures, such as the
Gini coefficient [266] or the Happy Planet Index,[267] and point to a "multitude
of interconnected fatal consequences social disintegration, a breakdown of democr
acy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the environment, the spread of ne
w diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"[268] which they claim are the uni
ntended consequences of globalization. Others point out that, while the forces o
f globalization have led to the spread of western-style democracy, this has been
accompanied by an increase in inter-ethnic tension and violence as free market
economic policies combine with democratic processes of universal suffrage as wel
l as an escalation in militarization to impose democratic principles and as a me
ans to conflict resolution .[269]
Economic liberalism and free trade[edit]
Main articles: Economic liberalism and Neoliberalism
George W. Bush and Hu Jintao of China meet while attending an APEC summit in San
tiago de Chile, 2004
Economic liberals and neoliberals generally argue that higher degrees of politic
al and economic freedom in the form of free trade in the developed world are end
s in themselves, producing higher levels of overall material wealth. Globalizati
on is seen as the beneficial spread of liberty and capitalism.[270] Jagdish Bhag
wati, a former adviser to the U.N. on globalization, holds that, although there
are obvious problems with overly rapid development, globalization is a very posi
tive force that lifts countries out of poverty by causing a virtuous economic cy
cle associated with faster economic growth.[163] Economist Paul Krugman is anoth
er staunch supporter of globalization and free trade with a record of disagreein
g with many critics of globalization. He argues that many of them lack a basic u
nderstanding of comparative advantage and its importance in today's world.[271]
The flow of migrants to advanced economic countries has been claimed to provide
a means through which global wages converge. An IMF study noted a potential for
skills to be transferred back to developing countries as wages in those a countr
ies rise.[7] Lastly, the dissemination of knowledge has been an integral aspect
of globalization. Technological innovations (or technological transfer) is conje
ctured to benefit most the developing and least developing countries (LDCs), as
for example in the adoption of mobile phones.[38]
There has been a rapid economic growth in Asia after embracing market orientatio
n-based economic policies that encourage private property rights, free enterpris
e and competition. In particular, in East Asian developing countries, GDP per he
ad rose at 5.9% a year from 1975 to 2001 (according to 2003 Human Development Re
port[272] of UNDP). Like this, the British economic journalist Martin Wolf says
that incomes of poor developing countries, with more than half the world s populat
ion, grew substantially faster than those of the world s richest countries that re
mained relatively stable in its growth, leading to reduced international inequal
ity and the incidence of poverty.

Certain demographic changes in the developing world after active economic libera
lization and international integration resulted in rising general welfare and, h
ence, reduced inequality. According to Wolf, in the developing world as a whole,
life expectancy rose by four months each year after 1970 and infant mortality r
ate declined from 107 per thousand in 1970 to 58 in 2000 due to improvements in
standards of living and health conditions. Also, adult literacy in developing co
untries rose from 53% in 1970 to 74% in 1998 and much lower illiteracy rate amon
g the young guarantees that rates will continue to fall as time passes. Furtherm
ore, the reduction in fertility rate in the developing world as a whole from 4.1
births per woman in 1980 to 2.8 in 2000 indicates improved education level of w
omen on fertility, and control of fewer children with more parental attention an
d investment.[112] Consequently, more prosperous and educated parents with fewer
children have chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give th
em opportunities to be educated at school improving the issue of child labor. Th
us, despite seemingly unequal distribution of income within these developing cou
ntries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved standa
rds of living and welfare for the population as a whole.
Of the factors influencing the duration of economic growth in both developed and
developing countries, income equality has a more beneficial impact than trade o
penness, sound political institutions, and foreign investment.[106]
In general, corporate businesses, particularly in the area of finance, see globa
lization as a positive force in the world. Many economists cite statistics that
seem to support such positive impact. For example, per capita Gross Domestic Pro
duct (GDP) growth among post-1980 globalizing countries accelerated from 1.4 per
cent a year in the 1960s and 2.9 percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in t
he 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. This acceleration in growth seems even mo
re remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declines in growth from a
high of 4.7 percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-glo
balizing developing countries seem to fare worse than the globalizers, with the
former's annual growth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s
to only 1.4 percent during the 1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is
not simply due to the strong performances of China and India in the 1980s and 1
18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases in growth, many of them
990s
quite substantial.[273]
The globalization of the late 20th and early 21st centuries has led to the resur
facing of the idea that the growth of economic interdependence promotes peace.[2
74] This idea had been very powerful during the globalization of the late 19th a
nd early 20th centuries, and was a central doctrine of classical liberals of tha
t era, such as the young John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946).[275]
Some opponents of globalization see the phenomenon as a promotion of corporatist
interests.[276] They also claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of co
rporate entities shapes the political policy of countries.[277][278] They advoca
te global institutions and policies that they believe better address the moral c
laims of poor and working classes as well as environmental concerns.[279] Econom
ic arguments by fair trade theorists claim that unrestricted free trade benefits
those with more financial leverage (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.[
280]
Globalization allows corporations to outsource manufacturing and service jobs fr
om high cost locations, creating economic opportunities with the most competitiv
e wages and worker benefits.[99] Critics of globalization say that it disadvanta
ges poorer countries. While it is true that free trade encourages globalization
among countries, some countries try to protect their domestic suppliers. The mai
n export of poorer countries is usually agricultural productions. Larger countri
es often subsidize their farmers (e.g., the EU's Common Agricultural Policy), wh

ich lowers the market price for foreign crops.[281]

Global democracy[edit]
Main article: Democratic globalization
Democratic globalization is a movement towards an institutional system of global
democracy that would give world citizens a say in political organizations. This
would, in their view, bypass nation-states, corporate oligopolies, ideological
Non-governmental organizations (NGO), political cults and mafias. One of its mos
t prolific proponents is the British political thinker David Held. Advocates of
democratic globalization argue that economic expansion and development should be
the first phase of democratic globalization, which is to be followed by a phase
of building global political institutions. Dr. Francesco Stipo, Director of the
United States Association of the Club of Rome, advocates unifying nations under
a world government, suggesting that it "should reflect the political and econom
ic balances of world nations. A world confederation would not supersede the auth
ority of the State governments but rather complement it, as both the States and
the world authority would have power within their sphere of competence".[282] Fo
rmer Canadian Senator Douglas Roche, O.C., viewed globalization as inevitable an
d advocated creating institutions such as a directly elected United Nations Parl
iamentary Assembly to exercise oversight over unelected international bodies.[28
3]
Global civics[edit]
Monument to Multiculturalism by Francesco Perilli in Toronto, Canada. Four ident
ical sculptures are located in Buffalo City, South Africa; Changchun, China; Sar
ajevo, Bosnia and Sydney, Australia
Main articles: Global civics and Multiculturalism
See also: Global citizenship
Global civics suggests that civics can be understood, in a global sense, as a so
cial contract between global citizens in the age of interdependence and interact
ion. The disseminators of the concept define it as the notion that we have certa
in rights and responsibilities towards each other by the mere fact of being huma
n on Earth.[284] World citizen has a variety of similar meanings, often referrin
g to a person who disapproves of traditional geopolitical divisions derived from
national citizenship. An early incarnation of this sentiment can be found in So
crates, who Plutarch quoted as saying: "I am not an Athenian, or a Greek, but a
citizen of the world."[285] In an increasingly interdependent world, world citiz
ens need a compass to frame their mindsets and create a shared consciousness and
sense of global responsibility in world issues such as environmental problems a
nd nuclear proliferation.[286]
Cosmopolitanism is the proposal that all human ethnic groups belong to a single
community based on a shared morality. A person who adheres to the idea of cosmop
olitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolitan or cosmopolite.[287] A co
smopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality, a shared economic
relationship, or a political structure that encompasses different nations. The c
osmopolitan community is one in which individuals from different places (e.g. na
tion-states) form relationships based on mutual respect. For instance, Kwame Ant
hony Appiah suggests the possibility of a cosmopolitan community in which indivi
duals from varying locations (physical, economic, etc.) enter relationships of m
utual respect despite their differing beliefs (religious, political, etc.).[288]
Canadian philosopher Marshall McLuhan popularized the term Global Village beginn
ing in 1962.[289] His view suggested that globalization would lead to a world wh
ere people from all countries will become more integrated and aware of common in
terests and shared humanity.[290]
International cooperation[edit]
Military cooperation
Past examples of international cooperation exist. One examp

le is the security cooperation between the United States and the former Soviet U
nion after the end of the Cold War, which astonished international society. Arms
control and disarmament agreements, including the Strategic Arms Reduction Trea
ty (see START I, START II, START III, and New START) and the establishment of NA
TO s Partnership for Peace, the Russia NATO Council, and the G8 Global Partnership
against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction, constitute con
crete initiatives of arms control and de-nuclearization. The U.S. Russian cooperat
ion was further strengthened by anti-terrorism agreements enacted in the wake of
9/11.[291]
Environmental cooperation
One of the biggest successes of environmental cooperat
ion has been the agreement to reduce chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions, as spec
ified in the Montreal Protocol, in order to stop ozone depletion. The most recen
t debate around nuclear energy and the non-alternative coal-burning power plants
constitutes one more consensus on what not to do. Thirdly, significant achievem
ents in IC can be observed through development studies.[291]
Anti-globalization movement[edit]
Main article: Anti-globalization movement
Anti-globalization, or counter-globalisation,[292] consists of a number of criti
cisms of globalization but, in general, is critical of the globalization of corp
orate capitalism.[293] The movement is also commonly referred to as the alter-gl
obalization movement, anti-globalist movement, anti-corporate globalization move
ment,[294] or movement against neoliberal globalization. It can be explained as
encompassing the ideologies present in the following other movements , which will b
e discussed below: opposition to capital market integration, social justice and
inequality, anti-consumerism, anti-global governance and environmentalist opposi
tion. Each of these ideologies can be framed around a specific strand of the ant
i-globalization movement, but in general the movement gears their efforts toward
s all of these primary principles. It is considered a rather new and modern day
social movement, as the issues it is fighting against are relevant in today s time
. However, the events that occurred which fuels the movement can be traced back
through the lineage of the movement of a 500-year old history of resistance agai
nst European colonialism and U.S. imperialism.[295] This refers to the continent
of Africa being colonized and stripped of their resources by the Europeans in t
he 19th century. It is also related closely with the anti-Vietnam war mobilizati
ons between 1960 and1970, with worldwide protests against the adjustment of stru
cture in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
In general, opponents of globalization in developed countries are disproportiona
tely middle-class and college-educated. This contrasts sharply with the situatio
n in developing countries, where the anti-globalization movement has been more s
uccessful in enlisting a broader group, including millions of workers and farmer
s.[296]
These supporters of the movement are aware of the unequal power and respect in t
erms of international trade between the developed and underdeveloped countries o
f the world.[297] The activists that support the AGM, as mentioned previously be
fore, can range in terms of the specific issue(s) that they oppose. Again, there
are a few different dimensions of globalization: economic, political, cultural,
ecological and ideological. The diverse subgroups that make up this movement in
clude some of the following: trade unionists, environmentalists, anarchists, lan
d rights and indigenous rights activists, organizations promoting human rights a
nd sustainable development, opponents of privatization, and anti-sweatshop campa
igners.[295]
As summarized by Noam Chomsky:
The dominant propaganda systems have appropriated the term "globalization" to re
fer to the specific version of international economic integration that they favo

r, which privileges the rights of investors and lenders, those of people being i
ncidental. In accord with this usage, those who favor a different form of intern
ational integration, which privileges the rights of human beings, become "anti-g
lobalist." This is simply vulgar propaganda, like the term "anti-Soviet" used by
the most disgusting commissars to refer to dissidents. It is not only vulgar, b
ut idiotic. Take the World Social Forum (WSF), called "anti-globalization" in th
e propaganda system
which happens to include the media, the educated classes, et
c., with rare exceptions. The WSF is a paradigm example of globalization. It is
a gathering of huge numbers of people from all over the world, from just about e
very corner of life one can think of, apart from the extremely narrow highly pri
vileged elites who meet at the competing World Economic Forum, and are called "p
ro-globalization" by the propaganda system.[298]
Movement tactics[edit]
D.A. Snow et al. contend that the anti-globalization movement is an example of a
new social movement, which uses tactics that are unique and use different resou
rces than previously used before in other social movements.[299] Actors of the m
ovement participate in things such as disruptive tactics. These include flash mo
bs for example, which work extremely well in catching the attention of others an
d spreading awareness about the issue of globalization. There is also the spread
ing of information about the social movement through social media and word of mo
uth about NGOs, organizations and movement groups working to help alleviate the
effects of globalization. Websites such as Twitter and Facebook have become a us
eful outlet for people to become aware of what is going on around the globe, any
protests or tactics taking place and the progress of non-governmental organizat
ions aiding in these impoverished countries.
One of the most infamous tactics of the movement is the Battle of Seattle in 199
9, where there were protests against the World Trade Organization's Third Minist
erial Meeting.[295] It can be described as being a massive group of passionate,
grass roots people within the anti-globalization movement protesting against the
WTO s corporate rule. All over the world, the movement has held protests outside
meetings of institutions such as the WTO, the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
the World Bank, the World Economic Forum, and the Group of Eight (G8).[295] Wit
hin the Seattle demonstrations the protesters that participated used both creati
ve and violent tactics to gain the attention towards the issue of globalization.
It is still one of the most significant and memorable social movement protests
in the past 20 years.
Opposition to capital market integration[edit]
Main article: Anti-capitalist movements
World Bank Protester, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Capital markets have to do with raising and investing moneys in various human en
terprises. Increasing integration of these financial markets between countries l
eads to the emergence of a global capital marketplace or a single world market.
In the long run, increased movement of capital between countries tends to favor
owners of capital more than any other group; in the short run, owners and worker
s in specific sectors in capital-exporting countries bear much of the burden of
adjusting to increased movement of capital.[300] It is not surprising that these
conditions lead to political divisions about whether or not to encourage or inc
rease international capital market integration.
Those opposed to capital market integration on the basis of human rights issues
are especially disturbed by the various abuses which they think are perpetuated
by global and international institutions that, they say, promote neoliberalism w
ithout regard to ethical standards. This can also be referred to as corporate cap
italism , as previous mentioned, which are money driven organizations such as the
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, along with many of the popular a
nd competitive multinational corporations, like Nike and other institutions. Com

mon targets include the World Bank (WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trad
e Organization (WTO) and free trade treaties like the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), the Multilateral Agre
ement on Investment (MAI) and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).
In light of the economic gap between rich and poor countries, movement adherent
s claim "free trade" without measures in place to protect the under-capitalized
will contribute only to the strengthening the power of industrialized nations (o
ften termed the "North" in opposition to the developing world's "South"). Some o
f the powerful Northern corporations have implemented policies like privatizing
public industry and reducing tariffs. By doing this it has created a growth in s
weatshops in the developing world, where wages are minimal and unfair, and condi
tions are unsafe to the workers health and psychological state. The global North
can benefit from this by getting goods for a cheaper monetary amount. However, t
his is at the expense of these impoverished people and the community or country
as a whole. Now, fair trade has been introduced in order to attempt to rebuild t
he economies of third world countries by paying employees, who work to produce g
oods to be exported, a fair price for their efforts.[301]
Anti-corporatism and anti-consumerism[edit]
Main articles: Anti-corporatism and Anti-consumerism
Corporatist ideology, which privileges the rights of corporations (artificial or
juridical persons) over those of natural persons, is an underlying factor in th
e recent rapid expansion of global commerce.[302] In recent years, there have be
en an increasing number of books (Naomi Klein's 2000 No Logo, for example) and f
ilms (e.g. The Corporation & Surplus) popularizing an anti-corporate ideology to
the public.
A related contemporary ideology, consumerism, which encourages the personal acqu
isition of goods and services, also drives globalization.[303] Anti-consumerism
is a social movement against equating personal happiness with consumption and th
e purchase of material possessions. Concern over the treatment of consumers by l
arge corporations has spawned substantial activism, and the incorporation of con
sumer education into school curricula. Social activists hold materialism is conn
ected to global retail merchandizing and supplier convergence, war, greed, anomi
e, crime, environmental degradation, and general social malaise and discontent.
One variation on this topic is activism by postconsumers, with the strategic emp
hasis on moving beyond addictive consumerism.[304]
Global justice and inequality[edit]
Global justice[edit]
Main article: Global justice movement
Differences in national income equality around the world as measured by the nati
onal Gini coefficient, 2009
The global justice movement is the loose collection of individuals and groups ofte
n referred to as a "movement of movements" who advocate fair trade rules and perce
ive current institutions of global economic integration as problems.[305] The mo
vement is often labeled an anti-globalization movement by the mainstream media.
Those involved, however, frequently deny that they are anti-globalization, insis
ting that they support the globalization of communication and people and oppose
only the global expansion of corporate power.[306] The movement is based in the
idea of social justice, desiring the creation of a society or institution based
on the principles of equality and solidarity, the values of human rights, and th
e dignity of every human being.[307][308][309] Social inequality within and betw
een nations, including a growing global digital divide, is a focal point of the
movement. Many nongovernmental organizations have now arisen to fight these ineq
ualities that many in Latin America, Africa and Asia face. A few very popular an
d well known non-governmental organizations (NGOs) include: War Child, Red Cross
, Free The Children and CARE International. They often create partnerships where

they work towards improving the lives of those who live in third world countrie
s by building schools, fixing infrastructure, cleaning water supplies, purchasin
g equipment and supplies for hospitals, and other aid efforts.
The global digital divide: Computers per 100 people.
Social Inequality[edit]
Main articles: Social inequality and International inequality
The economies of the world have developed unevenly, historically, such that enti
re geographical regions were left mired in poverty and disease while others bega
n to reduce poverty and disease on a wholesale basis. From around 1980 through a
t least 2011, the GDP gap, while still wide, appeared to be closing and, in some
more rapidly developing countries, life expectancies began to rise.[310] If we
look at the Gini coefficient for world income, since the late 1980s, the gap bet
ween some regions has markedly narrowed between Asia and the advanced economies o
f the West, for example but huge gaps remain globally. Overall equality across hum
anity, considered as individuals, has improved very little. Within the decade be
tween 2003 and 2013, income inequality grew even in traditionally egalitarian co
untries like Germany, Sweden and Denmark. With a few exceptions France, Japan, Spa
in the top 10 percent of earners in most advanced economies raced ahead, while the
bottom 10 percent fell further behind.[311] By 2013, a tiny elite of multibilli
onaires, 85 to be exact, had amassed wealth equivalent to all the wealth owned b
y the poorest half (3.5 billion) of the world's total population of 7 billion. [
312]
Critics of globaliztion argue that globalization results in weak labor unions: t
he surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever growing number of companies in tr
ansition weakened labor unions in high-cost areas. Unions lose their effectivene
ss and workers their enthusiasm for unions when membership begins to decline.[28
1] They also cite an increase in the exploitation of child labor: countries with
weak protections for children are vulnerable to infestation by rogue companies
and criminal gangs who exploit them. Examples include quarrying, salvage, and fa
rm work as well as trafficking, bondage, forced labor, prostitution and pornogra
phy.[313]
Immigrant rights march for amnesty, Los Angeles, on May Day, 2006
Women often participate in the workforce in precarious work, including export-or
iented employment. Evidence suggests that while globalization has expanded women s
access to employment, the long-term goal of transforming gender inequalities re
mains unmet and appears unattainable without regulation of capital and a reorien
tation and expansion of the state s role in funding public goods and providing a s
ocial safety net.[314]
Anti-global governance[edit]
Main article: Global governance
Beginning in the 1930s, opposition arose to the idea of a world government, as a
dvocated by organizations such as the World Federalist Movement (WFM).[315] Thos
e who oppose global governance typically do so on objections that the idea is in
-feasible, inevitably oppressive, or simply unnecessary.[316] In general, these
opponents are wary of the concentration of power or wealth that such governance
might represent. Such reasoning dates back to the founding of the League of Nati
ons and, later, the United Nations.
Environmentalist opposition[edit]
Deforestation of the Madagascar Highland Plateau has led to extensive siltation
and unstable flows of western rivers.
Main article: Environmentalism
See also: Global warming, Climate change and Deforestation

Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology[317][318][319] and social movem

ent regarding concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the hea
lth of the environment. Environmentalist concerns with globalization include iss
ues such as global warming, climate change, global water supply and water crises
, inequity in energy consumption and energy conservation, transnational air poll
ution and pollution of the world ocean, overpopulation, world habitat sustainabi
lity, deforestation, biodiversity and species extinction.
Another concern is labelled "environmental apartheid",[320] which claims that th
e resources and wealth of society are typically appropriated by a small minority
group of a privileged race or class, under much protection. Thus, the excluded
majority never gets a chance to access to resources necessary for well-being and
survival. In the pre-Rio period, it was the North that contributed most to the
destruction of the environment. Globalization is restructuring control over reso
urces in such a way that the natural resources of the poor are systematically ta
ken over by the rich and the pollution promulgated by the rich is systematically
dumped on the poor.[321] For example, 90 percent of historic carbon dioxide emi
ssions have been by the industrialized countries. The developed countries produc
e 90 percent of the hazardous wastes produced around the world every year. Globa
l free trade has globalized this environmental destruction in an asymmetric patt
ern. Some argue the economy is controlled by Northern corporations and they are
increasingly exploiting resources of less wealthy countries for their global act
ivities while it is the South that is disproportionately bearing the environment
al burden of the globalized economy. Globalization is thus leading to a type of
environmental apartheid.[322]
Helena Norberg-Hodge, the director and founder of the International Society for
Ecology and Culture (ISEC), criticizes globalization in many ways. In her book A
ncient Futures, Norberg-Hodge claims that "centuries of ecological balance and s
ocial harmony are under threat from the pressures of development and globalizati
on." She also criticizes the standardization and rationalization of globalizatio
n, as it does not always yield the expected growth outcomes. Although globalizat
ion takes similar steps in most countries, scholars such as Hodge claim that it
might not be effective to certain countries, for globalization has actually move
d some countries backward instead of developing them.[323]
A related area of concern is the pollution haven hypothesis, which posits that,
when large industrialized nations seek to set up factories or offices abroad, th
ey will often look for the cheapest option in terms of resources and labor that
offers the land and material access they require (see Race to the bottom).[324]
This often comes at the cost of environmentally sound practices. Developing coun
tries with cheap resources and labor tend to have less stringent environmental r
egulations, and conversely, nations with stricter environmental regulations beco
me more expensive for companies as a result of the costs associated with meeting
these standards. Thus, companies that choose to physically invest in foreign co
untries tend to (re)locate to the countries with the lowest environmental standa
rds or weakest enforcement.
Key journals[edit]
Main article: List of globalization-related journals
Key academic journals examining globalization include:
Antipode
Development and Change
Economic Geography
Globalizations
Global Society (journal)
Globalization and Health
Glocalism: Journal of Culture, Politics and Innovation
Journal of World-Systems Research

World Development
See also[edit]
Library resources about
Globalization
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Portal icon
Globalization portal
Anti-globalization
Civilizing mission
Columbian Exchange
Cosmopolitanism
Cultural globalization
Deglobalization
Development criticism
Dimensions of globalization
Economic union
Global civics
Global citizenship
Global commons
Globalism
Global public goods
Global studies
Global village
Interdependence
Internationalization
List of economic communities
List of free trade agreements
Middle East and globalization
Neorealism (international relations)
New World Order (conspiracy theory)
North-South divide
Outline of globalization
Purple economy
Technocapitalism
Transnational cinema
Transnational citizenship
Triadization
United Nations Millennium Declaration
Vermeer's Hat
World Englishes
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Al-Rodhan, R.F. Nayef and Grard Stoudmann. (2006). Definitions
of Globalization: A Comprehensive Overview and a Proposed Definition.
^ Jump up to: a b Albrow, Martin and Elizabeth King (eds.) (1990). Globalization
, Knowledge and Society London: Sage. ISBN 978-0803983243 p. 8. "...all those pr
ocesses by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world s
ociety."
Jump up ^ Stever, H. Guyford (1972). "Science, Systems, and Society." Journal of
Cybernetics, 2(3):1 3. doi:10.1080/01969727208542909
^ Jump up to: a b Frank, Andre Gunder. (1998). ReOrient: Global economy in the A
sian age. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520214743
Jump up ^ "Globalization and Global History (p.127)". Retrieved 3 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Google Books Ngram Viewer: Globalization
^ Jump up to: a b c International Monetary Fund . (2000). "Globalization: Threat
s or Opportunity." 12th April 2000: IMF Publications.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bridges, G. (2002). "Grounding Globalization: The Prospects
and Perils of Linking Economic Processes of Globalization to Environmental Outco
mes". Economic Geography 78 (3): 361 386. doi:10.2307/4140814.
^ Jump up to: a b c d O'Rourke, Kevin H. and Jeffrey G. Williamson. (2000). "Whe

n Did Globalization Begin?" NBER Working Paper No. 7632.

heritage sites
Oral history
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Evergreen Protective Association volunteer recording an oral history at Greater
Rosemont History Day.
Oral history is the collection and study of historical information about individ
uals, families, important events, or everyday life using audiotapes, videotapes,
or transcriptions of planned interviews. These interviews are conducted with pe
ople who participated in or observed past events and whose memories and percepti
ons of these are to be preserved as an aural record for future generations. Oral
history strives to obtain information from different perspectives and most of t
hese cannot be found in written sources. Oral history also refers to information
gathered in this manner and to a written work (published or unpublished) based
on such data, often preserved in archives and large libraries.[1][2][3][4]
The term is sometimes used in a more general sense to refer to any information a
bout past events that people who experienced them tell anybody else,[5][6] but p
rofessional historians usually consider this to be oral tradition. However, as t
he Columbia Encyclopedia[1] explains:
Primitive societies have long relied on oral tradition to preserve a record of t
he past in the absence of written histories. In Western society, the use of oral
material goes back to the early Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides, both
of whom made extensive use of oral reports from witnesses. The modern concept o
f oral history was developed in the 1940s by Allan Nevins and his associates at
Columbia University.
Contents [hide]
1 In modern times
2 In Britain and Northern Ireland
3 In the United States
3.1 Elite studies
3.2 Folklore roots and ordinary people
4 In the Middle East
4.1 In Kurdistan
4.2 The Jews of Kurdistan: the creation of new sets of records on the Jews and t
he Kurds
5 In post-dictatorships
5.1 Czech oral history
5.1.1 Projects
5.2 In Italy
5.3 In Spain
6 Methods
7 Legal interpretation and relationship to historical truth
8 Organization
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
12.1 World War II
12.2 Vietnam War
12.3 Organizations
12.4 Technical
In modern times[edit]
Oral history has become an international movement in historical research. Oral h
istorians in different countries have approached the collection, analysis, and d

issemination of oral history in different modes. However, it should also be note

d that there are many ways of creating oral histories and carrying out the study
of oral history even within individual national contexts.
In the words of the Columbia Encyclopedia:[1]
The discipline came into its own in the 1960s and early 70s when inexpensive tap
e recorders were available to document such rising social movements as civil rig
hts, feminism, and anti Vietnam War protest. Authors such as Studs Terkel, Alex Ha
ley, and Oscar Lewis have employed oral history in their books, many of which ar
e largely based on interviews. In another important example of the genre, a mass
ive archive covering the oral history of American music has been compiled at the
Yale School of Music. By the end of the 20th cent. oral history had become a re
spected discipline in many colleges and universities. At that time the Italian h
istorian Alessandro Portelli and his associates began to study the role that mem
ory itself, whether accurate or faulty, plays in the themes and structures of or
al history. Their published work has since become standard material in the field
, and many oral historians now include in their research the study of the subjec
tive memory of the persons they interview.
In Britain and Northern Ireland[edit]
Since the early 1970s, oral history in Britain has grown from being a method in
folklore studies (see for example the work of the School of Scottish Studies in
the 1950s) to becoming a key component in community histories. Oral history cont
inues to be an important means by which non-academics can actively participate i
n the compilation and study of history. However, practitioners across a wide ran
ge of academic disciplines have also developed the method into a way of recordin
g, understanding, and archiving narrated memories. Influences have included wome
n's history and labour history.
In Britain the Oral History Society has played a key role in facilitating and de
veloping the use of oral history. A more complete account of the history of oral
history in Britain and Northern Ireland can be found at "Making Oral History" o
n the Institute of Historical Research's website.[7]
During 1998 and 1999, forty BBC local radio stations recorded personal oral hist
ories from a broad cross-section of the population for the series The Century Sp
eaks. The result was 640 half-hour radio documentaries, broadcast in the final w
eeks of the millennium, and one of the largest single oral history collections i
n Europe, the Millennium Memory Bank (MMB). The interview based recordings are h
eld by the British Library Sound Archive in the oral history collection.[8]
In one of the largest memory project anywhere, The BBC in 2003-6 invited its aud
iences to send in recollections of the homefront in the Second World War. It put
47,000 of the recollections online, along with 15,000 photographs.[9]
In the United States[edit]
Elite studies[edit]
In 1948, Allan Nevins, a Columbia University historian, established the Columbia
Oral History Research Office, with a mission of recording, transcribing, and pr
eserving oral history interviews. The Regional Oral History Office was founded i
n 1954 as a division of the University of California, Berkeley's Bancroft Librar
y.[10] In 1967, American oral historians founded the Oral History Association, a
nd British oral historians founded the Oral History Society in 1969. There are n
ow numerous national organizations and an International Oral History Association
, which hold workshops and conferences and publish newsletters and journals devo
ted to oral history theory and practices.
Oral history began with a focus on national leaders in the United States,[11] bu
t has expanded to include groups representing the entire population. In Britain,

the influence of 'history from below' and interviewing people who had been 'hid
den from history' was more influential. However, in both countries elite oral hi
story has emerged as an important strand. Scientists, for example, have been cov
ered in numerous oral history projects. Doel (2003) discusses the use of oral in
terviews by scholars as primary sources, He lists major oral history projects in
the history of science begun after 1950. Oral histories, he concludes, can augm
ent the biographies of scientists and help spotlight how their social origins in
fluenced their research. Doel acknowledges the common concerns historians have r
egarding the validity of oral history accounts. He identifies studies that used
oral histories successfully to provide critical and unique insight into otherwis
e obscure subjects, such as the role scientists played in shaping US policy afte
r World War II. Interviews furthermore can provide road maps for researching arc
hives, and can even serve as a fail-safe resource when written documents have be
en lost or destroyed.[12] Launius (2003) shows the huge size and complexity of T
he National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) oral history program sin
ce 1959. NASA systematically documented its operations through oral histories. T
hey can help to explore broader issues regarding the evolution of a major federa
l agency. The collection consists primarily of oral histories conducted by schol
ars working on books about the agency. Since 1996, however, the collection has a
lso included oral histories of senior NASA administrators and officials, astrona
uts, and project managers, part of a broader project to document the lives of ke
y agency individuals. Launius emphasizes efforts to include such less-well-known
groups within the agency as the Astrobiology Program, and to collect the oral h
istories of women in NASA.[13]
Folklore roots and ordinary people[edit]
Contemporary oral history involves recording or transcribing eyewitness accounts
of historical events. Some anthropologists started collecting recordings (at fi
rst especially of Native American folklore) on phonograph cylinders in the late
19th century. In the 1930s, the Federal Writers' Project part of the Works Progres
s Administration (WPA) sent out interviewers to collect accounts from various grou
ps, including surviving witnesses of the Civil War, slavery, and other major his
torical events.[14] The Library of Congress also began recording traditional Ame
rican music and folklore onto acetate discs. With the development of audio tape
recordings after World War II, the task of oral historians became easier.
In 1946, David P. Boder, a professor of psychology at the Illinois Institute of
Technology in Chicago, traveled to Europe to record long interviews with "displa
ced persons" most of them Holocaust survivors. Using the first device capable of c
apturing hours of audio the wire recorder Boder came back with the first recorded Ho
locaust testimonials and in all likelihood the first recorded oral histories of
significant length.[15]
Many state and local historical societies have oral history programs. Sinclair K
opp (2002) report on the Oregon Historical Society's program. It began in 1976 w
ith the hiring of Charles Digregorio, who had studied at Columbia with Nevins. T
housands of sound recordings, reel-to-reel tapes, transcriptions, and radio broa
dcasts have made it one of the largest collections of oral history on the Pacifi
c Coast. In addition to political figures and prominent businessmen, the Oregon
Historical Society has done interviews with minorities, women, farmers, and othe
r ordinary citizens, who have contributed extraordinary stories reflecting the s
tate's cultural and social heritage. Hill (2004) encourages oral history project
s in high school courses. She demonstrates a lesson plan that encourages the stu
dy of local community history through interviews. By studying grassroots activis
m and the lived experiences of its participants, her high school students came t
o appreciate how African Americans worked to end Jim Crow laws in the 1950s.
Naison (2005) describes the Bronx African I AM BLACK MAN American History Projec
t, an oral community history project developed by the Bronx County Historical So
ciety. Its goal was to document the histories of black working- and middle-class

residents of the South Bronx neighborhood of Morrisania in New York City since
the 1940s.[16]
In the Middle East[edit]
In Kurdistan[edit]
One of the problems faced by scholars and historians who have been studying the
Kurds and Kurdistan is the lack of written and archival sources regarding the Ku
rdish society. This problem was even more severe during most of the 20th century
. In part, it originated in the language ban and other linguistic restrictions i
mposed on the use, teaching, writing and the printing in Kurdish alphabets langu
age and dialects, by the regimes and the states in which boundaries the Kurds ha
ve been living as minorities. This is why scholarls such as Martin Van Bruinesse
n, who wrote an important book on the Kurdish society, resorted to oral history,
besides using the available written documents.[17]
The Jews of Kurdistan: the creation of new sets of records on the Jews and the K
urds[edit]
In Israel, scholars and historians of the Jews in Arab and Islamic countries had
to resort often to oral history methodology, because the data on the history of
the Jews in Arab and Islamic countries was either missing or inaccsesible. The
severe dearth of written and archival sources on the Jews and the Kurds drove mo
rdechai (Moti) Zaken, an Israeli scholar interested in the Jewish-Muslim relatio
ns in Kurdistan, to resort to oral history fieldwork. Between 1985 and 2002, Zak
en interviewed more than sixty elderly Jews, altogether conducting hundreds of i
nterviews, thus saving their memoirs from being lost forever. His study unveils
new sources, reports and vivid tales that form a new set of historical records o
n the Jews and the tribal society in Kurdistan.[18] The comparative study of Mor
dechai Zaken, on the Jews and the Assyrian Christians and their Muslim rulers an
d chieftains, also known as aghas, during the 19th and 20th centuries, was prais
ed by members of the PhD judicial committee,[19] and the same with his book, pub
lished in 2007.reviews on the book His book has been widely spread and has been
translated into several languages, including Arabic,[20] Kurmanji,[21] Sorani, F
rench[22] and Farsi.
In post-dictatorships[edit]
Czech oral history[edit]
Czech oral history (likewise the oral history applied in others so called post c
ommunist countries) did not experience that building period in 1960s and 1970s,
partly at the beginning in 1980s, where in the world is spoken about social move
ment more than a method. With knowledge of the thing I can say that this develop
ment was in its beginning probably necessary and well- founded. Understandable (
in its beginning) was also some political activism. In 1970s and 1980s in Czech
Republic (similarly in other countries of so-called socialist block) was OH abso
lutely unknown. History and historians did not know about it. Isolate attempts t
o invite witnesses for scientific project ended without accomplishment (ideologi
cal task, guiltlessness of method, imperfect technique, etc.). Hypothetically, i
f the OH had been discovered earlier for Czech historians, it could have acted p
ositive and surely combative activist role (as A. Freund. P. Thomson and many ot
hers speak about it) like in other authoritative regimes. It could have aimed at
enquiry of proscribe groups: dissent or prisoners of conscience. To cognate res
earch or any other allusion about just mentioned groups of fellow
citizen was un
til 1989 totally avoided by communist historiography. Oral History was for the f
irst time used in the mid 1990s but we can speak about some kind of progress for
past six years, as Sean Field speaks about it, when it has transformed from dis
regard and criticized to possibly respect. In last three years one can even spea
k about boom of Oral History.[23] In 2000, The Oral History Center (COH) at the
Institute of Contemporary History, Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic (AV CR) w
as established.[24]
Projects[edit]

Students in the Period of the Fall of Communism - Life Stories , published as the
book One Hundred Student Revolutions by M. Vanek and M. Othal(1999), was funded b
y the Grant Agency AV CR. The project Political Elites and Dissidents during the
Period of So-called Normalization - Historical Interviews was funded by the GA CR
and resulted in two publications: Victors? Vanquished(2005), a two-volume colle
ction of 50 exemplary interviews; and a compilation of original interpretive ess
ays entitled The Powerful?! or Helpless?! These publications demonstrate that or
al history can contribute greatly to our understanding of many interesting field
s in human lives and history itself, such as the motives behind the dissidents'
activities, the formation of opposition groups, communication between dissidents
and state representatives and the emergence of ex-communist elites and their de
cision-making processes. An Investigation into Czech Society during the Normalizat
ion Era: Biographic Narratives of Workers and the Intelligentsia (funded by the Gr
ant Agency AV CR). The book of interpretations (called "Ordinary People...?!")(2
009). All oral history centers in the Czech Republic emphasize educational activ
ities (seminars, lectures, conferences), archiving and maintaining interview col
lections, and providing consultations to those interested in the method.[24]
In Italy[edit]
Alessandro Portelli is an Italian oral historian. He is known for his work which
compared workers' experiences in Harlan County, Kentucky and Terni, Italy. Othe
r oral historians have drawn on Portelli's analysis of memory, identity, and the
construction of history.
In Spain[edit]
Because of repression during the Franco dictatorship (1939 75), the development of
oral history in Spain was quite limited until the 1970s. It became well-develop
ed in the early 1980s, and often had a focus on the Civil War years (1936 39), esp
ecially regarding the losers whose stories had been suppressed. The field was ba
sed at the University of Barcelona. Professor Mercedes Vilanova was a leading ex
ponent, and combined it with her interest in quantification and social history.
The Barcelona group sought to integrate oral sources with traditional written so
urces to create mainstream, not ghettoized, historical interpretations. They sou
ght to give a public voice to neglected groups, such as women, illiterates, poli
tical leftists, and ethnic minorities.[25]
Methods[edit]
Historians, folklorists, anthropologists, sociologists, journalists, linguists,
and many others employ some form of interviewing in their research. Although mul
ti-disciplinary, oral historians have promoted common ethics and standards of pr
actice, most importantly the attaining of the informed consent of those being inte
rviewed. Usually this is achieved through a deed of gift, which also establishes
copyright ownership that is critical for publication and archival preservation.
Oral historians generally prefer to ask open-ended questions and avoid leading q
uestions that encourage people to say what they think the interviewer wants them
to say. Some interviews are life reviews, conducted with people at the end of the
ir careers. Other interviews focus on a specific period or a specific event in p
eople's lives, such as in the case of war veterans or survivors of a hurricane.
Feldstein (2004) considers oral history to be akin to journalism, Both are commi
tted to uncovering truths and compiling narratives about people, places, and eve
nts. Felstein says each could benefit from adopting techniques from the other. J
ournalism could benefit by emulating the exhaustive and nuanced research methodo
logies used by oral historians. The practice of oral historians could be enhance
d by utilizing the more sophisticated interviewing techniques employed by journa
lists, in particular, the use of adversarial encounters as a tactic for obtainin
g information from a respondent.[26]
The first oral history archives focused on interviews with prominent politicians

, diplomats, military officers, and business leaders. By the 1960s and '70s, inf
luenced by the rise of new social history, interviewing began to be employed mor
e often when historians investigated history from below. Whatever the field or f
ocus of a project, oral historians attempt to record the memories of many differ
ent people when researching a given event. Interviewing a single person provides
a single perspective. Individuals may misremember events or distort their accou
nt for personal reasons. By interviewing widely, oral historians seek points of
agreement among many different sources, and also record the complexity of the is
sues. The nature of memory both individual and community is as much a part of the pr
actice of oral history as are the stories collected.
Legal interpretation and relationship to historical truth[edit]
In 1997 the Supreme Court of Canada, in the Delgamuukw v. British Columbia trial
, ruled that oral histories were just as important as written testimony. Of oral
histories, it said "that they are tangential to the ultimate purpose of the fac
t-finding process at trial the determination of the historical truth."
Writers who use oral history have often discussed its relationship to historical
truth. Gilda O'Neill writes in Lost Voices, an oral history of East End hop-pic
kers: "I began to worry. Were the women's, and my, memories true or were they ju
st stories? I realised that I had no 'innocent' sources of evidence - facts. I h
ad, instead, the stories and their tellers' reasons for remembering in their own
particular ways.'[27] Duncan Barrett, one of the co-authors of The Sugar Girls
describes some of the perils of relying on oral history accounts: "On two occasi
ons, it became clear that a subject was trying to mislead us about what happened
telling a self-deprecating story in one interview, and then presenting a differ
ent, and more flattering, version of events when we tried to follow it up. [...]
often our interviewees were keen to persuade us of a certain interpretation of
the past, supporting broad, sweeping comments about historical change with speci
fic stories from their lives."[28] Alessandro Portelli argues that oral history
is valuable nevertheless: "it tells us less about events as such than about thei
r meaning [...] the unique and precious element which oral sources force upon th
e historian [...] is the speaker's subjectivity."[29]
Regarding the accuracy of oral history, Jean-Loup Gassend concludes in the book
Autopsy of a Battle "I found that each witness account can be broken down into t
wo parts: 1) descriptions of events that the witness participated in directly, a
nd 2) descriptions of events that the witness did not actually participate in, b
ut that he heard about from other sources. The distinction between these two par
ts of a witness account is of the highest importance. I noted that concerning ev
ents that the witnesses participated in, the information provided was surprising
ly reliable, as was confirmed by comparison with other sources. The imprecision
or mistakes usually concerned numbers, ranks, and dates, the first two tending t
o become inflated with time. Concerning events that the witness had not particip
ated in personally, the information was only as reliable as whatever the source
of information had been (various rumors); that is to say, it was often very unre
liable and I usually discarded such information."[30]
Organization[edit]
National and international organizations promote scholarship in the field. The O
ral History Review[31] is a scholarly journal begun in 1974. The Oral History Jo
urnal in Britain was established two years before the Review.[32] H-ORALHIST is
an H-Net Discussion Network established in 2006.[33] It works by email and knits
together an international network of researchers interested in creating and usi
ng oral history. Its daily email reach 3400 subscribers with discussions of curr
ent projects, teaching methods, and the state of historiography in the field. HORALHIST is especially interested in methods of teaching oral history to graduat
e and undergraduate students in diverse settings. H-ORALHIST publishes syllabi,
outlines, handouts, bibliographies, tables of contents of journals, guides to te
rm papers, listings of new sources, library catalogs and archives, and reports o

n new software, datasets, and other materials. H-ORALHIST posts announcements of

conferences, fellowships, and jobs. It also carries information about new books
and commissions book reviews.
See also[edit]
National Day of Listening
Oral history preservation
Oral tradition
Regional Oral History Office (ROHO), Bancroft Library, University of California,
Berkeley
Louie B. Nunn Center for Oral History, University of Kentucky Libraries
Southern Oral History Program, University of North Carolina
Baylor University Institute for Oral History
Samuel Proctor Oral History Program, University of Florida
StoryCorps
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Article on oral history from the Columbia Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ Definition of oral history from the Online Dictionary for Library and
Information Science
Jump up ^ Definition of oral history from the American Heritage Dictionary
Jump up ^ Definition of oral history from the Oxford Online Dictionaries
Jump up ^ Definition of oral history from the Macmillan Dictionary
Jump up ^ Definition of oral history from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dicti
onary
Jump up ^ "Making Oral History". Institute of Historical Research.
Jump up ^ http://sounds.bl.uk/OralFurther reading[edit]
Charlton, Thomas L.; Myers, Lois E.; Sharpless, Rebecca, eds. (2007). History of
Oral History: Foundations and Methodology. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0230
-9.
Cruikshank, Julie. "Do Glaciers Listen? Local Knowledge, Colonial Encounters, &
Social Imagination." UBC Press, 2005. ISBN 0-7748-1187-0.
Doel, Ronald E. "Oral History of American Science: a Forty-year Review." History
of Science 2003 41(4): 349-378. Issn: 0073-2753 Fulltext: Ebsco
Feldstein, Mark. "Kissing Cousins: Journalism and Oral History." Oral History Re
view 2004 31(1): 1-22. Issn: 0094-0798 Fulltext: online at History Cooperative,
University of California Journals, SwetsWise, and Ebsco
Grele, Ronald J. et al. Envelopes of Sound: The Art of Oral History Praeger Publ
ishers, 1991 online edition
Hill, Iris Tillman. "Community Stories: a Curriculum for High School Students."
Magazine of History 2004 18(2): 43-45. Issn: 0882-228x Fulltext: in Ebsco
Hoopes, James. Oral History: An Introduction for Students U of North Carolina Pr
ess, 1979. online edition
Kelin, Daniel, II. To Feel as Our Ancestors Did: Collecting and Performing Oral
Histories. Heinemann, 2005. 200 pp.
Launius, Roger D. "'We Can Lick Gravity, but Sometimes the Paperwork Is Overwhel
ming': NASA , Oral History, and the Contemporary Past." Oral History Review 2003
30(2): 111-128. Issn: 0094-0798 Fulltext: in University of California Journals,
Swetswise and Ebsco
Leavy, Patricia (2011). Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539509-9.
Naison, Mark. "The Bronx African American History Project." OAH Newsletter 2005
33(3): 1, 14. Issn: 1059-1125 Fulltext: at Oah Newsletter and Ebsco
Ritchie, Donald A. (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Oral History. Oxford Universit
y Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533955-0.
Sommer, Barbara W.; Quinlan, Mary Kay (2009). The Oral History Manual (2 ed.). A
ltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-1157-8.
Sinclair, Donna and Kopp, Peter. "Voices of Oregon: Twenty-five Years of Profess
ional Oral History at the Oregon Historical Society." Oregon Historical Quarterl
y 2002 103(2): 250-263. Issn: 0030-4727

Stokes, Cynthia (2000). Like It Was: A Complete Guide to Writing Oral History. T
eachers & Writers Collaborative. ISBN 978-0-915924-12-7.
Tomes, Nancy. "Oral History In The History Of Medicine." Journal of American His
tory 1991 78(2): 607-617. ISSN: 0021-8723 online in Jstor and Ebsco
Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History (University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), f
ocus on Africa
Vilanova, Mercedes. "International Oral History," History Workshop Journal (1995
) No. 39 pp. 67 70 in JSTOR; by a leader of the Oral History movement in Spain
External links[edit]
From the British Library:
Food Stories - Food-related oral history recordings from the BL Sound Archive
Oral history collections and activities, including National Life Stories
From the US Government:
Oral History of the US House of Representatives
US Senate Oral History Project
From Academia:
Oral History in the Digital Age at Michigan State University (East Lansing, Mich
igan)
African American Oral History Collection at University of Louisville (Louisville
, Kentucky)
Romano L. Mazzoli Oral History Collection at University of Louisville (Louisvill
e, Kentucky)
Canadian Military Oral History Collection at University of Victoria, Special Col
lections
American Century Oral History Project at St. Andrew's Episcopal School is one of
the largest pre-collegiate oral history projects and archives in the US
Over 600 oral histories of combat veterans, from the Witness to War Foundation (
non-profit)
In the First Person - index of 2,500+ collections of international oral historie
s in English
Oral history in the teaching of US History
NYC records from Sept. 11 - includes more than 12,000 pages of oral histories as
told by 503 firefighters, paramedics, and emergency medical technicians
The HistoryMakers: African American Video Oral History Archive (non-profit)
FirstPersonUSA.org - a project of citizen historians concerned with preserving t
he memories of ordinary Americans
Voices Through Corridors - Oral History accounts of hospital patients and staff
in Walsall
World War II[edit]
Rosie the Riveter / World War II Home Front Oral History Project Collection of o
ral histories with women and men living and working on the U.S. home front durin
g WWII Regional Oral History Office and National Park Service
WWII: Alabama Remembers Documentary produced by Alabama Public Television
Georgia World War II Oral History Project Documentary produced by Georgia Public
Broadcasting
Idaho Homefront: WWII Documentary produced by Idaho Public Television
Iowa's WWII Stories Documentary produced by Iowa Public Television
Oregon at War Oral History Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting
Recollections of WWII - Directory of United Kingdom Oral History Collections Rel
ating to WWII
World War II Prairie Memories (1/3) Oral History Documentary produced by Prairie
Public Television
376th Heavy Bombardment Group Oral Histories from the Ball State University Digi
tal Media Repository
Vietnam War[edit]
Vietnam War Stories Documentary produced by Public Broadcasting System
Wisconsin Vietnam War Stories - Part 1: Escalation Documentary produced by Wisco
nsin Public Television
Wisconsin Vietnam War Stories - Part 2: Turning Point Documentary produced by Wi
sconsin Public Television

Wisconsin Vietnam War Stories - Part 3: Draw Down Documentary produced by Wiscon
sin Public Television
Utah Vietnam War Stories: Escalation Documentary produced by KUED
Vietnam War Era Veterans Oral Histories from the Ball State University Digital M
edia Repository
Organizations[edit]
H-ORALHIST is an H-Net Discussion Network (or edited Blog) established in 2006
Centre for Oral History and Digital Storytelling - Concordia University
The Australian Centre for Oral History
Oral History Association of Australia
Institut d'histoire du temps prsent (French)
Oral History Centre (Singapore)
Pritzker Military Library's Stories of Service collects and records first-hand acc
ounts from veterans and citizens involved in military efforts
Technical[edit]
Oral History in the Digital Age at Michigan State University (East Lansing, Mich
igan)
Digital Omnium: Oral History, Archives and Digital Technology by Doug Boyd
Digital Audio and Portable Recorders: The Basics by Doug Boyd
General principles and best practices for oral history
Ddalo Project - Open software platform for management of intangible cultural heri
tage and oral history
Advice on how to conduct oral history interviewing from the East Midlands Oral H
istory Archive
"Ask Doug" resource for choosing a digital audio recorder, Oral History in the D
igital Age
Testimony software from the Australian Centre for Oral History
The manual of analogue restoration techniques by Peter Copeland is designed to a
id audio engineers and audio archivists, and is available via the British Librar
y Sound Archive
"OHMS: enhancing Access to Oral History for Free" by Doug Boyd. Oral History Rev
iew Volume 40 Issue 1 Summer:Fall 2013, Oxford University Press
Categories: Oral communicationHistoriographyOral history
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