Answer Key

What are the four components of the digestive system.Motility, secretion, digestion, absorption

What is the difference between propulsive movements and mixing movements?

-propulsive movements push contents forwards through the digestive tract
-mixing movements mix food with digestive juices to promote digestion and absorption
What are the four major tissue layers of digestive tract?
-Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa

Describe the layers of the mucosa

1. Mucous membrane: highly folded. Contains exocrine gland cells that secrete digestive
juices. Endocrine gland cells hormones. And epithelial cells that are specialize for
absorption.
2. Lamina propria: house gut-associate lymphoid tissue (GALT)
3. Muscularis mucosa: smooth muscle
Describe submucosa: thick layer of connective tissue (elastin), blood and lymph vessels. Nerve
network (submucosal plexus)
Describe muscularis externa: smooth muscle consisting of circular inner layer and longitudinal
outer layer
Describe serosa: secretes serous fluid; lubricates and prevents friction between digestive organs
and surrounding viscera.

How are digestive motility and secretion regulated?

- intrinsic nerve plexuses, extrinsic nerves, gastrointestinal hormones stimulate smooth
muscle (contraction for motility), exocrine gland cells to secrete digestive juices, endocrine gland
cells to secrete gastrointestinal and pancreatic hormones

Describe digestive process:

Begins in the mouth. Teeth grind and break food into smaller pieces (making swallowing easier
and increase food surface area). Salivary amylase begins digestion of carboyhdrates, moistens
and lubricates, antibacterial lysozyme, solvent for molecules that stimulate taste buds.

Control of salivary secretion mechanism:

Pressure receptors and chemoreceptors in mouth and/or cerebral cortex stimulate salivary center
in medulla stimulates autonomic nerves stimulate salivary glands increase salivary
secretion

Swallowing reflex:
Swallowing center inhibits respiratory center in brain stem. Elevation of uvula prevents food from
entering nasal passages. Position of tongue prevents food from reentering mouth. Epliglottis is
pressed down over closed glottis as auxiliary mechanism to prevent food from entering airways.
Tight apposition of vocal folds across glottis prevents food from entering respiratory airways.

Phayngoesophageal sphincter--------prevents air from entering esophagus

Gastroesophageal sphincter--------prevents reflux of gastric contents
Pyloric sphincter-------barrier between stomach and duodenum
Three main functions of the stomach:
1. store food (takes place in body of stomach)
2. secrete HCl and enzymes that begin protein digestion
3. mixing movement to convert pulverized food to chime (takes place in antrum of stomach)
filling of stomach-----------triggered by act of eating, mediated by vagus nerve. Involves receptive
relaxation.
Gastric emptying (largely controlled by factors in the duodenum)
A peristaltic contraction originates in the upper fundus and sweeps down toward the
pyloric sphincter. The contraction becomes more vigorous as it reaches the thick-muscled
antrum. The strong antral peristaltic contraction propels the chime forward. A small
portion of chime is pushed through the partially open sphincter into the duodenum. The
stronger the antral contraction, the more chime is emptied with each contractile wave.
When the peristaltic contraction reaches the pyloric sphincter, the sphincter is tightly
closed and no further emptying takes place. When chime that was being propelled forward
hits the closed sphincter, it is tossed back into the antrum. Mixing of chime is
accomplished as chime is propelled forward and tossed back into the antrum with each
peristaltic contraction.

D cells--------secretes somatostatin
Parietal cells--------secretes hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
Chief cells-------secretes pepsinogen
Mucous cells-------secretes alkaline mucus
Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells--------secretes histamine

List five major function of hydrochloric acid in digestive process.

1. converts pepsinogen to pepsin
2. contributes to low pH (for optimal pepsin activity)

3. breakdown of connective tissue and muscle fibers

4. denatures protein
5. (along with salivary lysozyme) kills microorganisms ingested with food

Cephalic phase---------increased secretion of HCl and pepsinogen that occurs in response to

stimuli acting in the head (nose, mouth, brain)

Gastric phase-----food in stomach, presence of protein increases gastric secretions

Intestinal phase------inhibitory phase, shut off form duodenum

Mechanism for cephalic phase of gastric secretion: stimuli in the head (seeing, chewing, tasting,
swallowing food) stimulates vagus nerve stimulates intrinsic nerves and G cells. Intrinsic
nerves increase secretion of Ach - stimulates chief and parietal cells to increase gastric
secretion. G cells stimulate Gastrin and ECL cells to secrete histamine and increase gastric
secretions

Mechanism for gastric phase of gastric secretion: stimuli in the stomach (protein, distension,
caffeine, alcohol) stimulates vagus nerve stimulates intrinsic nerves and G cells. Intrinsic
nerves increase secretion of Ach - stimulates chief and parietal cells to increase gastric
secretion. G cells stimulate Gastrin and ECL cells to secrete histamine and increase gastric
secretions

How do the components of the gastric mucosal barrier enable the stomach to contain acid
without injuring itself? The luminal membranes of the gastric mucosal cells are impermeable to
H+ so that HCl cannot penetrate into the cells. The cells are joined by tight junctions that
prevent HCl from penetrating between them. A mucus coating over the gastric mucosa serves as
a physical barrier to acid penetration. The HCO3- rich mucus also serves as a chemical barrier
that neutralizes acid in the vicinity of the mucosa. Even when luminal pH is 2, the mucus pH is 7.

Islets of Langerhans (in pancreas)-------secrete insulin and glucagon

Proteolytic enzymes: Digest proteins

Trypsinogen - converted to active form trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen converted to active form chymotrysin
Procarboxypeptidase converted to active form carboxypeptidase

Pancreatic amylase: Breaks down polysaccharides

Pancreatic lipase:Only enzyme that can digest fat
Describe how the pancreas in controlled hormonally:
a. Acid in duodenal lumen stimulates duodenal mucosa to increase secretin secretin
carried by blood and stimulates pancreatic duct cells increase secretion of aqueous
NaHCO3 solution into duodenal lumen.
b. Fat and protein products in duodenal lumen stimulate duodenal mucosa to increase CCK
release (CCK carried by blood) stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to increase secretion of
pancreatic digestive enzymes into duodenal lumen.
Non-digestive functions of the liver:
1. metabolic processing of the major categories of nutrients
2.detoxifying hormones, drugs, and other foreign compounds
3. synthesizes plasma proteins
4. stores glycogen, fats, iron, copper, and many vitamins
5. activates Vitamin D
6. removes bacteria and worn-out red blood cells
7. excretes cholesterol and bilirubin

Describe blood flow in the liver: The liver receives blood from two sources:
1. Arterial blood (delivered by hepatic artery). Arterial blood provides the livers O2 supply
and carries blood-borne metabolites for hepatic processing.
2. Venous blood (carried by the hepatic portal vein). Venous blood draining the digestive
tract is carried to liver for processing and storage of newly absorbed nutrients.
**Blood leaves the liver via the hepatic vein
bile salts-----secreted by liver between meals. Stored in gallbladder, convert large fat globules
into a liquid emulsion.

Describe circulation of bile salts: Secreted bile salts consist of 95% old, recycled bile salts and 5%
newly synthesized bile salts. 95% of bile salts are reabsorbed by terminal ileum. Reabsorbed bile
salts are recycled by enterohepatic circulation. 5% of bile salts are lost in feces.

Small intestine------majority of digestion and absorption occurs here, particularly in the

duodenum and jejunum.

Intestinal secretions----------juice secreted by small intestine that does not contain any digestive
enzymes

Describe mechanism by which carbohydrates are absorbed: The dietary polysaccharides starch
and glycogen are converted into the disaccharide maltose through the action of salivary and
pancreatic amylase. Maltose and the dietary disaccharides (lactose, sucrose) are converted to
their respective monosaccharides by the disaccharides (maltase, lactase, sucrase) located in the
brush borders of the small-intestine epithelial cells. Glucose and galactose (monosacs) are
absorbed into the epithelial cells by Na+ and energy-dependent secondary active transport (via
the symporter SGLT) located at the luminal membrane. The monosaccharide fructose enters the
cell by passive facilitated diffusion via GLUT-5. Glucose, galactose, and fructose exit the cell at
the basal membrane by passive facilitated diffusion via GLUT-2. These monosaccharides enter
the blood by simple diffusion.

Describe how protein is absorbed: Dietary and endogenous proteins are hydrolyzed into their
constituent amino acids and a few small peptide fragments by gastric pepsin and the pancreatic
proteolytic enzymes. Many small peptides are converted into their respective amino acids by the
aminopeptidases located in the brush borders of the small-intestine epithelial cells. AAs are
absorbed into the epithelial cells by means of Na+ and energy-dependent secondary active
transport via a symporter. Various AAs are transported by carriers specific for them. Some small
peptides are absorbed by a different type of symporter driven by H+, Na+, and energydependent tertiary active transport. Most absorbed small peptides are broken down into their
AAs by intraceullular peptidases. AAs exit the cell at the basal membrane via various passive
carriers. AAs enter the blood by simple diffusion (a small percentage of di and tripeptides also
enter the blood intact).

Describe how dietary fat is absorbed: dietary fat (in form of large fat globules) is emulsified by
detergent action of bile salts into a suspension of smaller fat droplets (increases SA available
for attack by pancreatic lipase). Lipase hydrolyzes triglycerides into monglycerides and free fatty
acids. These water-insoluble products are carried to the luminal surface of the small-intestine
epithelial cells within water-soluble micelles, which are formed by bile salts and other bile
constituents. When a micelle approaches the absorptive epithelial surface, the monoglycerides
and faty acids leave the micelle and passively diffuse through the lipid bilayer of the luminal
membranes. The monoglycerides and the free fatty acids are resynthesized into triglycerides
inside the epithelial cells. These triglycerides aggregate and are coated with a layer of lipoprotein
from the ER to form water-soluble chylomicrons. Chlyomicrons are extruded through the basal
membrane of the cells by exocytosis. Chylomicrons are unable to cross the basement membrane
of the capillaries, so instead they enter the lymphatic vessels, the central lacteals.

Describe how iron is absorbed: only a portion of ingested iron is in a form that can be absorbed
(either heme iron or ferrous iron (Fe2+). Iron is absorbed across the luminal membrane of smallintestine epithelial cells by different energy-dependent carriers for heme and Fe2+. Dietary iron
that is absorbed into the SI epithelial cells and is immediately needed for RBC production is

transferred into the blood by ferroportin (membrane iron transporter). In the blood, the absorbed
iron is carried to the bone marrow bound to transferrin (plasma protein carrier). Absorbed dietary
iron that is not immediately needed is sotred in the epithelial cells as ferritin which cannot be
transferred into the blood. This unused iron is lost in the feces as the ferritin-containing epithelial
cells are sloughed. Dietary iron that was not absorbed is also lost in the feces.
Taeniae coli--------longitudinal bands of muscle in LI
Haustra ------------pouches or sacs; circular smooth muscle layer in LI
Haustral contractions ------------ main motility in LI
Large intestine---------------contains indigestible food residues, unabsorbed biliary components and
remaining fluid
Colon -------extracts more water and salt from contents of LI.
Feces-------what remains to be eliminated after colon
Gastrocolic reflex -------------mediated from stomach to colon by gastrin and by autonomic nerves;
most evident after first meal of the day, and is often followed by urge to defecate.
Defecation reflex ---------prescence of food in the stomach + presence of chime in the duodenum
stimulates mass movement in large intestine/colon stimulates local defecation reflexes and
parasympathetic controlled defecation reflexes causes internal anal sphincter to relax
rectum and sigmoid colon contract - external anal sphincter (voluntary control)
Peptide hormones and catecholamines are hydrophilic hormones
Steroids and thyroid hormone are lipophilic hormones
List six major functions of the endocrine system:
1. metabolism + salt/water balance
2. adaptation to stress
3. growth and development
4. control reproduction
5. RBC production
6. Control circulation and digestion integration
Pineal gland --------produces melanin; secretes melatonin; affects reproductive development and
daily physiologic cycles.
Melatonin ---------hormone of darkness; secretion falls to low levels during daylight; helps keep
bodys circadian rhyms in synchrony w/ light-dark cycle, promotes sleep, influences reproductive
activity (incl. onset of puberty), acts as antioxidant to remove free radicals, enhances immunity
Pituitary gland ------- produce HGH, ADH, and gonadotropins; controls growth of bones and
muscles, increases reabsorption of H2O in kidneys, and controls development of ovaries and
testes

Thyroid gland --------produces thyroxine; controls rate of metabolism and rate that glucose is used
up in respiration; promotes growth. Follicular cells; lumen filled with colloid serves as
extracellular storage site for thyroid hormone
C cell----secrete peptide hormone calcitonin
Adrenal gland ----------produces adrenaline; prepares the body for emergencies; increases heart
rate + depth of breathing, raises blood sugar level so more glucose is available for respiration,
diverts blood from gut to limbs
Pancreas ------------- produces insulin and glucagon; converts excess glucose into glycogen in liver,
convers glycogen back to glucose in liver
Ovaries -------produces estrogen and progesterone; controls ovulation and secondary sexual
characteristics, prepares the uterus lining for receiving an embryo
Testes ----------produce testosterone; control sperm production and secondary sexual
characteristics
Thymus -----------thymosin; promotes production and maturation of white blood cells
Tropic hormone----------regulates hormone secretion by another endocrine gland
Plasma concentration is determined by:
1. the hormone rate of secretion
2. rate of metabolic activation or conversion
3. transport
4. inactivation
5. excretion
posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)-----------lobe of hypothalamus; consists of nervous tissue
anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)------------lobe of hypothalamus; consists of glandular
epithelial tissue
paraventricular nucleus axons neuronal terminals in posterior pituitary posterior pituitary
oxytocin -------stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during breast feeding
TSH thyroid gland thyroid hormone (T3, T4) increased metabolic rate
ACTH adrenal cortex release cortisol metabolic actions; stress response
LH sex hormone secretion (estrogen in progesterone in females, testosterone in males)
FSH gamete production (ova in females, sperm in males)
Growth hormone liver IGF-1 stimulates growth in bone and soft tissue
Growth hormone adipose tissue, muscle, liver metabolic actions

Prolactin mammary glands breast growth and milk secretion

Neurosecretory neurons in the hypothalamus produce hypophysiotropic hormones (releasing and
inhibiting hormones) HPH enters the hypothalamic capillaries hypothalamic capillaries rejoin
to form the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system portal system branches into the
capillaries of the anterior pituitary HPH control the release of anterior pituitary hormones
anterior pituitary secretes a given hormone into these capillaries anterior pituitary capillaries
rejoin to form a vein, through which AP hormones leave for distribution throughout the body by
the systemic circulation
6 peptide hormones produced by anterior pituitary:
1. FSH
2. Luteinizing Hormone
3. ACTH
4. Growth Hormone
5. TSH
6. Prolactin
Factors that effect growth
1. Normal levels of growth-influencing hormones
2. genetic determination of an individuals maximum growth capacity
3. adequate diet
4. freedom from chronic disease and stressful environmental conditions
growth hormone ------promotes growth by stimulating livers production of somatomedins
Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) ---------acts directly on bone and soft tissues; stimulates protein
synthesis, cell division, and lengthening and thickening of bones
Exercise, stress, low blood glucose, diurnal rhythm hypothalamus growth-hormone releasing
hormone (GHRH) anterior pituitary secrete growth hormone liver IGF-1 increase cell
division, increase protein synthesis (decrease blood amino acids), increase bone growth. Growth
hormone also increases fat break down (increasing fatty acid concentration in blood), decreases
glucose uptake by muscles (increasing blood glucose), increases glucose output by liver
(increases blood glucose)
Hormones besides HGH that are essential for normal growth:
1. Thyroid hormone: growth severely stunted in kids with hypothyroidism; hypersecretion
does NOT cause excessive growth
2. Insulin: deficiency often blocks growth; hyperinsulinism often spurs excessive growth
3. Androgens: play role in pubertal growth spurt; stimulate protein synthesis in many organs
4. estrogens

Thyroid hormone negative feedback system:

feedback loop adrenal gland: stress + diurnal rhythm stimulate hypothalamus to release
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates anterior pituitary to release ACTH ACTH
stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol which increases blood glucose (by stimulating
gluconeogenesis and inhibiting glucose uptake), increase concentration of AA in blood (by
stimulating protein degradation), increasing fatty acid concentration in blood (by stimulating
lipolysis)
Integrated stress response feedback loop:
Stressor stimulates hypothalamus.
1. hypothalamus stimulates posterior pituitary to secrete vasopressin
2. hypothalamus releases CRH stim. Anterior pituitary to release ACTH stimulates
adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol
3. stressor stimulates hypothalamus stimulates sympathetic nervous system stimulates
adrenal medulaa to release epinephrine. Epi stimulates endocrine pancreas to release
glucagon and inhibit insulin. Epi also stimulates arteriolar smooth muscle
vasoconstriction decrease blood flow through kidneys activate RAAS

Glucose and Endocrine system: increase in blood glucose concentration (or increase in GI
hormones or elevated blood AA concentration) stimulates islet B cells to secrete insulin
decreases concentration of glucose, fatty acids, and AA in blood. Increases fuel storage and
protein synthesis.
List five functions of the skeleton:
1. support
2. protection of vital internal organs
3. Body movement (by giving attachment to muscles and providing leverage)
4. Manufacture of blood cells (bone marrow)
5. Storage for calcium and phosphate, which can be exchanged with the plasma to maintain
plasma concentrations of these electrolytes
Calcium regulation: (fast exchange) calcium is moved from the labile pool in the bone fluid into
the plasma by PTH-activated calcium pumps located in the osteocytic-osteoblastic bone
membrane. (slow exchange) calcium is moved from the stable pool in the mineralized bone into
the plasma through PTH-induced dissolution of the bone by osteoclasts
Mechanism for calcium regulation:
-decrease plasma calcium concentration stimulates parathyroid glands to release PTH
increase [plasma calcium]
-elevated plasma calcium concentration stimulates thyroid C cells to release calcitonin
decrease {plasma calcium}

Phosphate regulation: low phosphate concentration in plasma stimulates kidneys to release

activated vitamin D increase phosphate absorption in intestine concentration of phosphate
in plasma. Low phosphate concentration in plasma elevated plasma calcium concentration
decreases release of PTH by parathyroid glands increases phosphate reabsorption by kidneys
+ decreases urinary secretion of phosphate. Simultaneously decreases calcium reabsorption by
kidneys and increases urinary secretion of calcium.