Anatomy Chapter 36 Review

Growth and Development

Introduction
o Prenatal period- period beginning with conception (fertilization) and
ending at birth
o Postnatal period- period beginning with birth and continuing until
death
o Human Developmental biology- study of changes occurring during the
cycles of life from conception to death

A new Human Life

o Production of sex cells- spermatozoa are produced by
spermatogenesis (FSH); ova are produced by oogenesis
Meiosis
Special form of cell division that reduces the number of
chromosomes in each daughter cell to one half of those
in the parent cell (23 haploid) (46 diploid)
Mature ova and sperm contain only 23 chromosomes,
half as many as other human cells
Meiotic division- two cell divisions that occur one after
another in succession
o Meiotic division 1 and Meiotic division 2
o Both divisions made up of an interphase,
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
During prophase 1 of meiosis, crossover occurs in
which genetic material is shuffled
Spermatogenesis- process by which primitive male sex cells
become transformed into mature sperm; begins at
approximately puberty and continues throughout a mans life
Meiotic division 1- one primary spermatocyte forms
two secondary spermatocytes, each with 23
chromosomes
Meiotic division 2- each of the two secondary
spermatocytes forms a total of four spermatids
Oogenesis process by which primitive female sex cells
become transformed into mature ova.
Mitosis- oogenia reproduce to form primary oocytes;
most primary oocytes being meiosis and develop to
prophase 1 before birth; there they stay until puberty
Once during each menstrual cycle, a few primary
oocytes resume meiosis and migrate toward the surface
of the ovary; usually only one oocyte matures enough
for ovulation, and meiosis again halts at metaphase 2

Meiosis resumes only if the head of a sperm cells enters

the ovum

o Ovulation and inseminations

Ovulation- expulsion of the mature ovum form the mature
ovarian follicle, into the abdomenopelvic cavity, and then into
the uterine (fallopian) tube
Insemination- expulsion of seminal fluid from the male into the
female vagina; capacitation renders sperm able to fertilize;
sperm travel through the cervix and uterus and into the
uterine (fallopian) tube
o Fertilization- also known as conception beginning of life
Most often occurs in the outer one third of th uterine tube
Thermotaxis- sperm are attraced to warmth of uterine tubes
Chemotaxis- ovum attracts and traps sperm with special
molecules
Acrosome reaction permits he release of enzymes
23 chromosomes from the sperm head and 23 chromosomes in
the ovum make up a total of 46 chromosomes
Zygote- fertilizated ovum; genetically complete

Prenatal Period
o Begins with conception and continues until the birth of a child
o Cleavage and implantation- one zygote is formed, it immediately
begins to divide
Morula- sold mass of cells formed from zygote; takes
approximately 3 days; continues to divide
Blastocyst- a hollow ball of cells that develops b the time the
embryo reachers the uterus, where it implants into the uterine
lining
A store of nutrients in the ovum supports embryonic
development until implantation has occurred (approx. 10 days
form fertilization to implantation)
Blastocyst has an outer layer of cells and an inner cell mass
Trophoblast- outer wall of the blastocyst
Inner cell mass- as blastocyst develops, yolk sac and
amniotic cavity formed
o In humans, yolk sacs functions are largely nonnutritive
o Amniotic cavity becomes a fluid-filled, shockabsorbing sac (bag of waters) in which the
embryo floats during development
Chorion develops from trophoblast to become an
important fetal membrane in the placenta

Placenta Anchors fetus to the uterus and provides a bridge for

the exchange of nutrients and waste products between
mother and baby
Also serves as an excretory, respiratory, and endocrine
organ
Placental tissue normally separates material and fetal
blood supplies
Has important endocrine functions- secretes large
amounts of hCG, which stimulate the corpus luteum to
continue its secretion of estrogen and progesterone
Period of development
Gestation period- approx. 39 weeks; divided into three 3
month segments called trimesters
Embryonic phase extends from fertilization until the end of
week 8 of gestation
Fetal phase- weeks 9-39
Stem Cells
Stem cell- unspecialized cell that produces lines of specialized
cells has a certain level of potency (range of types it can
produce)
Totipotent stem cell- can produce any type of cell; found in
zygote
Pluripotent stem cell- embryonic stem cell that can produce a
broad range of cell types; found in embryonic germ layers
Multipotent stem cell- adult stem cell found in some tissues can
produce a few cell types and thus maintain functional
populations of specialized germ layers
Formation of primary
Each germ layers
Endoderm- inside layer (gi, resp, glands)
Ectoderm- outside layer (CNS, epididymus)
Mesoderm- middle layer (most organs, skeletal muscles,
parts of circulatory system)
Histogenesis & organogenesis
Histogenesis- process why which primary germ layers develop
into different kinds of tissues
Organogenesis- how tissues arrange themselves into organs

Birth or Parturition
o Transition between prenatal and postnatal periods of life
o Cortisol triggers labor by reducing hCG and thus also progesterone,
removing the brake on OT, which stimulates the uterine muscles to
produce labor contractions

o Stages of Labor
Stage One- period from onset of uterine contractions until
cervical dilation is complete
Stage Two- period from maximal cervical dilation until the
baby exits through the vagina
Stage Three- process of expulsion of the placenta through the
vagina
o Multiple births- birth of two or more infants from the same
pregnancy, twins are most common
Identical twins result from the splitting of embryonic tissue
from the same zygote early in development
Fraternal twins result from the fertilization of two different
ova by two different spermatozoa

Postnatal Period
o Begins at birth and continues until death; commonly divided into a
number of periods
o Infancy begins at birth and lasts until approximately 18 months
Neonatal Period- first 4 weeks of infancy, dramatic changes
occur at a rapid rate
Apgar score assesses general condition of a newborn infant
Criteria: HR, RR, muscle tone, skin color, response to
stimuli each one graded 0-2. Perfect score is a 10
o Childhood extends from end of infancy to sexual maturity, or puberty
Early childhood- growth continues at a rapid pace but monthto-month gains are less consistent
By age 6 years, child looks more like a preadolescent than an
infant or toddler
Nervous and muscular system develop rapidly during the
middle years childhood
Deciduous teeth are lost during child hood, beginning at
approximately 6 years of age
Permanent teth have erupted by age 14 years, except for the
third molars (wisdom teeth)
o Adolescence and adulthood
Adolescence is considered to be the teenage years (from 1319); marked by rapid and intense physical growth, resulting in
sexual maturity
Puberty- stage of adolescence during which a person
becomes sexually mature
Changes triggered by increases in reproductive
hormones
Primary sexual characteristics- maturation of gonads
and reproductive tract

Secondary sexual characteristics- fat and hair

distribution, skeletal changes, etc.
Adulthood- characterized by maintenance of existing body
tissues
o Older Adulthood and senescence (process of growing old)
As a person grows older, a gradual decline occurs in every
major organ system in the body
Gerontologists theorize a number of different aging
mechanisms, all of which may be involved in the processes of
aging
Limit on cell reproduction
Environmental factors
Viruses
Aging genes
Degeneration of mitochondria- perhaps associated with
progressive damage by oxygen free radicals

Effects of Aging
o Common degenerative changes frequently characterize senescence
o Skeletal System
Bones decrease in BMD
Decreased BMD can be avoided by exercise and adequate
calcium intake
o Muscular System
Muscle mass decreases by 10% by age 50 and 50% around age
80
The number of muscle fibers decreases as we age but can be
offset by an increase in muscle fiber size through exercise
Ratio of fast to slow functioning in muscle fibers decreases,
slowing the function of muscle organs
o Integumentary System
Skin becomes dry, thin and inelastic
Pigmentation changes and thinning hair are common problems
associated by aging
o Urinary System
Number of nephron units in the kidney decreases by almost
50% btwn the ages of 30 -75 years old
Diminished muscle tone in bladder results in decreased
capacity and inability to empty, or void, completely
o Respiratory System
Costal cartilages become calcified
o Cardiovascular System
Degenerative heart and blood vessel disease- one of the most
common and serious effects of aging

Atherosclerosis- buildup of fatty deposits on blood vessel walls

narrows the passageway for blood
Arteriosclerosis- hardening of the arteries
Hypertension- high blood pressure
o Special Senses
Presbyopia- farsightedness cause by hardening of lens
Cataract- cloudy lens, which impairs vision
Decreased hearing
Decreased taste & smell
o Reproductive System
In females, menopause occurs between ages 45 and 60 years
old

Causes of Death
o In developed countries such as the United States, hear disease, cancer
and stroke (CVA) are among the leading causes of death
o In developing countries, heart disease and stroke are also leading
causes of death along with infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS,
diarrheal disorders and malaria