Topic 1: lifestyle, health and risk

Explain the importance of water as a solvent in transport,

and its dipole nature.
Water is a polar molecule, it has an unevenly distributed electrical charge. It has a
formula, H20 which tells us that it contains an oxygen atom whereas 2 hydrogen atoms
to make up each water molecule. Each water molecule is slightly polarized. This means
that it has a very slight negative part- oxygen atom and very slight positive partshydrogen atoms. This separation of charge is called a dipole.
The slightly negative part of the water molecule will attract the slightly positive part of
the other water molecule in a weak electrostatic attraction called a hydrogen bond. This
means that the molecules of water stick together although the hydrogen bonds are
weak, there are great many if them. Water has a relatively high melting and boiling
points compared with other substances that have molecules of a similar size- it takes
more energy to overcome all the hydrogen bonds.
( polar molecule is a molecule with unequal distribution of electrical charge within
them)
Water is an unsual and excellent solvent. Many other substance will dissolve into it. The
fact that water molecule has a dipole means that many ionic substances like NACL ,
which are made uo of positive and negative ions, will dissolve in it. Polar substance (
compounds with covalent bonds but with small charges on different parts of the
molecule) will not usually dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol, but they will
dissolve in water. However, they can also carry many non-polar substances- chemicals
that donot form ions.
Many chemicals can dissolve easily in water, alowing vital reactions to occur in the
cytoplasm of the cells. Free to move around in an aqeous environment, the chemicals
can react, often with water itself being involved in the reaction. The dissolved
substances can also be transported around organisms, in animals via the blood and the
lymoh sysytems, and in plants through the xylem and the phloem.
The water molecule is amphoteric, that means it acts as a base aswell as an acid. It can
donate a proton as well as accept a proton. This property of water makes it an ideal
substance for the biochemical reactions occuring in the cells. It acts as a buffer, helping
to prevent reactions in progress from changing the pH inside the cell. Any H+ ions or
OH+ ions are mopped up.

Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and

polysaccharides. ( glycogen and starch and amylose and
amylopectin) and relate to their roles their structures in
providing and storing energy.
Carbohydrates are important in organisms as an energy source. Some are broken down
to provide usable energy in plant and animal cells while the others are important for
storing energy in the cells. The basic structure of all the carbohydrate is the same, they
are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
There are three main groups of carbohydrates and that are mono, di and poly
saccharides. The general formula for the carbohydrates is Cx(H20)n.
MONOSACCHARIDES:
They are the single sugar units.
Glucose, galactose, and fructose are all monosaccharides.
Monosaccharides are readily absorbed and so they provide a rapid source of energy.
They require very little or no change, in case of glucose before being used up in cellular
respiration.

STRUCTURE OF THE GLUCOSE

STRUCTURE OF GALACTOSE

STRUCTURE OF FRUCTOSE

DISACCHARIDES:
Disaccharides are sugars made up of two monosaccharide units joined together in a
condensation reaction. ( when the water molecule is removed). The linkage between
the two sugar units is known as glycosidic linkage or bond.
Common disaccharides found in food are sucrose, maltose and lactose.
M: glucose + glucose [maltose is found in germinating seeds such as barley]
L: glucose + galactose [lactose is the milk sugar, the main carbohydrate in the milk]

S: glucose + fructose [sucrose is found in plants such as sugar beet or sugar cane]

POLYSACCHARIDES:
Most complex of carbs are polysaccharides. They are made of many monosaccharide
units joined by glycosidic bonds as a result of many condensation reactions. They are
not sweet as the mono and disaccharides are.
[eating monosaccharide can cause a sudden rise in blood sugar level, so it is therefore
advised to eat more complex carbs such as polysaccharides that take time to be broken
down into mono and to be used up by the body ..this causes the mono to be released
slowly which as a result does not cause swings in blood sugar levels as does eating
monos directly.]
There are three main types of polysaccharide found in food, starch and cellulose in
plants whereas glycogen in animals.
Starch and glycogen act as storage molecules and therefore are used to store energy.
They are compact molecules with low solubility in water. This means that they do not
affect the concentration of water in the cytoplasm and so do not affect movement of
water in and out of the cell by osmosis.
It is compact which means that it does not take much of the space in the cell.
Starch is made up of two molecules, AMYLOSE and AMYLOPECTIN. Amylose is a straight
chain of glucose molecules with 1,4 glycosidic linkage. Position of the bond causes the
molecule to turn spiral in shape. Amylopectin is a branched polymer of glucose. It has
side branches. 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic linkage Is present here. These branching chains has
lots of terminal ends which means that they can be rapidly hydrolyzed when energy is
needed. Amylopectin in starch released energy very rapidly when required and
therefore is a good storage molecule. Amylose in starch releases energy over a longer
period of time keeping you going longer.
Glycogen like starch has many side branches and so it can be rapidly hydrolyzed when
energy is needed.

Hydrolysis reaction:
To be useful as an energy source carbohydrates need to be broken down into single sugars
for cells to use. This can be done by the process known as hydrolysis. This process/ reaction
is the opposite of the condensation reaction that formed the molecule, so water is added to
the bond. This splits up the chains into shorter and shorter chains. Hydrolysis can take place
during the digestion in the gut or when stored energy is required.

Describe the synthesis of triglyceride by the formation

of ester bonds during the condensation reactions
between glycerol and three fatty acids and recognize
the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty
acids.

Lipids are another group of macronutrients, organic chemicals that make up some of the
highest profile chemicals in health issues including oils, cholesterol, and fats such as butter.
Lipids contain more energy per gram than the carbs or the proteins. All lipids dissolve in
organic solvents but not in water and they therefore does not interfere with many waterbased reactions going on in the cytoplasm.
Fats and oils are two groups of lipids. Their structure is extremely similar but fats are solids
at room temperature whereas oils are liquids at room temperature. Lipids are made up of
three elements C, H , and O. fats and oils are made up of two kinds of organic chemicals,
fatty acid and glycerol.

This is a glycerol structure.

This is a fatty acid with and R group.

THEY REACT IN A CONDENSATION REACTION FORMING FATS AND OILS WITH ESTER
LINKAGE BETWEEN THEM. THIS TYOE OF CONDENSATION REACTION IS KNOWN AS
ESTERIFICATION.

Fatty acids can either be saturated or unsaturated.

In a saturated fatty acid each carbon is joined to the next one by single covalent bonds.
Here the hydrocarbon chain is long and straight. Animal fats from meat and dairy products
are major sources of saturated fatty acids.
In an unsaturated fatty acid the carbon chains have one or more double bonds in them. A
monosaturated fatty acid has a single double bond whereas a polyunsaturated fatty acid
has more than one double bonds in its chain. A double bond causes a kink in its chain and so
prevents the hydrocarbon chains packing together. The weaker intermolecular bonds
between unsaturated triglycerides results in oils that are liquid at room temperature.
CHOLESTROL:

Is a short lipid molecule.

Produces steroid sex hormones (progesterone and testosterone)
Produces growth hormones and bile salts (involved in lipid digestion and
assimilation).
Vital component of cell membranes with roles in their organization and functioning.
Made in liver from saturated fats.
Also obtained in our diets, found in eggs, meat and dairy products.

Like all lipids, cholesterol is not soluble in water. In order to be transported in to the blood
stream, insoluble cholesterol combines with proteins to form soluble lipoproteins.

There are two types of lipoproteins:

LDLS [Low density lipoproteins]: made up of proteins, triglycerides from saturated fats
and cholesterol. Have protein in low amount thats why low density lipoproteins. They
circulate in the blood stream and bind onto the receptor cells on cell membranes before
being taken up by the cells. Excess LDLs in the diet overload these membrane receptors,
resulting in high cholesterol levels. This cholesterol may be deposited in the arteries
forming atheroma.
HDLS [High density lipoproteins]: made up of proteins, cholesterol, and triglycerides
from unsaturated fats. Have a higher % of proteins compared with LDLS and hence high
density lipoproteins. They transport the cholesterol from the tissues to the liver where it
is broken down and so therefore help remove fatty plaques of atherosclerosis and
lowers the blood pressure.

Mono unsaturated fats are thought to help in the removal of LDLS in the blood whereas the
poly unsaturated fats are thought to increase the activity of receptor sites that take up LDLS so
that they are actively removed from the blood.
Therefore, it is desirable to maintain a higher level of HDLS and a lower level of LDLS.

Explain why many animals have a heart and

circulation(mass flow) to overcome limitations of diffusion
in meeting the requirements of organism.

Many animals have a heart and transport system to overcome the limitations of diffusion. For
diffusion to take place efficiently an organism must have a large surface area to volume ratio
which most of the organisms lack and therefore a heart and circulation enables them to carry
out exchange of gases and other nutrients very efficiently.
The heart and circulation have one primary purpose and that is to move substances around the
body. In very small organisms, such as unicellular creatures, substances can be exchanged by
diffusion because they have a large surface area to volume ratio. However, most organisms are
too large for diffusion to occur in their bodies quickly enough and so they usually own a heart
and a circulatory system to carry important substance around their bodies as fast as possible.
OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSYTEM:
A system in which there are no blood vessels and the blood is pumped from the heart in the
cavities surrounding the organs where diffusion can occur. When the heart muscle relaxes the
blood is being drawn back into the heart through small valve openings into its length.

CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:

Many animals, including all vertebrates have a closed circulatory system in which the blood is
enclosed within tubes. This generates higher blood pressure as the blood passes through
narrow channels instead of flowing into large cavities. This means the blood moves faster and
therefore this system is more efficient at delivering substances around the body.
SINGLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
Animals with closed circulatory system have either single or double circulation. Fish is one of
the organisms with single circulatory system.
The heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills where carbon dioxide is given out and oxygen
is taken in. the blood leaving the gills then flows around the whole body before eventually
returning with deoxy blood back to the heart where it is again pumped to the gills.
DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
Birds and mammals have double circulatory systems. In this system blood flows through the
heart twice for each complete circuit of the body. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated
blood to the lungs where gas exchange takes place. Then, the oxygenated blood from the lung
comes to the heart to be pumped AGAIN second time to the body. The heart gives blood
returning from the lungs an extra boost which reduces the time it takes for blood to flow
around the body, thus increasing the metabolic rate and making the organisms more active.
HOW DOES THE CIRCULATION WORK?
In a circulatory system all the substances in a liquid are transported in one direction in a
process known as mass flow. In animals, the transport medium is blood. The fluid plasma is
mainly water and contains dissolved substances. Cells are also carries in the blood. Blood also
plays a vital role in the regulation of body temperature, transferring energy around the body.

Describe the cardiac cycle (atrial and ventricular systole,

diastole) and relate the structure of the mammalian heart
to its function, including the major blood vessels.
THE HUMAN HEART

The human heart is not a single pump but two working in perfect synchrony. The right
side of the heart receives blood from the body and pumps it to lungs. The left side of the
heart receives blood from the lungs and pump it to the body. The blood on the right
does not mix with the blood on the left. The heart is made up of a muscle known as
cardiac muscle. This muscle can carry on contracting regularly without getting fatigued.

The inferior vena cava collects the blood that is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide
form the lower parts of the body while the superior vena cava receives the same blood
from the upper parts of the body. This blood is delivered to the right atrium.
The right atrium receives the blood from the great vena cava. As it fills with blood the,
pressure builds up which opens the tricuspid valve and the blood flows through to the
right ventricle. One way semilunar valves present at the entrance of the atrium stop the
backflow of the blood back into the veins.
The right ventricle gets filled with blood, then it contracts sending the blood to the lungs
through the pulmonary artery. Semilunar valves at the end of the ventricle prevent the
backflow of blood into the heart.
The blood returns from the lungs to the left side of the heart through the pulmonary
veins. This blood is rich in oxygen and is at relatively lower pressure after passing
through the intensive capillaries of the lungs. The left atrium contracts that forces the
blood down to the left ventricle. Backflow of the blood is prevented by bicuspid valves.
The left ventricle then contracts hard and the blood flows out into the aorta. This carries
blood at a higher pressure to other major arteries that branch from it. The muscular

walls of the left ventricle are thicker than the right one because it has to pump the
blood under pressure to all extremities of the body and overcoming the elastic recoil of
the artery. Semilunar valves prevent the backflow of the blood back into the ventricle.
CARDIAC CYCLE:
Phase 1 : atrial systole.
Blood returns to the heart due to the actions of the skeletal and gaseous exchange
(breathing) muscles as you move and breathe. Blood under low pressure flows into the
right atrium and the left atrium from the pulmonary veins and the vena cava. As the
atria fills with the blood the pressure of the blood against atrioventricular valves pushes
them open and blood begins to leak into the ventricles. The atria walls contract and the
blood is forced into the ventricles. This is known as atrial systole.
Phase 2: ventricular systole.
Atrial systole is immediately followed by ventricular systole, in which the ventricles
contract from the base of the heart upwards forcing the blood into aorta and pulmonary
artery respectively. The pressure of the blood into the ventricles closes the bi and tri
cuspid valves preventing the backflow of the blood back into the atria.
Phase 3: diastole
The atria and the ventricles then relax during diastole so that the heart is filled with
blood again. Elastic recoil of the relaxing heart wall muscles lowers the pressure in the
atria and the ventricles and the blood under high pressure is drawn back to the arteries
closing the semilunar valves. Low pressure in the atria helps draw blood back into the
heart from veins.

Explain how the structure of blood vessels relate to their

functions.
Arteries and veins both vessels contain collagen, a tough fibrous protein, which makes
them strong and durable. They also contain elastic fibres, which allows them to stretch
and recoil. Smooth muscles in the walls allow them to constrict and dilate.
ARTERIES
VEINS
1. Narrow lumen
1. Wide lumen
2. More collagen, elastic fibres
2. Less collagen, elastic fibres,
And smooth muscles
and smooth muscles.
3. Thicker walls
3. Thinner walls
4. No valves
4. Valves present
Capillaries have very thin walls, just one cell thick and have a lumen that small that only
a red blood cell can pass through it. So this makes diffusion efficient for substances to

pass through into and out of the cells. Their walls are very thin containing no muscles,
collagen or elastic fibres, which allows them to fit between cells and allow rapid
diffusion of substances between the blood and the cells.
Veins carry blood back to the heart. Blood flows through them at a steady pressure.
They can hold large volumes of blood, acting as a blood reservoir. For blood to flow
through the veins, semilunar valves are present preventing the backflow of blood. Also,
much of the larger veins are situated near the most active muscles, particularly arms
and legs. When the muscles contract due to the physical activities, they squeeze these
veins with the valves preventing blood backflow helping the blood to return to the
heart.

Describe the blood clotting process.

if the blood vessel is damaged, then the blood will come out and if not stopped, the blood
of body will drain out resulting in persons death. On the other hand, pathogens can easily
enter in your body through an open wound.
When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets and blood cells flow from a cut vessel. Contact
between the platelets and damaged tissues (collagen fibres) allows the platelets to break
open in large numbers which release substance to form a clot.
SEROTONIN causes the blood vessel to constrict minimizing the blood loss to the damaged
area.
THROMBOPLASTIN is an enzyme thats sets a progress in cascade of events that leads to
clot formation.
Thromboplastin along with Ca+ ions catalyses the conversion of a protein, prothrombin to
an enzyme, thrombin which in turn acts on another soluble plasma protein, fibrinogen to
convert into an insoluble substance called fibrin. This forms a fibre mesh trapping the red
blood cells and platelets forming a blood clot. Special proteins in the structure of platelets
contract, making the clot tighter and tougher.
Some times this blood clotting mechanism can occur at the wrong place such as arteries
that get damaged due to high blood pressure. This forms the clot at the damaged area
resulting in the blockage of arteries.

Explain the courses of events that leads to atherosclerosis

(endothelial damage, inflammatory response, plaque
formation, raised blood pressure)

The endothelium, the inside lining of the artery wall is breached. This damage can occur as a
result of high blood pressure or might results from the chemicals present in smoke.
Once the endothelium layer is damaged, the bodys inflammatory response begins, white
blood cells from the blood vessels arrive at the site of damage and accumulate chemicals
from it, particularly cholesterol which leads to a fatty deposit called atheroma. Calcium calts
and fibrous tissues also accumulate at the site of damage turning it into the hardened
plaque. Build-up of fibrous tissues means that the artery loses some of its elasticity
hardening it causing atherosclerosis.
Plaque causes the artery to become narrower. This increases the blood pressure making it
harder for the heart to pump the blood around the body. This increased blood pressure
makes it more likely that more plaques will form by damaging more areas in endothelial
lining making blood pressure even higher.

Describe the factors that increase the risk of CVDs

(genetic, age, diet, gender, high blood pressure, smoking
and inactivity)

HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE:

Elevated blood pressure is also known as hypertension. It is considered to be one of the
most common factors of cardiovascular diseases as it increases the likelihood of
atherosclerosis. Blood pressure is the hydrostatic force of attraction of the blood against
the walls of a blood vessel. Pressure in artery is more than in veins. During ventricular
systole the pressure in the arteries is at the highest known as systolic pressure. During
diastole, the pressure in the arteries is at the lowest known as diastolic pressure.
Any factor that causes arteries or arterioles to constrict can lead to an elevated blood
pressure. These factors might be release of hormones such as adrenaline or high salt diet or
loss of elasticity of artery due to ageing. This high blood pressure can lead to
atherosclerosis.

if the blood pressure in the capillary is raised above normal then more fluid comes out of
the capillary and into the tissues surrounding causing edema which causes swelling.
AGE:
As you get older the arteries become less elastic and narrower which can lead to raised
blood pressure leading to atherosclerosis which cause heart disease.
GENDER:
The females below the age of 50 have lower chances of CVDs because of their menstrual
cycle. The oestrogen, that is the female hormone appears to reduce the build-up of plaque
which gives women some protection against CVDs than men until menopause when the
oestrogen levels falls.
GENES:
Studies show that there is a genetic tendency in some families and in some ethnic groups to
develop CVDs. The genetic tendency varies- there may be more likelihood of arteries being
damaged or hypertension that leads to atherosclerosis or may be the cholesterol
mechanism may be faulty.
SMOKING:
One of the major risks of CVDs. Nicotine is a chemical found in cigarette smoke, it stimulates
the production of the hormone adrenaline which increases the heart rate also constricting
the arteries and arterioles raising the blood pressure.
Many chemicals in smoke can irritate the lining of arteries, triggering atherosclerosis.
CO from the smoke binds with haemoglobin instead of oxygen resulting in reduced amounts
of oxygen supply to the body cells. Any narrowing of the artery as a result of atherosclerosis
will reduce the blood supply to the heart and the brain further reducing the blood supply to
brain and the heart. This will result in an increased heart rate as body reacts to provide
enough oxygen for cells.
INACTIVITY:
Moderate exercise prevents high blood pressure and can help to lower it, reducing risks of
CVDs. It also maintains a persons weight as well as raise HDL levels in the blood without
affecting LDL levels.
OBESITY:

BMI is the method of classifying body weight relative to a persons height.

BMI = body mass (in kg) / height (in m2)
Obesity increase the risk of coronary heart diseases as well as stroke. The more the fat you
carry around your belly the more at risk you are. This is because belly fat raises the levels od
LDLs in the blood whereas HDLs levels to fall that you know can create devastating effects.

Describe the benefits and risks of treatments for CVDs

(antihypertensives, plant statins, anticoagulant and
platelet inhibitory drugs)

ANTIHYPERTENSIVES:
ACE INHIBITORS:
An inactive hormone form of angiotensin I is present in the blood. Its active form
angiotensin II helps constrict blood vessels that control blood pressure. Ace inhibitors are
drugs that reduces the synthesis of angiotensin II from its inactive form (I) thus lowering
blood pressure. The side effect of these include, dry cough, dizziness due to rapid lowering
of blood pressure, abnormal heart rhythms, and reduction in function of kidneys.
CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS:
Calcium channels are present in the muscle cells in the lining of arteries. Calcium must pass
through these channels so that muscles can contract to constrict the blood vessels. Calcium
channel blockers block these channels so that calcium do not pass through and as a result
vessels cannot constrict and blood pressure falls. Side effects include, headache, dizziness,
swelling of ankles due to build-up of fluid in legs.
Diuretics:
Diuretics increase the amount of urine produce getting rid of bodys excess fluid and salts.
This lowers the volume of the blood plasma and cardiac output (blood expelled from the
heart in one minute) which decrease blood pressure. Side effects are nausea, muscle
cramps or dizziness.
BETA BLOCKERS:

These block the response of the heart to hormones such as adrenaline that increases the
heart rate and constrict the blood vessels thus stopping the constricting of the blood vessels
and in turn reducing the blood pressure. So these drugs make heart rate slower resulting in
lower pressure of blood.
SYMPATHETIC NERVE INHIBITORS:
Sympathetic nerve go from CNS to all parts of the body. These nerves stimulate your
arteries to constrict but increasing the blood pressure. These drugs prevent your nerves
signaling to the arteries, which helps to keep the arteries dilated and as a result your blood
pressure is lowered.

STATINS:
Group of drugs that lower the cholesterol levels. They block the enzymes in your liver
responsible for making cholesterol, and are particularly effective at reducing the LDL levels.
They also improve the balance of LDLs and HDLs and reduce the inflammation of the lining
of the arteries that may lead to atherosclerosis.
Plant statins are sterols and stanols. These compounds are very similar in structure to
cholesterol. These reduce the amount of cholesterol absorbed from the gut into the blood
which makes it easier to deal with cholesterol and reduce the levels of LDLs in the blood.

ANTICOAGULANT AND PLATELET INHIBITORY DRUGS:

Warfarin is an anticoagulant drug. It interferes with the manufactures of prothrombin in the
body. Lower levels of prothrombin makes the blood clot less easily. This drug reduces the
clotting of the blood.
Platelet inhibitory drugs make the platelets less sticky and so reduce the ability of the blood
to clot. Aspirin and clopidogrel are two examples. Both together reduce the risk by 20 to 25
% but their side effects are worse, Aspirin can cause gastrointestinal bleeding.

Correlation, causation, validity and reliability.

What is risk?

Risk is the probability of an unwanted event or outcome.

IDENTIFYING RISK FACTORS FOR CVD
Cohort studies and case-control studies
In cohort studies a group of people Is followed over time to see who develops the disease
whereas in a case-control study a group of people with the disease are compared with
people with no disease.
CORRELATION:
When a change in one variable reflects a change in another variable.
Correlation can be positive or negative.
CAUSATION:
When a change in one variable affects another variable.
RELIABILITY:
Any significant results more than a one off finding and be inherently repeatable.
VALIDITY:
Establishes whether the results obtained meet all the requirements of scientific research
methods.