MECN4140 Manual PDF

MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
LABORATORY
MANUAL
Inter American University of Puerto Rico

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Version Update 30-Jan-11
This page is intentionally left blank.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Activity 1
SAFETY IN THE MACHINE SHOP ................................................................... 1
1.1
Introduction............................................................................................................ 1
1.2
Objectives.............................................................................................................. 1
1.3
A safe worker should: ............................................................................................ 1
1.4
Safety in the shop .................................................................................................. 1
1.5
Personal grooming ................................................................................................ 1
1.6
Housekeeping........................................................................................................ 2
1.7
Safe Work Practices .............................................................................................. 2
1.8
Fire Prevention ...................................................................................................... 2
1.9
Safety Checklist ..................................................................................................... 2
1.10 Activity Questions .................................................................................................. 3
Activity 2
METROLOGY ................................................................................................... 5
2.1
Introduction............................................................................................................ 5
2.2
Objectives.............................................................................................................. 5
2.3
Metrology............................................................................................................... 5
2.4
System of Measurement ........................................................................................ 5
2.4.1
English System of measurement .................................................................... 5
2.4.2
Metric System of measurement...................................................................... 6
2.5
Measurements ....................................................................................................... 6
2.6
Steel Rules ............................................................................................................ 8
2.7
Rule Measurement ................................................................................................ 9
2.8
Caliper Vernier..................................................................................................... 10
2.9
Vernier Caliper Measurement .............................................................................. 12
2.10 Micrometer Caliper .............................................................................................. 13
2.11 Inch Micrometer ................................................................................................... 14
2.12 Inch Vernier Micrometer ...................................................................................... 15
2.13 Metric Micrometer ................................................................................................ 15
2.14 Metric Vernier Micrometer ................................................................................... 16
2.15 Reading Micrometer ............................................................................................ 16
2.16 Activity Practices ................................................................................................. 17
Activity 3
ENGINEERING DRAWING............................................................................. 21
3.1
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 21
3.2
Objectives............................................................................................................ 21
3.3
Type of Drawings................................................................................................. 21
3.3.1
2D Drawings ................................................................................................ 21
3.3.2
3D Drawings ................................................................................................ 22
3.4
Type of Lines ....................................................................................................... 23
3.5
Reading and Interpreting Drawing ....................................................................... 24
3.5.1
Limits and Tolerance.................................................................................... 24
3.5.2
Surface ........................................................................................................ 24
3.5.3
Geometric Controls ...................................................................................... 27
3.5.4
Abbreviations ............................................................................................... 30
3.5.5
Size Dimensioning of Holes ......................................................................... 30
3.5.6
Thread Notes ............................................................................................... 32
3.5.7
Thread Symbols ........................................................................................... 34
3.5.8
Local notes .................................................................................................. 34
3.5.9
Activity Practices .......................................................................................... 36
Activity 4
The Lathe ....................................................................................................... 39
4.1
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 39
4.2
Objectives............................................................................................................ 39
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4.3
Lathe Safety Rules .............................................................................................. 39
4.4
Engine Lathe Parts .............................................................................................. 39
4.5
Methods of Holding ............................................................................................. 41
4.6
Turning Operations.............................................................................................. 41
4.6.1
Cutting Speed .............................................................................................. 42
4.6.2
Lathe Feed .................................................................................................. 43
4.6.3
Depth of Cut ................................................................................................ 43
4.6.4
Machining Time ........................................................................................... 44
4.7
Cutting Tools ....................................................................................................... 45
4.7.1
Cutting-Tool Materials .................................................................................. 45
4.7.2
Lathe Toolbit Angles and Clearances .......................................................... 46
4.8
Lathe Setup Tables ............................................................................................. 47
4.9
Lathe Practice ..................................................................................................... 49
4.9.1
Piece I ......................................................................................................... 49
4.9.2
Piece II ........................................................................................................ 49
4.9.3
Piece III ....................................................................................................... 49
Activity 5
The Milling ...................................................................................................... 51
5.1
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 51
5.2
Objectives ........................................................................................................... 51
5.3
Safe Milling Machine Practices ............................................................................ 51
5.4
Types of Milling Operations ................................................................................. 51
5.4.1
Peripheral Milling ......................................................................................... 52
5.4.2
Face Milling ................................................................................................. 52
5.5
Milling Machines .................................................................................................. 52
5.6
Workholding Devices on the Milling Machine ....................................................... 53
5.6.1
Vise ............................................................................................................. 53
5.6.2
V Blocks ...................................................................................................... 54
5.6.3
Angles Plates............................................................................................... 54
5.6.4
Parallels ....................................................................................................... 54
5.6.5
Clamps ........................................................................................................ 54
5.7
Milling Cutters ..................................................................................................... 54
5.7.1
Plain Milling Cutters ..................................................................................... 54
5.7.2
Vertical Milling Cutters ................................................................................. 56
5.8
Cutter Holding on the Vertical Mill........................................................................ 59
5.9
Cutting Speed ..................................................................................................... 60
5.10 Milling Feed ......................................................................................................... 62
5.11 Direction of Feed ................................................................................................. 63
5.12 Depth of Cut ........................................................................................................ 64
5.13 Machining Time ................................................................................................... 65
5.14 Milling Machinable Feature .................................................................................. 66
5.15 Milling Setup........................................................................................................ 66
5.16 Activity Practice ................................................................................................... 68
5.17 Milling Practice .................................................................................................... 70
5.17.1
Piece I ......................................................................................................... 70
5.17.2
Piece II ........................................................................................................ 70
5.17.3
Piece III ....................................................................................................... 70
Activity 6
Milling and Lathe CNC .................................................................................... 71
6.1
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 71
6.2
Objectives ........................................................................................................... 71
6.3
Coordinates ......................................................................................................... 71
6.4
Programming Systems ........................................................................................ 73
6.4.1
Incremental System ..................................................................................... 73
6.4.2
Absolute System .......................................................................................... 73
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6.5
Program Structure ............................................................................................... 74
6.5.1
Word Address Format .................................................................................. 74
6.5.2
Codes .......................................................................................................... 74
6.5.3
Block of Information ..................................................................................... 75
6.6
Interpolation ......................................................................................................... 77
6.6.1
Linear Interpolation ...................................................................................... 78
6.6.2
Circular Interpolation .................................................................................... 78
6.7
CNC Milling Practice ............................................................................................ 79
6.7.1
Piece I.......................................................................................................... 79
6.7.2
Piece II......................................................................................................... 79
6.7.3
Piece III ........................................................................................................ 80
6.7.4
Piece IV ....................................................................................................... 80
Activity 7
Welding........................................................................................................... 81
7.1
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 81
7.2
Objectives............................................................................................................ 81
7.3
Safe in Welding Processes .................................................................................. 81
7.4
Types of Welding Processes ............................................................................... 82
7.4.1
Fusion Welding ............................................................................................ 82
7.4.2
Solid-State Welding ..................................................................................... 83
7.5
The Weld Joint..................................................................................................... 84
7.6
Types of Welds .................................................................................................... 84
7.7
Welding Symbols ................................................................................................. 86
7.7.1
Weld Symbols .............................................................................................. 86
7.7.2
Dimensioning ............................................................................................... 88
7.7.3
Supplementary Symbols .............................................................................. 89
7.7.4
Specifying Additional Information ................................................................. 90
7.7.5
Multiple-Weld Symbols................................................................................. 90
7.7.6
Applying a Welding Symbol ......................................................................... 91
7.8
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) .................................................................. 91
7.9
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) ......................................................................... 92
7.10 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding .................................................................................. 93
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 97
Types of protective shields and eyewear ......................................................................... 97
ANSI Z87.1-2003 ............................................................................................................ 98
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 2.1 The Measurement of Length
Figure 2.2 Measurement of Surface Relationships or Angularity
Figure 2.3 Several Measurement Encountered by the Machinist.
Figure 2.4 Rules Types
Figure 2.5 The Axis of a Linear Measuring
Figure 2.6 Parallax Error
Figure 2.7 Measurement Round Object
Figure 2.8 Principle of the Vernier
Figure 2.9 Standard Caliper Vernier
Figure 2.10 Caliper Vernier Applications
Figure 2.11 Caliper Vernier Scale a)25 Division b) 50 Division
Figure 2.12 Reading Inches a) 25 Division b) 50 Division
Figure 2.13 Reading millimeter a) 50 Division b) 100 Division
Figure 2.14 Micrometer Caliper
Figure 2.15 a) Inch Micrometer Caliper with Vernier Scale b) Metric Micrometer
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Figure 2.16 Graduation on the Inch Micrometer

Figure 2.17 Inch Micrometer Reading a) Standard b) Vernier Micrometer
Figure 2.18 Metric Micrometer Reading a) Standard b) Vernier Micrometer
Figure 3.1 Orthographic Projection
Figure 3.2 Perspective Drawing
Figure 3.3 Exploded Drawing
Figure 3.4 Limits and Tolerance a)Limits b) Tolerance Bilateral c) Tolerance Unilateral
Figure 3.5 Application of Surface Texture Symbols and Surface Characteristics
Figure 3.6 Application of Surface Texture Values to Symbol
Figure 3.7 Surface Roughness Produced by Common Production Methods.
Figure 3.8 Datum and Format for Geometric Dimension.
Figure 3.9 Examples of Drawing Formats for Geometric Control.
Figure 3.10 Form and Proportion of Dimensioning Symbols.
Figure 3.11 Dimensioning Holes.
Figure 3.12 Standard Symbols for Holes Dimensions.
Figure 3.13 Local Notes
Figure 3.14 Thread Notes
Figure 3.15 External Thread Symbols
Figure 3.16 Internal Thread Symbols
Figure 3.17 Dimensioning
Figure 4.1 Engine Lathe with the Parts Identified.
Figure 4.2 Lathe Size.
Figure 4.3 Workholding Methods Used in Lathes.
Figure 4.4 Lathe Operations
Figure 4.5 The Depth of Cut on a Lathe
Figure 4.6 Angles and Clearances for Lathe Cutting Tools
Figure 5.1 Milling Operations
Figure 5.2 Peripheral Milling
Figure 5.3 Face Milling
Figure 5.4 Type of Milling Machine
Figure 5.5 Type of Vises
Figure 5.6 Workholding Device
Figure 5.7 Plain Milling Cutters
Figure 5.8 Side Milling Cutters
Figure 5.9 Face and Angular Milling Cutters
Figure 5.10 Formed Milling Cutters
Figure 5.11 End Milling
Figure 5.12 High Speed Steel End Mills
Figure 5.13 Formed End Mills
Figure 5.14 Flycutter with an HSS tool installed
Figure 5.15 Collet types
Figure 5.16 Common Methods to Mount End Mills in a Vertical Milling Machine
Figure 5.17 Direction of Feed
Figure 5.18 Approach and Overtravel Distance
Figure 5.19 Milling Machinable Feature
Figure 5.20 Angular Head adjustments
Figure 5.21 Milling Variable Speed Head
Figure 6.1 Cartesian Coordinates
Figure 6.2 Machine Axes
Figure 6.3 Programming System Mode
Figure 6.4 Example Part
Figure 6.5 Circular Interpolation Example
Figure 7.1 Master Chart of Welding and Applied Processes
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28
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51
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59
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60
60
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72
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78
82
Figure 7.2 Basic Arc Welding

Figure 7.3 Types of Joints
Figure 7.4 Fillet Welds
Figure 7.5 Groove Welds
Figure 7.6 Plug and Slot Welds
Figure 7.7 Spot and Seam Welds
Figure 7.8 Flange and Surface Welds
Figure 7.9 Basic weld symbols
Figure 7.10 Weld symbols applied to reference line
Figure 7.11 Specifying weld locations
Figure 7.12 Arrowhead indicates beveled plate
Figure 7.13 Elements of a welding symbol
Figure 7.14 Dimensions applied to weld symbols
Figure 7.15 Dimensioning of welds
Figure 7.16 Supplementary symbols
Figure 7.17 Finish and contour symbols
Figure 7.18 Specifying additional welding information
Figure 7.19 Representing multiple welds
Figure 7.20 Example of welding symbol in use
Figure 7.21 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Figure 7.22 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Figure 7.23 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
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LIST OF TABLE
Table 2.1 6 Rules Graduation Numbers
Table 3.1 Common Lines Used on Shop Drawings
Table 3.2 Material Symbols
Table 3.3 Surfacer Texture Symbols and Construction
Table 3.4 Preferred Series Roughness Average Values (Ra)
Table 3.5 Standard Roughness Sampling Length (Cutoff) Values
Table 3.6 Preferred Series Maximum Waviness Height Values
Table 3.7 Lay Symbols
Table 3.8 Geometric Characteristic Symbols and Modifying Symbols
Table 3.9 Abbreviation on Drawing
Table 3.10 Classes of Screw Thread Fits
Table 4.1 Lathe Cutting Speed using a High Speed Steel Toolbit
Table 4.2 Feeds for Various Material Using a High Speed Steel Cutting Tool
Table 4.3 Recommended Angles for High-Speed Steel Tools
Table 5.1 Milling Machine Cutting Speeds
Table 5.2 Recommended Feed per Tooth (High-Speed Cutters)
Table 5.3 Recommended Feed per Tooth (Cemented-Carbide-Tipped Cutters)
Table 6.1 Used Addresses
Table 6.2 G Codes
Table 6.3 M Codes
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ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
SAFETY IN THE MACHINE SHOP
1.1 Introduction
All hand and machine tools can be dangerous if used improperly or carelessly. Working safely is
one of the first things a student or apprentice should learn because the safe way is usually the
correct and most efficient way.
1.2 Objectives
After completing this activity, the students will be able to:
Recognize safe and unsafe work practices in a shop
Identify and correct hazards in the shop area
Perform your job in a manner that is safe for you and other workers
1.3 A safe worker should:

1.
2.
3.
Be neat, tidy, and safely dressed for the job he or she is performing
Develop a responsibility for personal safety and the safety of fellow workers
Think safely and work safely at all times
1.4 Safety in the shop

Safety in a machine shop may be divided into two broad categories:
Those practices that will prevent injury to workers.
Those practices that will prevent damage to machines and equipment. Too often
damaged equipment results in personal injuries.
1.5 Personal grooming

1. Always wear approved safety glasses in any area of the machine shop.
a. Plain Safety Glasses with side shields
b. Plastic Safety Goggles
c. Face Shields
Never think that because you are wearing glasses your eyes are safe. If the lenses are not made of
approved safety shatterproof glass, serious eye injury can still occur.
2. Never wear loose clothing when operating any machine.

a. Always roll up your sleeves or wear short sleeves
b. Remove or tuck in a necktie before starting a machine
c. Remove wrist watches, rings, and bracelets; these can get caught in the machine,
causing painful and often serious injury
d. Never wear gloves when operating a machine.
e. Long hair must be protected by a hair net
f. Canvas shoes or open-toed sandals must never be worn in a machine shop because
they offer no protection to the feet against sharp chips or falling objects.
1.6 Housekeeping
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Always stop the machine before you attempt to clean it.

Always keep the machine and hand tools clean
Always use a brush and not a cloth to remove any chips
Oily surfaces should be cleaned with a cloth.
Do not place tools and materials on the machine table use a bench near the machine.
Keep the floor free from oil and grease.
Never place tools or materials on the floor close to a machine where they will interfere with
the operator's ability to move safely around the machine.
8. Never use compressed air to remove chips from a machine.
1.7 Safe Work Practices

1. Do not operate any machine before understanding its mechanism and knowing how to stop
it quickly
2. Always disconnect the power and lock it off at the switch box when making repairs to any
machine. Place a sign on the machine noting that it is out of order.
3. Always be sure that the cutting tool and the workpiece are properly mounted before starting
the machine
4. Keep hands away from moving parts
5. Always stop a machine before measuring, cleaning, or making any adjustments
6. Do not attempt to lift heavy or odd-shaped objects that are difficult to handle on your own.
7. For heavy objects, follow safe lifting practices:
Assume a squatting position with your knees bent and back straight.
Grasp the workpiece firmly.
Lift the object by straightening your legs and keeping your back straight. This procedure
uses the leg muscles and prevents injury to the back.
8. Be sure the work is clamped securely in the vise or to a machine table.
9. It is safer to pull on a wrench than to push on it.
1.8 Fire Prevention

1. Know the location and the operation of every fire extinguisher in the shop.
2. Know the location of the nearest fire exit from the building.
1.9 Safety Checklist

1. Do I know how to operate this machine?
2. What are the potential hazards involved?
3. Are all guards in place?
4. Are my procedures safe?
5. Am I doing something that I probably should not do?
6. Have I made all the proper adjustments and tightened all locking bolts and clamps?
7. Is the workpiece secured properly?
8. Do I have proper safety equipment?
9. Do I know where the shop switch is?
10. Do I think about safety in everything that I do?
1.10 Activity Questions

1. What is the primary piece of safety equipment in the machine shop?
2. Why is required the use of eye protection in the machine shop?
3. What can you do if you wear prescription glasses?
4. What kinds of hazard occur in the machine shop?
5. What hazards exit from coolants, oils, and solvents?
Activity 2
METROLOGY
2.1 Introduction
The ability to make accurate measurement on machined parts is vital necessity for manufacturing
processes. The system and measuring standards must be understood and the ability to correctly
use precision measuring instruments must be learned.
2.2 Objectives
Recognize the importance of metrology science in the manufacturing processes.
Use measurement Instrument such as engineering rule, caliper vernier and micrometer.
2.3 Metrology
Metrology is the science of measurement that includes units of measurement and their standards,
measuring instruments and their fields of application, and all theoretical and practical problems
relating to measurement. Metrology is classified in three main fields: scientific metrology, industrial
metrology and legal metrology.
Scientific Metrology in the field of measurement is of primary importance, since it is the
prerequisite for the development of other branches of metrology as well as new technologies, and
for the development of the society as a whole.
Legal metrology is the part of metrology relating to activities which result from statutory
requirements and concern measurement, units of measurement, measuring instruments and
methods of measurement and which are performed by competent bodies.
Industrial Metrology concerns the application of measurement science to manufacturing and other
processes and their use in society, ensuring the suitability of measurement instruments, their
calibration and quality control of measurements.
2.4 System of Measurement

Throughout history there have been many system of measurement. Total standardization of
measurement throughout the world still has not been fully realized. Most measurement in the
modern world does, however, conform to either the English (inch-pound-second) or the metric
(meter-kilogram-second) system.
2.4.1 English System of measurement

The English system of measurement uses the units of inches, pounds, and seconds to represent
the measurement of length, mass, and time. Since this activity is primarily concert with the
measurement of length in the machine shop, English system is often refers as the inch system.
2.4.2 Metric System of measurement

The basic unit of length in the metric system is the meter. Originally the length of the meter was
defined by a natural standard, specifically, a portion of the earths circumference. Later, more
convenient metal standard were constructed. In 1886, the metric system was legalized in United
States, but its use was not mandatory.
Although the metric system has been in use for many years in many different countries, it still
lacked complete standardization among its users. There, an attempt was made to modernize and
standardize the metric system. From this effort has come the Systme Internationale dUnites,
known as SI or the International Metric System.
The basic unit of length in SI is the meter or metre (in the common international spelling). The SI
meter is defined by a physical standard that can be reproduced anywhere with unvarying accuracy.
1 meter = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of the orange-red light spectrum of the Kryptom86 atom.
2.5 Measurements
Length is the measurement of the distance along a line between two points (Figure 2.1). It is also
length that define the longer or longest dimension of an object. Depth is often called length when
the object. Width is the dimension taken at right angles to the length. Height is the distance from
the bottom to the top of an object standing upright. Depth is the direct linear measurement from the
point of viewing, usually from the front to back of an object or the perpendicular measurement
downward from the surface.
Figure 2.1 The Measurement of Length

Angularity is the relationship of one surface to another. The measurement of length is the distance
along a line between two points (Figure 2.2). Squareness, which is closely related to angularity, is
the measure of deviation from true perpendicularity.
Figure 2.2 Measurement of Surface Relationships or Angularity

Surface Finish or Profile is the measurement of surface roughness
Straightness refers to the deviation of a surface from a true line. Straightness is generally a single
axis measurement.
Circularity or roundness refers to the conformity to the true circle. Measured deviation from true
circularity may be known as out of round, indicating the presence or absence of lobes.
Concentricity refers to two more circles with the same center. The measurement of deviation from
true concentricity may be called indicated runout or eccentricity
Flatness is the deviation of a surface from a true plane.
measurement.
Flatness is generally a multiaxis
Alignment determines the degree to which two or more components are collinear (along the same
line). Alignment may refer to separate components or features of the same component (distortion)
Sphericity is the measurement of diameter and circularity in all planes.
Figure 2.3 Several Measurement Encountered by the Machinist.
2.6 Steel Rules

A rule is a linear measuring instrument whose graduations represent real unit of lengths and their
subdivision.
The discrimination of the steel rules refers to the extent to which a unit of length has been divided.
If the smallest graduation on a specific rules is 1/32 in., the rule has a discrimination of,
discriminates to, 1/32 in. Likewise, if the smallest graduation of rule is 1/64 in., then this rule
discriminates to 1/64 in.
The maximum discrimination of a steel rule is generally 1/64 in., or, in the case of decimal inch
rules, 1/100 in. The metric rule has a discrimination of 0.05 mm. Remembering that a measuring
tool should never be used beyond its discrimination, the steel rule will not be reliable in trying to
ascertain a measurement increment smaller than 1/64 or 1/100 in. If a specific measurement falls
between the markings on the rule, only this can be said of this reading: it is more or less than the
amount of the nearest mark. No further data as to how much more or less can be reliably
determined. It is not recommended practice to attempt to read between the graduations on a steel
rule with the intent of obtaining reliable readings.
Rules may be selected in many different shapes and sizes, depending on the need. The common
rigid steel rule is 6 in. long, 3/4 in. wide, and 3/64 in. thick. It is engraved with No. 4 standard rule
graduations. A No.4 graduation consists of 1/8 and 1/16 in. divisions on one side (Figure 2.4a) and
1/32 and 1/64 in. divisions on the reverse side (Figure 2.4b). Other common graduations are
summarized in the Table 2.1.
Figure 2.4 Rules Types
Graduation
Table 2.1 6 Rules Graduation Numbers

Front Side
Back Side Graduation Front Side
32nds
64ths
32nds
64ths
50nds
100ths
10nds
50ths
10nds
50ths
32nds
64ths
No. 5
10ths
No. 6
10ths
No. 1
No. 3
No. 4
No. 7
No. 9
16nds
32ths
16nds
32ths
Back Side
100ths
64ths
No. 10
32nds
64ths
100ths
No. 11
64ths
100ths
50ths
No. 16
50nds
100ths
32nds
64ths
2.7 Rule Measurement

In order to obtain an accurate and reliable linear measurement, the rule must be exactly in line with
the axis of that measurement. If this condition is not met, reliability will be in question. The
alignment of the measuring instrument with the axis of measurement applies to all linear
measurements. The Figure 2.5 illustrates the alignment of the instrument with the axis of
measurement using a simple graduated measuring device. Only under the reliable condition can the
measurement approach accuracy. Misalignment of the instrument, as illustrated in the unreliable
situation, will result in inaccurate measurements.
Figure 2.5 The Axis of a Linear Measuring

One of the problems associated with the use of rules is that of parallax error. Parallax error results
when the observer making the measurement is not in line with the workpiece and the rule. You may
see the graduation either too far left or too far right of its real position (Figure 2.6). Parallax error
occurs when the rule is read from a point other than one directly above the point of measurement.
The point of measurement is the point at which the measurement is read. It mayor may not be the
true reading of the size depending on what location was used as the reference point on the rule.
10
Parallax can be controlled by always observing the point of measurement from directly above.
Furthermore, the graduations on a rule should be placed as close as possible to the surface being
measured. In this regard, a thin rule is preferred over a thick rule.
Figure 2.6 Parallax Error

Round bars and tubing should be measured with the rule applied on the end of the tube or bar
(Figure 2.7). Select a reference point and set it carefully at a point on the circumference of the
round part to be measured. Using the reference point as a pivot, move the rule back and forth
slightly to find the largest distance across the diameter. When the largest distance is determined,
read the measurement at that point.
Figure 2.7 Measurement Round Object
2.8 Caliper Vernier

The principle of the vernier may be used to increase the discrimination of all graduated scale
measuring tools used. A vernier system consists of a main scale and a vernier scale. The vernier
scale is placed adjacent to the main scale so that graduations on both scales can be observed
together. The spacing of the vernier scale graduations is shorter than the spacing of the main scale
graduations.
For example, consider a main scale divided as shown (Figure 2.8a). It is desired to further
subdivide each main scale division into 10 parts with the use of a vernier. The spacing of each
vernier scale division is made 1/10 of a main scale division shorter than the spacing of a main scale
division. This may sound confusing, but, think of it as 10 vernier scale divisions corresponding to
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nine main scale divisions (Figure 2.8a). The vernier now permits the main scale to discriminate to
1/10 of its major divisions. Therefore, 1/10 is known as the least count of the vernier.
Figure 2.8 Principle of the Vernier

The vernier functions in the following manner. Assume that the zero line on the vernier scale is
placed as shown (Figure 2.8b). The reading on the main scale is two, plus a fraction of a division. It
is desired to know the amount of the fraction over two, to the nearest tenth or least count of the
vernier. As you inspect the alignment of the vernier scale and the main scale lines, you will note that
they move closer together until one line on the vernier scale coincides with a line on the main scale.
This is the coincident line of the vernier and indicates the fraction in tenths that must be added to
the main scale reading. The vernier is coincident at the sixth line. Since the least count of the
vernier is 1/10, the zero vernier line is 6/10 past 2 on the main scale. Therefore, the main scale
reading is 2.6 (Figure 2.8b).
The standard vernier caliper is very common (Figure 2.9). This is a versatile tool because of its
capacity to make outside, inside, and depth measurements. Many different measuring applications
are made with this particular design vernier caliper (Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.9 Standard Caliper Vernier
12
Figure 2.10 Caliper Vernier Applications
2.9 Vernier Caliper Measurement

Vernier instruments used for linear measure in the inch system discriminate to 0.001 in. (1/1000).
Vernier scales are engraved with 25 or 50 divisions (Figure 2.11). On a 25-division vernier caliper,
each inch on the main scale is divided into 10 major divisions numbered from 1 to 9. Each major
division is .100 (one hundred-thousandth). Each major division has four subdivisions with a spacing
of .025 (twenty-five thousandths). The vernier scale has 25 divisions with the zero line being the
index.
Figure 2.11 Caliper Vernier Scale a)25 Division b) 50 Division
13
The applications for metric vernier caliper are exactly the same as those described for an inch
system vernier caliper. The discrimination of metric vernier caliper models varies from 0.02 mm.,
0.05 mm., or 0.1 mm. The most commonly used type discriminates to 0.02 mm.
Figure 2.12 Reading Inches a) 25 Division b) 50 Division
Figure 2.13 Reading millimeter a) 50 Division b) 100 Division
2.10 Micrometer Caliper

The micrometer caliper, usually called the micrometer, is the most commonly used measuring
instrument when accuracy is required. The standard inch micrometer, shown in a cutaway view in
Figure 2.14, measures accurately to .001 in. Since many phases of modern manufacturing require
greater accuracy, the vernier micrometer, capable of even finer measurements, is used to an
increasing extent (Figure 2.15a).
The standard metric micrometer (Figure 2.15b) measures in hundredths of a millimeter, whereas
the vernier metric micrometer measures up to 0.002 mm.
The only difference in construction and reading between the standard inch and the vernier
micrometer is the addition of the vernier scale on the sleeve above the index or centerline.
14
Figure 2.14 Micrometer Caliper
Figure 2.15 a) Inch Micrometer Caliper with Vernier Scale b) Metric Micrometer
2.11 Inch Micrometer

To understand the principle of the inch micrometer, the student should be familiar with two
important thread terms:
Pitch, which is the distance from a point on one thread to a corresponding point on the next
thread. For inch threads, pitch is expressed as 1/N (number of threads). For metric threads,
it is expressed in millimeters.
Lead, which is the distance a screw thread advances axially in one complete revolution or
turn.
Since there are 40 threads per inch on the micrometer, the pitch is 1/40 (0.025) in. Therefore, one
complete revolution of the spindle will either increase or decrease the distance between the
measuring faces by 1/40 (0.025) in. The 1-in. distance marked on the micrometer sleeve is divided
into 40 equal divisions, each of which equals 1/40 (0.025) in. If the micrometer is closed until the
measuring faces just touch, the zero line on the thimble should line up with the index line on the
sleeve (barrel). If the thimble is revolved counterclockwise one complete revolution, one line will
appear on the sleeve. Each line on the sleeve indicates 0.025 in. Thus, if three lines were showing
on the sleeve (or barrel), the micrometer would have opened 3 X 0.025, or 0.075 in.
Every fourth line on the sleeve is longer than the others and is numbered to permit easy reading.
Each numbered line indicates a distance of .100 in.
15
The thimble has 25 equal divisions about its circumference. Since one turn moves the thimble
0.025 in., one division would represent 1/25 of 0.025 or 0.001. Therefore, each line on the thimble
represents 0.001 inch.
Figure 2.16 Graduation on the Inch Micrometer
2.12 Inch Vernier Micrometer

The inch vernier micrometer (Figure 2.15a) has, in addition to the graduations found on a standard
micrometer, a vernier scale on the sleeve. This vernier scale consists of 10 divisions that run
parallel to and above the index line. These 10 divisions on the sleeve occupy the same distance as
9 divisions (0.009) on the thimble. One division on the vernier scale, therefore, represents 1/10 X
0.009, or 0.0009 in. Since one graduation on the thimble represents 0.001 or 0.0010 in., the
difference between one thimble division and one vernier scale division represents 0.0010 - 0.0009,
or 0.0001. Therefore, each division on the vernier scale has a value of 0.0001 in.
2.13 Metric Micrometer

The metric micrometer (Figure 2.15b) is similar to the inch micrometer with two exceptions: the pitch
of the spindle screw and the graduations on the sleeve and thimble. The pitch of the screw is 0.5
mm; therefore, a complete revolution of the thimble increases or decreases the distance between
the measuring faces 0.5 mm. Above the index line on the sleeve, the graduations are in millimeters
(from 0 to 25) with every fifth line numbered. Below the index line, each millimeter is subdivided into
two equal parts of 0.5 mm, which corresponds to the pitch of the thread. It is apparent, therefore,
that two turns of the thimble will be required to move the spindle 1 mm.
The circumference of the thimble is divided into 50 equal divisions, with every fifth line numbered.
Since one revolution of the thimble advances the spindle 0.5 mm, each graduation on the thimble
equals 1/50 X 0.5 mm = 0.01 mm.
16
2.14 Metric Vernier Micrometer

The metric vernier micrometer, in addition to the graduations found on the standard micrometer,
has five vernier divisions on the barrel, each representing 0.002 mm. In the vernier micrometer
reading illustrated in Fig. 9-7, each major division (below the index line) has a value of 1 mm. Each
minor division (above the index line) has a value of 0.5 mm. There are 50 divisions around the
thimble, each having a value of 0.01 mm.
2.15 Reading Micrometer

Reading examples are shown in Figure 2.17 for inch micrometer and Figure 2.18 for metric
micrometer.
Figure 2.17 Inch Micrometer Reading a) Standard b) Vernier Micrometer
Figure 2.18 Metric Micrometer Reading a) Standard b) Vernier Micrometer
17
2.16 Activity Practices

Inches
millimeters
18
19
20
Activity 3
ENGINEERING DRAWING
3.1 Introduction
Engineering drawing is the common language by which draftspersons, tool designers, and
engineers indicate to the machinist and toolmaker the physical requirements of a part. Drawings are
made up of a variety of lines, which represent surfaces, edges, and contours of a workpiece. By
adding symbols, dimension lines and sizes, and word notes, the draftsperson can indicate the exact
specifications of each individual part. Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing has become a
universal language on engineering (technical drawings for specifying a parts exact geometry or
shape and how the part should be inspected and gaged.
A complete product is usually shown on an assembly drawing by the drafter. Each part or
component of the product is then shown on a detailed drawing, which is reproduced as copies
called prints. The prints are used by the machinist or toolmaker to produce the individual parts that
eventually will make up the complete product.
3.2 Objectives
Identify symbols and terminology on working drawing
Read and interpret a typical working drawing for a machinist
Identify precision ranges for typical manufacturing operations
3.3 Type of Drawings

3.3.1 2D Drawings
To describe the shape of noncylindrical parts accurately on a drawing or print, the draftsperson
uses the orthographic view or projection method. The orthographic view shows the part from three
sides: the front, top, and right-hand side (Figure 3.1a). These three views enable the draftsperson
to describe a part or object so completely that the machinist knows exactly what is required.
Figure 3.1 Orthographic Projection
21
22
Cylindrical parts are generally shown on prints in two views: the front and right side (Figure 3.1b).
However, if a part contains many details, it may be necessary to use the top, bottom, or left-side
views to describe the part accurately to the machinist.
In many cases, complicated interior forms are difficult to describe in the usual manner by a
draftsperson. Whenever this occurs, a sectional view, which is obtained by making an imaginary cut
through an object, is presented. This imaginary cut can be made in a straight line in any direction to
best expose the interior contour or form of a part (Figure 3.1c).
3.3.2 3D Drawings
The perspective drawing (Figure 3.2a) is used when it is desired to show an object as it would
appear to the eye. Perspective can be either one point, known as parallel perspective, or two point,
known as angular perspective. In the perspective view, the lines of the object recede to a single
point. The perception of depth is indicated
Figure 3.2 Perspective Drawing

An isometric drawing (Figure 3.2b) is also intended to represent an object in three dimensions.
However, unlike the perspective, the object lines do not recede but remain parallel. Furthermore,
isometric views are drawn about the three isometric axes that are 120 degrees apart.
Object lines in the oblique drawing (Figure 3.2c) also remain parallel. The oblique differs from the
isometric in that one axis of the object is parallel to the plane of the drawing. The perspective view
is used mainly by artists and technical illustrators. You will seldom come in contact with a
perspective drawing. However, you should be aware of its existence. Isometric and oblique are also
not generally used as working drawings for the machinist. However, you may occasionally see them
in the machine shop.
The exploded drawing (Figure 3.3) is a type of pictorial drawing designed to show several parts in
their proper location prior to assembly. Although the exploded view is not used as the working
drawing for the machinist, it has an important place in mechanical technology. Exploded views
appear extensively in manuals and handbooks that are used for repair and assembly of machines
and other mechanisms.
23
Figure 3.3 Exploded Drawing
3.4 Type of Lines

A wide variety of standard lines are used in engineering drawings for the designer to indicate to the
machinist exactly what is required. Thick, thin, broken, wavy, and section lines are used on shop or
engineering drawings. See Table 3.1 for examples, including the description and purpose of some
of the more common lines used on shop drawings.
Table 3.1 Common Lines Used on Shop Drawings
Example
Name
Description
Object lines
Hidden lines
Center lines
Dimension lines
Cutting-plane lines
Cross-section lines
Thick black lines approximately 1/32

in. wide (the width may vary to suit
drawing size).
Medium-weight black lines of 1/8-in.
long dashes and 1/16 in. spaces
Thin lines with alternating long lines
and short dashes
Long lines from 1/2 to 3 in. long
Short dashes 1/16 to 1/8 in. long,
spaces 1/16 in. long.
Thin black lines with an arrowhead at
each end and a space in the center for
a dimension
Thick black lines make up a series of
one long line and two short dashes
Arrowheads show the line of sight
from where the section is taken.
Fine, evenly spaced parallel lines at
45. Line spacing is in proportion to
the part size.
Use
Indicate the visible form
or edges of an object.
Indicate the hidden
contours of an object
Indicate the centers of
holes, cylindrical objects
and other sections
Indicate the dimensions
of an object.
Show the imagined
section cut.
Show the surfaces
exposed when a section
is cut.
Table 3.2 shows the drafting symbols used to indicate some of the most common materials used in
a machine shop
Table 3.2 Material Symbols
Represents copper, brass,

bronze, etc.
Represents aluminum,
magnesium, and their alloys.
Represents steel and

wrought iron.
Represents cast iron and

malleable iron.
24
3.5 Reading and Interpreting Drawing

3.5.1 Limits and Tolerance
Since it is impossible to machine a part to an exact size, a designer must specify an acceptable
range of sizes that will still permit the part to fit and function as intended. The maximum and
minimum sizes in part dimensions that are acceptable are limits between which the actual part
dimension must fall. The difference between the maximum and minimum limits is tolerance, or the
total amount by which a part dimension may vary. Tolerances on drawings are often indicated by
specifying a limit, or by plus and minus notations (Figure 3.4). With plus and minus tolerancing,
when the tolerance is both above and below the nominal (true theoretical) size, it is said to be
bilateral (two sides). When the tolerance is indicated all on one side of nominal, it is said to be
unilateral (one sided).
Figure 3.4 Limits and Tolerance a)Limits b) Tolerance Bilateral c) Tolerance Unilateral
3.5.2 Surface
Symbols are used to define surface texture, roughness, and lay. See Table 3.3 for the meaning and
construction of these symbols. The basic surface texture symbol in Table 3.3a indicates a finished
or machined surface by any method, just as does the general V symbol. Modifications to the basic
surface texture symbol, shown in Table 3.3b-d, define restrictions on material removal for the
finished surface. Where surface texture values other than roughness average (Ra) are specified, the
symbol must be drawn with the horizontal extension, as shown in Table 3.3e. Construction details
for the symbols are given in Table 3.3f.
Table 3.3 Surfacer Texture Symbols and Construction
Symbol
Meaning
a)
Basic Surface Texture Symbol. Surface may be produced by any method except when the bar or circle, (b) or
(d), is specified.
b)
Material Removal By Machining Is Required. The horizontal bar indicates that material removal by machining is
required to produce the surface and that material must be provided for that purpose.
c)
Material Removal Allowance. The number indicates the amount of stock to be removed by machining in
millimeters (or inches). Tolerances may be added to the basic value shown or in a general note
d)
e)
f)
Material Removal Prohibited. The circle in the vee indicates that the surface must be produced by processes
such as casting, forging, hot finishing, cold finishing, die casting. powder metallurgy or injection molding without
subsequent removal of material
Surface Texture Symbol. To be used when any surface characteristics are specified above the horizontal line or
to the right of the symbol. Surface may be produced by any method except when the bar or circle, (b) or (d), is
specified,
25
Applications of the surface texture symbols are given in Figure 3.5a. Note that the symbols read
from the bottom and/or the right side of the drawing and that they are not drawn at any angle or
upside down.
Figure 3.5 Application of Surface Texture Symbols and Surface Characteristics

Measurements for roughness and waviness, unless otherwise specified, apply in the direction that
gives the maximum reading, usually across the lay, as shown in Figure 3.5b. The recommended
roughness height values are given in Table 3.4. When it is necessary to indicate the roughness
width cutoff values, the standard values used are listed in Table 3.5. If no value is specified, the
0.80 value is assumed. When maximum waviness height values are required, the recommended
values to be used are as given in Table 3.6. When it is desired to indicate lay, the lay symbols in
Table 3.7 are added to the surface texture symbols as per the examples given. Selected
applications of the surface texture values to the symbols are given and explained in Figure 3.6. A
typical range of surface roughness values that may be obtained from various production methods is
shown in Figure 3.7. Preferred roughness-height values are shown at the top of the chart.
Table 3.4 Preferred Series Roughness Average Values (Ra)
Micrometer
Microinches
Micrometer
Microinches
Micrometer
(m)
(in)
(m)
(in)
(m)
0.012
0.5
0.40
16
4.0
0.025
1
0.50
20
5.0
0.050
2
0.63
25
6.3
0.075
3
0.80
32
8.0
0.10
4
1.00
40
10.0
0.125
5
1.25
50
12.5
0.15
6
1.60
63
15
0.20
8
2.0
80
20
0.25
10
2.5
100
25
0.32
13
3.2
125
Micrometer are the same as thousandths of a millimeter (1 m = 0.001 m)
Microinches
(in)
180
200
250
320
400
500
600
800
1000
Table 3.5 Standard Roughness Sampling Length (Cutoff) Values

Millimeters
(mm)
0.08
0.025
0.80
Inches
(in.)
0.003
0.010
0.030
Millimeters
(mm)
2.5
8.0
25.0
Inches
(in.)
0.1
0.3
1.0
26
Table 3.6 Preferred Series Maximum Waviness Height Values
Millimeters
(mm)
0.0005
0.0008
0.0012
0.0020
0.0025
0.005
0.008
0.012
0.020
Inches
(in.)
0.00002
0.00003
0.00005
0.00008
0.0001
0.0002
0.0003
0.0005
0.0008
Millimeters
(mm)
0.025
0.05
0.08
0.12
0.20
0.25
0.38
0.50
0.80
Inches
(in.)
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.005
0.008
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.030
Table 3.7 Lay Symbols

SYM
DESIGNATION
EXAMPLE
SYM
DESIGNATION
Lay parallel to the line representing

the surface to which the symbol is
applied.
Lay angular in both directions to

line representing the surface to
which symbol is applied
Lay perpendicular to the line

representing the surface to which
the symbol is applied.
Lay multidirectional
Lay approximately circular relative

to the center of the surface to
which the symbol is applied.
Lay approximately radial relative

to the center of the surface to
which the symbol is applied.
Figure 3.6 Application of Surface Texture Values to Symbol
EXAMPLE
27
Figure 3.7 Surface Roughness Produced by Common Production Methods.
3.5.3 Geometric Controls

Since traditional notes for specifying tolerances of position (location) and form (shape) may be
confusing or unclear, may require too much space, and may not be understood internationally, most
multinational companies have adopted symbols for such specifications (ANSI/ASME Y14.5M-1994).
These ANSI symboIs, shown in Table 3.8, provide an accurate and concise means of specifying
geometric characteristics and tolerances in a minimum of space. The symbols may be
28
supplemented by notes if the precise geometric requirements cannot be conveyed by the symbols.
For construction details of the geometric tolerancing symbols, see Appendix B.
Table 3.8 Geometric Characteristic Symbols and Modifying Symbols
Geometric Characteristic Symbols
Type of
Tolerance
Characteristic
Straightness
Modifying Symbols
Symbol
Term
At maximum material
condition
Al least material
condition
Projected tolerance
zone
Flatness
For individual features
Form
Circularity (roundness)
For individual or related features
For related features
Symbols
Cylindricity
Free state
Profile of a line
Tangent plane
Profile of a surface
Diameter
Angularity
Spherical diamter
Orientation
Perpendicularity
Parallelism
Position
Radius
Spherical radius
Controlled radius
R
SR
CR
Location
Concentricity
Symmetry
Reference
Arc length
( )
Statistical tolerance
ST
Profile
Runout
Circular runout
Total runout
*
*
Between
* Arrowheads may or may not be filled.
Datums are reference points, lines, areas, and planes taken to be exact for the purpose of
calculations and measurements. An initially machined surface on a casting, for example, may be
selected as a datum surface and used as a reference from which to measure and locate other part
features. Datums are usually not changed by subsequent machining operations and are identified
by single or sometimes double letters (except I,O, and Q) inside a rectangular frame. Figure 3.8a
show an example.
Figure 3.8 Datum and Format for Geometric Dimension.

The formats shown in Figure 3.8b are used to express some of the common geometric dimensions
and tolerances on working drawings. Geometric dimensions and tolerance symbols appear on
drawing in boxes such as those shown in the figure. The first box entry is the specific geometric
callout. This will be either a form or position symbol. The next box entry will indicate any datum, a
point, line, or plane, from which the geometric dimension is to be measured. The third box entry
specifies the tolerance zone that applies to the form or position called out by the symbol. Figure 3.9
show examples of drawing using geometric controls.
29
Figure 3.9 Examples of Drawing Formats for Geometric Control.
30
3.5.4 Abbreviations
Working drawings contain several symbols and abbreviations that convey important information to
the machinist. Certain machining operations may be abbreviated on a drawing. For example,
countersinking is a machining operation in which the end of a hole is shaped to accept a flathead
screw, and on a drawing countersinking may be abbreviated as CSINK. The desired angle will also
be specified. Table 3.9 gives some of the abbreviations used on mechanical drawings.
Table 3.9 Abbreviation on Drawing
Abbreviation
BHN
B.C.
BSHG
C'BORE
C'SINK
CTR
DIA
FAO.
HDN & GRD
ID.
Definition
Brinell hardness number
Bolt circle diameter
Bushing
Counterbore
Countersink
Center
Diameter
Finish all over
Harden and grind
Inside diameter
Abbreviation
OD
R
RH
SF
SKT
STL.
SCR
THD
TOL
TYP
Definition
Outside diameter
Radius
Rockwell hardness
Spot-face
Socket
Steel
Screw
Thread
Tolerance
Typical
Use common abbreviations in notes only when they cannot be misunderstood. If a common symbol
is available, it is preferred to the abbreviation because symbols are internationally recognized and
not language dependent. All abbreviations should conform to ANSI Y14.39-1999.
3.5.5 Size Dimensioning of Holes

Figure 3.10, shows standard symbols used in dimensioning. For example, countersunk,
counterbored, and tapped holes are usually specified by standard symbols or abbreviations (Table
3.9), as shown in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12. The order of items in a note corresponds to the
order of procedure in the shop in producing the hole. The leader of a note should point to the
circular view of the hole, if possible. When the circular view of the hole has two or more concentric
circles, as for counterbored, countersunk, or tapped holes, the arrowhead should touch the outer
circle. Examples are shown in Figure 3.12. Two or more holes can be dimensioned by a single note
and by specifying the number of holes, as shown at the top of Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.10 Form and Proportion of Dimensioning Symbols.
31
Figure 3.11 Dimensioning Holes.
Figure 3.12 Standard Symbols for Holes Dimensions.
32
Figure 3.13 Local Notes
3.5.6 Thread Notes

ASME/ANSI YI4.6-2001 "Screw Thread Representation" is a standard for representing, specifying,
and dimensioning screw threads on drawings. Thread notes for metric, unified, and American
national screw threads are shown in Figure 3.14
The unified thread form is an outgrowth of the American National Standard form. In order to help
standardize manufacturing in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, the unified form was
developed. Unified threads are a combination of the American National and the British Standard
Whitworth forms. Unified threads are divided into the following series:
UNC - Unified National Coarse

UNF - Unified National Fine
UNS - Unified National Special
Unified coarse and unified fine refer to the number of threads per inch of length on standard
threaded fasteners. A specific diameter of bolt or nut will have a specific number of threads per inch
of length.
33
For general use, three classes of screw thread fits between mating threads (as between bolt and
nut) have been established by ANSI. These fits are produced by the application of tolerances listed
in the standard and are as follows:
Table 3.10 Classes of Screw Thread Fits
Fit
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Description
Recommended only for screw thread work where clearance between mating parts is
essential for rapid assembly and where shake or play is not objectionable.
Represents a high quality of commercial thread product and is recommended for the
great bulk of interchangeable screw thread work.
Represents an exceptionally high quality of commercially threaded product and is
recommended only in cases where the high cost of precision tools and continual
checking are warranted.
Figure 3.14 Thread Notes
34
3.5.7 Thread Symbols

Simplified representation for external threads are shown in Figure 3.15a and Figure 3.15b.
Internal thread symbols are shown in Figure 3.16. Note that the only differences between the
schematic and simplified internal thread symbols occur in the sectional views.
Figure 3.15 External Thread Symbols
Figure 3.16 Internal Thread Symbols
3.5.8 Local notes

Local notes apply to specific operations only and are connected by a leader to the point at which
such operations are performed, as shown in Figure 3.13. The leader should be attached at the front
of the first word of a note, or just after the last word, and not at any intermediate place. Other
dimensioning is showing in Figure 3.17.
35
Figure 3.17 Dimensioning
36
3.5.9 Activity Practices

Complete the table drawing the correct surface texture symbols
Symbol
1
2
Meaning
Basic Surface Texture Symbol. Surface may be produced by any method except when the
bar or circle, (b) or (d), is specified.
Material Removal By Machining Is Required. The horizontal bar indicates that material
removal by machining is required to produce the surface and that material must be
provided for that purpose.
Material Removal Allowance. The number indicates the amount of stock to be removed by
machining in millimeters (or inches). Tolerances may be added to the basic value shown
or in a general note
Material Removal Prohibited. The circle in the vee indicates that the surface must be
produced by processes such as casting, forging, hot finishing, cold finishing, die casting.
powder metallurgy or injection molding without subsequent removal of material
Surface Texture Symbol. To be used when any surface characteristics are specified
above the horizontal line or to the right of the symbol. Surface may be produced by any
method except when the bar or circle, (b) or (d), is specified,
Complete the Figure using the correct parameter.
37
Complete the table drawing the correct lay symbol
SYM
DESIGNATION
Lay parallel to the line
representing
the
surface to which the
symbol is applied.
Lay perpendicular to
the line representing
the surface to which
the symbol is applied.
Lay
approximately
circular relative to the
center of the surface to
which the symbol is
applied.
EXAMPLE
SYM
DESIGNATION
EXAMPLE
Lay angular in both

directions to line
representing
the
surface to which
symbol is applied
Lay multidirectional
Lay approximately
radial relative to the
center of the surface
to which the symbol
is applied.
Complete the feature control boxes for each drawing using the correct geometric symbols and
datum reference.
38
Activity 4
The Lathe
4.1 Introduction
Historically, the lathe is the forerunner of all machine tools. The first application of the lathe
principle was probably the potters wheel. This machine rotated a mass of clay and enabled the
clay to be formed into a cylindrical shape.
The modern lathe operates on the same basic principle. The work is held and rotated on its axis
while the cutting tool is advanced along the lines of a desired cut. The lathe is one of the most
versatile machine tools used in industry. With suitable attachments, the lathe may be used for
turning, tapering, form turning, screw cutting, facing, drilling, boring, spinning, grinding, and
polishing operations.
4.2 Objectives
To identify and be able to explain the purpose of the major features of an engine lathe
including lathe accessories, and attachments.
To describe the characteristics and specifications of basic lathe cutting tool bits and
inserts.
To develop an understanding of cutting tool materials.
To calculate correct speeds and feeds.
4.3 Lathe Safety Rules

1. Remove chuck key from chuck immediately after using.
2. Don't run the machine faster than the proper cutting speed.
3. In setting up the tool holder place it to the left side of the compound slide to prevent the
compound slide from running into the chuck or spindle attachments.
4. Always clamp the toolbit as short as possible in the toolholder to prevent it from breaking or
chattering.
5. Always make sure that the toolbit is sharp and has the proper clearance. Ask for assistance
making adjustments.
6. Do not grasp or touch chips or turnings with your fingers, but get rid of them using a blunt
instrument. It is safer to turn off the lathe before clearing chips then to leave it running.
7. Set the toolbit on centerline of work to prevent work from climbing over tool or cutting above
center and dragging.
8. Turn chuck or faceplate through by hand before turning on the power to be sure there is no
binding or clearance problem.
9. Stop the machine before taking measurements.
10. Before cleaning the lathe remove tools from the tool post and tailstock.
4.4 Engine Lathe Parts

Figure 4.1 shows a lathe and its most important parts. A lathe consists of the following major
component groups: headstock, bed, carriage, tailstock, quick-change gearbox, and a base or
pedestal. The headstock is fastened on the left side of the bed. It contains the spindle that drives
the various workholding devices. The spindle is supported by spindle bearings on each end. If they
are sleeve-type bearings, a thrust bearing is also used to take up end play. Tapered roller spindle
39
40
bearings are often used on modern lathes. Spindle speed changes are also made in the headstock,
either with belts or with gears. The threading and feeding mechanisms of the lathe are also
powered through the headstock.
Figure 4.1 Engine Lathe with the Parts Identified.

The size of the lathe is determined by the swing and by the length of the bed. The swing indicates
the largest diameter that can be turned over the bed ways (the flat or v-shaped bearing surfaces
that align the machine). The bed length is not the same as the longest workpiece that can be
turned. As you can see from Figure 4.2, the longest piece that can be turned is equal to the length
of the bed minus the space taken up by the headstock and tailstock.
Figure 4.2 Lathe Size.
41
4.5 Methods of Holding

There are four common methods used to hold workparts in turning. These workholding methods
consist of various mechanisms to grasp the work, center and support it in position along the spindle
axis, and rotate it. The methods, illustrated in Figure 4.3, are (a) mounting the work between
centers, (b) chuck, (c) collet, and (d) face plate.
Figure 4.3 Workholding Methods Used in Lathes.
4.6 Turning Operations

A variety of other machining operations can be performed on a lathe in addition to turning; these
include the following, illustrated in Figure 4.4
Figure 4.4 Lathe Operations

a) Facing- The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat surface on
the end.
42
b) Taper turning- Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, the tool
is fed at an angle, thus creating a tapered cylinder or conical shape.
c) Contour turning- Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the axis of
rotation as in turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a
contoured form in the turned part.
d) Form turning- In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a shape that is
imparted to the work by plunging the tool radially into the work.
e) Chamfering- The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of the
cylinder, forming what is called a "chamfer."
f) Cutoff- The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its length to cut
off the end of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as parting.
g) Threading- A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating workpart in
a direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus creating threads
in the cylinder.
h) Boring- A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the inside
diameter of an existing hole in the part.
i) Drilling- Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating work along
its axis. Reaming can be performed in a similar way.
j) Knurling- This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of material.
Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular crosshatched pattern in
the work surface.
4.6.1 Cutting Speed

Lathe work cutting speed (CS) may be defined as the rate at which a point on the work
circumference travels past the cutting tool. For instance, if a metal has a CS of 90 ft/min, the spindle
speed must be set so that 90 ft of the work circumference will pass the cutting tool in 1 min. Cutting
speed is always expressed in feet per minute (ft/min) or in meters per minute (m/min). Do not
confuse the CS of a metal with the number of turns the workpiece will make in 1 min (RPM).
Industry demands that machining operations be performed as quickly as possible; therefore, correct
CS must be used for the type of material cut. If the CS is too high, the cutting tool edge breaks
down rapidly, resulting in time lost to recondition the tool. With too slow a CS, time will be lost for the
machining operation, resulting in low production rates. Based on research and testing by steel and
cutting-tool manufacturers, the CS for high-speed steel tools listed in Table 4.1 are recommended
for efficient metal removal rates. These speeds may be varied slightly to suit factors such as the
condition of the machine, the type of work material, and sand or hard spots in the metal.
Table 4.1 Lathe Cutting Speed using a High Speed Steel Toolbit
Turning and Boring
Material
Rough Cut
Threading
Finish Cut
ft/min
m/min
ft/min
m/min
ft/min
m/min
Machine steel
90
27
100
30
35
11
Tool steel
70
21
90
27
30
Cast iron
60
18
80
24
25
Bronze
90
27
100
30
25
Aluminum
200
61
300
93
60
18
To calculate the lathe spindle speed in revolutions per minute (RPM), the CS of the metal and the
diameter of the work must be known. The proper spindle speed can then be set by dividing the CS
43
(in inches per minute) by the circumference of the work (in inches). The calculation for determining
the spindle speed (RPM) is as follows.
RPM
CS 12
D
Where CS = cutting speed in ft/min and D = diameter of work to be turned in inches.

However, because most lathes provide only a limited number of speed settings, a simpler formula is
usually used:
RPM
For metric calculation
RPM
CS 4
D
CS 320
D
Where CS = cutting speed in m/min and D = diameter of work to be turned in millimeters.

Examples
Calculate the RPM required to rough-turn a 2 in Calculate the RPM required to turn a 45 mm
diameter piece of machine steel
diameter piece of machine steel
From Table 4.1 for machine steel CS = 90 ft/min
RPM
From Table 4.1 for machine steel CS = 40 m/min
4 CS 4 90
180
D
2
RPM
320 CS 320 40
284
D
45
4.6.2 Lathe Feed

The feed of a lathe may be defined as the distance the cutting tool advances along the length of the
work for every revolution of the spindle
Table 4.2 lists the recommended feeds for cutting various materials when a high-speed steel cutting
tool is used.
Table 4.2 Feeds for Various Material Using a High Speed Steel Cutting Tool
Rough Cuts
Material
Finish Cuts
in.
mm
in.
Mm
Machine steel
.010-.020
0.25-0.5
.003-.010
0.07-0.25
Tool steel
.010-.020
0.25-0.5
.003-.010
0.07-0.25
Cast iron
.015-.025
0.4-0.65
.005-.012
0.13-0.3
Bronze
.015-.025
0.4-0.65
.003-.010
0.07-0.25
Aluminum
.015-.030
0.4-0.75
.005-.010
0.13-0.25
4.6.3 Depth of Cut

The depth of cut may be defined as the depth of the chip taken by the cutting tool and is one-half
the total amount removed from the workpiece in one cut. Figure 4.5 shows depth of cut
44
Figure 4.5 The Depth of Cut on a Lathe
4.6.4 Machining Time

Any machinist should be able to estimate the time required to machine a workpiece. Factors such
as spindle speed, feed, and depth of cut must be considered.
In order to reduce a piece from initial diameter D1 to final diameter D2, the depth of cut is the factor
that predicts the number of machining pass (tool travel).
D -D
N 1 2
2d
Where N = Number of pass
d = depth of cut
D = Diamter
To calculate the time required to machine a workpiece for each pass the following formula may be
applied
distance
Time
rate
Where distance = length of cut
rate = feed RPM
Example:
Calculate the time required to machine a 2-in.-diameter machine-steel shaft 16 in. long to 1.850-in.
diameter finish size.
From Table 4.1 for Roughing From Table 4.2 for Roughing For finishing cut:
4 100
cut
feed = .020
RPM
216
4 CS 4 90
D
2
180
RPM
length of cut
16
feed RMP .020 180

4.4 min
Time
Total machine time: Roughing cut time + finishing cut time:

Total Time = 4.4 + 24.7 = 29.1 min
2
Finishing feed = .003
Time
16
24.7 min
.003 216
45
4.7 Cutting Tools

4.7.1 Cutting-Tool Materials
The properties possessed by each of these materials are different and the application of each
depends on the material being machined and the condition of the machine.
Lathe toolbits should possess the following properties:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
They should be hard.

They should be wear-resistant.
They should be capable of maintaining a red hardness during the machining operation.
They should be able to withstand shock during the cutting operation.
They should be shaped so that the edge can penetrate the work. (The shape will be
determined by the cutting-tool material, the material being cut, and the angle of keenness.)
Lathe toolbits are generally made of five materials:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
High-speed steel.
Cast alloys (such as stellite).
Cemented carbides.
Ceramics.
Cermets.
More exotic cutting-tool materials, such as polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN), commonly
called Borazon, and polycrystalline diamond (PCD) are finding wide use in the metal-working
industry because of the increased productivity they offer. Borazon is used to machine hardened
alloy steels and tough superalloys. Polycrystalline diamond cutting tools are used to machine
nonferrous and nonmetallic materials requiring close tolerances and a high surface finish.
4.7.1.1
High-Speed Steel Toolbits
The toolbit most commonly used in schools for lathe operations. High-speed steels may contain
combinations of tungsten, chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, and cobalt. They are capable of
taking heavy cuts, withstand shock, and maintain a sharp cutting edge under red heat. High-speed
steel toolbits are generally of two types: molybdenum-base (Group M) and tungsten-base (Group
T).
4.7.1.2
Cast Alloy Toolbits
Cast alloy (stellite) toolbits usually contain 25 to 35 percent chromium, 4 to 25 percent tungsten,
and 1 to 3 percent carbon; the remainder is cobalt. These toolbits have high hardness, high
resistance to wear, and excellent redhardness qualities.
4.7.1.3
Cemented-Carbide Toolbits
Cemented-carbide toolbits are capable of cutting speeds three to four times those of high-speed
steel toolbits. They have low toughness but high hardness and excellent red-hardness qualities.
46
4.7.1.4
Ceramic Toolbits
A ceramic is a heat-resistant material produced without a metallic bonding agent such as cobalt.
Aluminum oxide is the most popular material used to make ceramic cutting tools. Titanium oxide or
titanium carbide may be used as an additive, depending on the cutting tool application.
4.7.1.5
Cermet Toolbits
A cermet is a cutting-tool insert composed of ceramics and metal. Most cermets are made from
aluminum oxide, titanium carbide, and zirconium oxide compacted and compressed under intense
heat.
4.7.2 Lathe Toolbit Angles and Clearances

The Figure 4.6 shows the angles and clearance for lathe cutting tools. Proper toolbit performance
depends on the clearance and rake angles, which must be ground on the toolbit. Although these
angles vary for different materials, the nomenclature is the same for all toolbits (see Table 4.3).
Figure 4.6 Angles and Clearances for Lathe Cutting Tools

Table 4.3 Recommended Angles for High-Speed Steel Tools
Side Relief
Side
Relief
Side Rake
Back
Rake
Angle of
Keenness
Aluminum
12
15
35
63
Brass
10
5 to 4
75 to 84
Bronze
10
5 to 4
75 to 84
Cast Iron
10
12
68
Copper
12
10
20
16
58
10 to 12
12 to 18
8 to 15
60 to 68
Tool steel
10
12
68
Stainless steel
10
15 to 20
72
Material
Machine steel
low
high
47
4.8 Lathe Setup Tables

D
E
A
B
C
I
II
I
II
I
II
1
30
60
46
92
70
140
2
110
220
180
360
265
530
3
430
860
700
1400
1000
2000
2
B
C
A
TPI
M
M
MOD
TPI
DP
M
MOD
TPI
DP
MOD
DP
48
4.8.1.1
Activity Practice
Identify the part of lathe
Identify the lathe operation
49
4.9 Lathe Practice

4.9.1 Piece I
1
0.2500.005
R 3 16
13 8
4 38
All dimensions in inches
4.9.2 Piece II
1.0
45
0.1
0.1
1.50
0.00
0.01
0.5
1.75
0.75
1.25
0.5
0.01
0.00
0.75
4.9.3 Piece III

0.350.5
X 13 NC
0.700.01
1.00.1
0.5000.001
1.000.01
0.250.05
3.000.05
50
Activity 5
The Milling
5.1 Introduction
Milling is a machining operation in which a workpart is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool with
multiple cutting edges. The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of
feed. This orientation between the tool axis and the feed direction is one of the features that
distinguishes milling from drilling. In drilling, the cutting tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of
rotation. The cutting tool in milling is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are called teeth.
The machine tool that traditionally performs this operation is a milling machine.
The geometric form created by milling is a plane surface. Other work geometries can be created
either by means of the cutter path or the cutter shape. Owing to the variety of shapes possible and
its high production rates, milling is one of the most versatile and widely used machining operations.
5.2 Objectives
identify safe vertical milling machine practices.
Identify the important components and controls on the vertical milling machine.
Identify and select from commonly used vertical milling machine cutting tools.
5.3 Safe Milling Machine Practices

Aside from the safety instructions given in activity 1 including proper dress, eye protection, jewelry
removal, and alertness there are a few safety instructions that pertain to the vertical milling
machine. All machine guards should be in place prior to starting a machine. Observe other
machines in operation around you to make sure they are guarded properly. Report any unsafe or
missing guards to your supervisor.
Safety also involves keeping the machine and the area surrounding it clean. Any oil or coolant spills
on the floor should be wiped up immediately to avoid slipping and falling. Chips should be swept up
with a brush or broom and deposited in chip or trash containers.
5.4 Types of Milling Operations

There are two basic types of milling operations, shown in Figure 5.1: (a) peripheral milling and (b)
face milling.
Figure 5.1 Milling Operations

51
52
5.4.1 Peripheral Milling

In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to the surface being
machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside periphery of the cutter.
Several types of peripheral milling are shown in Figure 5.2:
Figure 5.2 Peripheral Milling
5.4.2 Face Milling

In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled, and machining is
performed by cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter. As in peripheral
milling, various forms of face milling exist, several of which are shown in Figure 5.3:
Figure 5.3 Face Milling
5.5 Milling Machines

Milling machines must provide a rotating spindle for the cutter and a table for fastening, positioning,
and feeding the workpart. Milling machines can be classified as horizontal or vertical.
A horizontal milling machine has a horizontal spindle, and this design is well-suited for performing
peripheral milling (e.g., slab milling, slotting, side and straddle milling) on workparts that are roughly
cube-shaped. A vertical milling machine has a vertical spindle, and this orientation is appropriate for
face milling, end milling, surface contouring, and diesinking on relatively flat workparts.
53
Figure 5.4 Type of Milling Machine
5.6 Workholding Devices on the Milling Machine

5.6.1 Vise
The most common method of workholding on a milling machine is a vise. Vises are simple to use
and can quickly be adjusted to the size of the workpiece. A vise should be used to hold work with
parallel sides if it is within the size limits of the vise, because it is the quickest and most economical
workholding method. The plain vise (Figure 5.5a) is bolted to the machine table. Alignment with the
table is provided by two slots at right angles to each other on the underside of the vise. These slots
are fitted with removable keys that align the vise with the table T-slots either lengthwise or
crosswise. A plain vise can be converted to a swivel vise (Figure 5.5b) by mounting it on a swivel
plate. The swivel plate is graduated in degrees. This allows the upper section to be swiveled to any
angle in the horizontal plane. When swivel bases are added to a plain vise, the versatility increases,
but rigidity is lessened.
For work involving compound angles, a universal vise (Figure 5.5c) is used. This vise can be
swiveled 90 degrees in the vertical plane and 360 degrees in the horizontal plane. The most rigid
setup is the one where the workpiece is clamped close to the table surface.
Figure 5.5 Type of Vises
54
5.6.2 V Blocks
V-Blocks hold and support round work for milling or drilling (Figure 5.6a). V-Blocks come in many
different sizes. On milling machines, V-Blocks are typically clamped directly to the table (Figure 8).
5.6.3 Angles Plates

An angle plate is an L shaped piece of Cast Iron or Steel that has tapped holes or slots to facilitate
the clamping of the workpiece (Figure 5.6b).
5.6.4 Parallels
Parallels are pieces of steel bar stock accurately machines so that the opposing sides are parallel
to each other (Figure 5.6c).
5.6.5 Clamps
Work that is too large or has an odd configuration is usually bolted directly to the table (Figure
5.6d). This method of work holding takes the most ingenuity and expertise.
Figure 5.6 Workholding Device
5.7 Milling Cutters

5.7.1 Plain Milling Cutters
Light-duty plain milling cutters (Figure 5.7a), which are less than in. (19 mm) wide, will usually
have straight teeth; those over in. (19 mm) wide have a helix angle of about 25 (Figure 5.7b).
This type of cutter is used only for light milling operations since it has too many teeth to permit the
chip clearance required for heavier cuts.
Heavy-duty plain milling cutters (Figure 5.7c) have fewer teeth than the light-duty type, which
provide for better chip clearance. The helix angle varies up to 45. This helix angle on the teeth
produces a smoother surface because of the shearing action and reduced chatter. Less power is
required with this type of cutter than with straight-tooth and small-helix-angle cutters.
High-helix plain milling cutters (Figure 5.7d) have helix angles from 45 to over 60. They are
particularly suited to the milling of wide and intermittent surfaces on contour and profile milling.
Although this type of cutter is usually mounted on the milling machine arbor, it is sometimes shankmounted with a pilot on the end and used for milling elongated slots.
55
Figure 5.7 Plain Milling Cutters

Side milling cutters (Figure 5.8) are comparatively narrow cylindrical milling cutters with teeth on
each side as well as on the periphery. They are used for cutting slots and for face and straddle
milling operations. Side milling cutters may have straight teeth (Figure 5.8a) or staggered teeth
(Figure 5.8b).
Staggered-tooth cutters have each tooth set alternately to the right and left with an alternately
opposite helix angle on the periphery. These cutters have free cutting action at high speeds and
feeds. They are particularly suited for milling deep, narrow slots.
Half-side milling cutters (Figure 5.8c) are used when only one side of the cutter is required, as in
end facing. These cutters are also made with interlocking faces so that two cutters may be placed
side by side for slot milling. The interlocking type is more suited for slot cutting than the solid-type,
staggered-tooth cutter since the amount ground from the side of the cutter during regrinding may be
compensated by a washer between the cutters. Half-side milling cutters have considerable rake
and, therefore, are able to take heavy cuts.
Figure 5.8 Side Milling Cutters

Face milling cutters (Figure 5.9) are generally over 6 in. (150 mm) in diameter and have inserted
teeth held in place by a wedging device. The teeth may be of high speed steel, cast tool steel, or
they may be tipped with sintered-carbide cutting edges. The corners of this type of cutter are
beveled; most of the cutting action occurs at these points and the periphery of the cutter. The face
of the tooth removes a small amount of stock left by the spring of the work or cutter. To prevent
chatter, only a small portion of the tooth face near the periphery is in contact with the work; the
remainder is ground with a suitable clearance (8 to 10).
56
Single-angle milling cutters (Figure 5.9c) have teeth on the angular surface and mayor may not
have teeth on the flat side. The included angle between the flat face and the conical face
designates the cutters, such as 45 or 60 angular cutter.
Double-angle milling cutters (Figure 5.9d) have two intersecting angular surfaces with cutting teeth
on both. When these cutters have equal angles on both sides of the line at a right angle to the axis
(symmetrical), they are designated by the size of the
Figure 5.9 Face and Angular Milling Cutters

Formed cutters (Figure 5.10) incorporate the exact shape of the part to be produced, permitting
exact and more economical duplication of irregularly shaped parts than most other means. Formed
cutters are particularly useful for the production of small parts. Each tooth of a formed cutter is
identical in shape, and the clearance is machined on the full thickness of each tooth by the form or
master tool in a cam-controlled relieving machine. Examples of formed-relieved cutters are
concave, convex, and gear cutters.
Figure 5.10 Formed Milling Cutters
5.7.2 Vertical Milling Cutters

End mills is the most frequently used cutting tool for the vertical milling machine. End mills are so
named because their primary cutting is done on their ends. End mills may have two, three, four, or
more flutes and may be right-or left-hand cutting. To determine the cutting direction of an end mill,
57
observe the cutter from its cutting end (Figure 5.11). A right-handed cutter will cut while turning in a
counterclockwise direction. A left-handed cutter will cut turning in a clockwise direction. The
direction of flute twist or helix may also be right-or left-handed. For example, a right-handed helix
twists to the right.
Two-flute end mills can be used for plunge cutting. These are called center cutting because they
can make their own starting hole (Figure 5.11). Four flute end mills may also be center cutting.
However, if these are center drilled or gashed on the end, they cannot start their own holes. This
type of end mill will only cut on its periphery, but may be used in end milling provided the cut is
begun off the workpiece or in a premachined hole or other cavity.
Figure 5.11 End Milling

The high-speed steel end mill is a very common cutter for the vertical mill. These cutters may be
single ended (Figure 5.12a) or double ended (Figure 5.12b). They may also have straight flutes
(Figure 5.12c). Slow, regular, and fast helix angles are also available. An example of slow helix is
where the helix angle of the cutter is about 12 degrees. A regular helix angle may be 30 degrees
and a fast helix 40 degrees or more. Selection of helix angle will depend on the machining task. For
example, aluminum can be machined efficiently with a high-helix-angle cutter (45 degrees) and with
a highly polished cutting face to minimize chip adherence (Figure 5.12d). Chips sticking to the
cutting face can mar the surface finish of the part being machined.
The roughing end mill (Figure 5.12e) is used when large amounts of material must be quickly
removed (roughed) from the workpiece. These end mills are also called hogging end mills and have
a wavy tooth form cut on their periphery. These wavy teeth form many individual cutting edges. The
tip of each wave contacts the work and produces one short compact chip. Each succeeding wave
tip is offset from the next one, which results in a relatively smooth surface finish. During the cutting
58
operation, a number of teeth are in contact with the work. This reduces the possibility of vibration or
chatter.
Tapered end mills (Figure 5.12f) are used in mold making, die work, and pattern making, where
precise tapered surfaces need to be made. Tapered end mills have included tapers ranging from 1
degree to over 10 degrees. Tapered end mills are also called diesinking mills.
Figure 5.12 High Speed Steel End Mills

Several types of end mills are used to form a particular geometry on the workpiece. Ball-end end
mills (Figure 5.13a) have two or more flutes and form an inside radius or fillet between surfaces.
Ball-end end mills are used in mold making and in diesinking operations. Round-bottom grooves
can also be machined with them. Precise convex radii can be machined on a milling machine with
corner rounding end mills (Figure 5.13b). Dovetails' are machined with single-angle milling cutters
(Figure 5.13c). The two commonly available angles are 45 degrees and 60 degrees. T-slots in
machine tables and work-holding devices are machined with T-slot cutters (Figure 5.13d). T-slot
cutters are made in sizes to fit standard T-nuts.
Woodruff keyseats are cut into shafts to retain a woodruff key as a driving and connecting member
between shafts and pulleys or gears. Woodruff keyseat cutters (Figure 5.13e) come in many
different standardized sizes.
A flycutter is a single-point tool often consisting of a high-speed or carbide tool secured in an
appropriate holder (Figure 5.14). Although a flycutter is not truly an end mill, it is used for end
milling applications.
59
Figure 5.13 Formed End Mills
Figure 5.14 Flycutter with an HSS tool installed
5.8 Cutter Holding on the Vertical Mill

No matter which of the milling cutters discussed previously you might be using, they all must be
securely mounted in the machine spindle before beginning a machining operation. Collet holders
are widely used for this purpose.
The most rigid type of these is the solid collet (Figure 5.15a), sometimes called an end mill holder.
The solid collet has a precision ground shank that fits the spindle on the milling machine. Most
common vertical spindle milling machines have an R 8 spindle, meaning that they will accept all
standard R 8 tooling. The solid collet has a hole that fits the shank of the end mill. The end mill is
secured with setscrews that bear against a flat on the cutter shank. Solid collets will accommodate
many different sizes of end mill shanks.
The split collet (Figure 5.15b) is widely used to hold cutters on the vertical mill. When the tapered
part of the collet is pulled into the spindle taper by the drawbolt, the split in the collet permits it to
squeeze tightly against the shank of the end mill. Although split collets are very effective cutter
holding devices, it is possible for a cutter to be pulled from the collet because of heavy feed rates or
the tool being dull. Helical flute end mills may tend to be pulled from the collet as well. In this
respect the solid collet has an advantage over the split type since here the setscrews prevent
slippage of the cutter.
60
Figure 5.15 Collet types

Taper shank end mills and drills are fitted in an adapter, Figure 5.16A. Some machine spindles
have a Brown & Sharpe taper. When taper shanks are large enough, they are mounted directly,
Figure 5.16B. When a taper is too small to fit directly into the spindle, a sleeve must be employed.
Straight shank end mills are held in a spring collet, Figure 5.16C, or in an end mill adapter, Figure
5.16D. Small drills, reamers, and similar tools are held in a standard Jacobs chuck fitted to the
spindle by one of the above methods.
Figure 5.16 Common Methods to Mount End Mills in a Vertical Milling Machine
5.9 Cutting Speed

The cutting speed of a metal may be defined as the speed at which the metal may be machined
efficiently. When the work is machined in a lathe, it must be turned at a specific number of
revolutions per minute, depending on its diameter, to achieve the proper cutting speed. When work
is machined in a milling machine, the cutter must be revolved at a specific number of revolutions
per minute, depending on its diameter, to achieve the proper cutting speed.
61
Since different types of metals vary in hardness, structure, and machinability, different cutting
speeds must be used for each type of metal and for various cutter materials.
Several factors must be considered when determining the proper r/min at which to machine a metal.
The most important are:
The type of work material

The cutter material
The diameter of the cutter
The surface finish required
The depth of cut taken
The rigidity of the machine and work setup
The cutting speeds for the more common metals are shown in Table 5.1
Table 5.1 Milling Machine Cutting Speeds
High-Speed Steel
Carbide Cutter
Material
ft/min
m/min
ft/min
m/min
Alloy steel
40-70
12-20
150-250
45-75
Aluminum
500-1000
150-300
1000-2000
300-600
Bronze
65-120
20-35
200-400
60-120
Cast iron
50-80
15-25
125-200
40-60
Free machining steel
100-150
30-45
400-600
120-180
Machine steel
70-100
21-30
150-250
45-75
Stainless steel
30-80
10-25
100-300
30-90
Tool steel
60-70
18-20
125-200
40-60
To determine the proper cutter speed or RPM, it is necessary only to divide the cutting speed (CS)
by the circumference of the cutter.
RPM
4 CS
D
Where CS = cutting speed in ft/min and D = diameter of milling cutter.

For metric calculation
RPM
CS 320
D
Where CS = cutting speed in m/min and D = diameter of work to be turned in millimeters.

Using this formula and Table 5.1, you can calculate the proper cutter or spindle speed for any
material and cutter diameter.
Although these formulas are helpful in calculating the cutter (spindle) speed, it should be
remembered that they are approximate only and the speed may have to be altered because of the
hardness of the metal and/or the machine condition. Best results may be obtained if the following
rules are observed:
For longer cutter life, use the lower CS in the recommended range
62
Know the hardness of the material to be machined.
When starting a new job, use the lower range of the CS and gradually increase to the higher
range if conditions permit.
If a fine finish is required, reduce the feed rather than increase the cutter speed.
The use of coolant, properly applied, will generally produce a better finish and lengthen the
life of the cutter.
The coolant absorbs heat, acts as a lubricant, and washes chips away.
5.10 Milling Feed

The two other factors which affect the efficiency of a milling operation are the milling feed, or the
rate at which the work is fed into the milling cutter, and the depth of cut taken on each pass.
Milling machine feed may be defined as the distance in inches (or millimeters) per minute that the
work moves into the cutter. On most milling machines, the feed is regulated in inches (or
millimeters) per minute and is independent of the spindle speed. This arrangement permits faster
feeds for larger, slowly rotating cutters.
Feed is the rate at which the work moves into the revolving cutter, and it is measured either in
inches per minute or in millimeters per minute. The milling feed is determined by multiplying the
chip size (chip per tooth) desired, the number of teeth in the cutter, and the r/min of the cutter.
Chip or feed per tooth (CPT or FPT) is the amount of material that should be removed by each tooth
of the cutter as it revolves and advances into the work. See Table 5.2 and Table 5.3 for the
recommended CPT for some of the more common metals.
The feed rate used on a milling machine depends on a variety of factors, such as
The depth and width of cut
The design or type of cutter
The sharpness of the cutter
The workpiece material
The strength and uniformity of the workpiece
The type of finish and accuracy required
The power and rigidity of the machine, the holding device, and the tooling setup
As the work advances into the cutter, each successive tooth advances into the work an equal
amount, producing chips of equal thickness. This thickness of the chips or the feed per tooth, along
with the number of teeth in the cutter, forms the basis for determining the rate of feed. The ideal
rate of feed may be determined as follows:
Feed Nt CFT RPM

Where Nt = number of teeth in the milling cutter and CFT = chip per tooth for particular cutter and
metal, RPM = revolution per minute of the milling cutter.
The calculated feeds would be possible only under ideal conditions. Under average operating
conditions, and especially in school shops, the milling machine feed should be set to approximately
one-third or one-half the amount calculated. The feed can then be gradually increased to the
capacity of the machine and the finish desired.
63
Table 5.2 Recommended Feed per Tooth (High-Speed Cutters)
Slotting and
Side Mills
Face Mills
Helical Mills
in.
mm
in.
mm
in.
Alloy steel
.006
0.15
.005
0.12
.004
Aluminum
.022
0.55
.018
0.45
Brass and Bronze

(medium)
.014
0.35
.011
Cast iron (medium)
.013
0.33
Free machining steel
.012
Machine steel
Material
mm
End Mills
FormRelieved
Cutters
Circular Saws
in
mm
in
mm
in
Mm
0.1
.003
0.07
.002
0.05
.002
0.05
.013
0.33
.011
0.28
.007
0.18
.005
0.13
0.28
.008
0.2
.007
0.18
.004
0.1
.003
0.08
.010
0.25
.007
0.18
.007
0.18
.004
0.1
.003
0.08
0.3
.010
0.25
.007
0.17
.006
0.15
.004
0.1
.003
0.07
.012
0.3
.010
0.25
.007
0.18
.006
0.15
.004
0.1
.003
0.08
Stainless steel
.006
0.15
.005
0.13
.004
0.1
.003
0.08
.002
0.05
.002
0.05
Tool steel (medium)
.010
0.25
.008
0.2
.006
0.15
.005
0.13
.003
0.08
.003
0.08
Table 5.3 Recommended Feed per Tooth (Cemented-Carbide-Tipped Cutters)
Material
Slotting and
Side Mills
Face Mills
Helical Mills
in.
in.
mm
in.
mm
mm
End Mills
FormRelieved
Cutters
Circular Saws
in
mm
in
mm
in
Mm
Aluminum
.020
0.5
.016
0.40
.012
0.3
.010
0.25
.006
0.15
.005
0.13
Brass and Bronze

(medium)
.012
0.3
.010
0.25
.007
0.18
.006
0.15
.004
0.1
.003
0.08
Cast iron (medium)
.016
0.4
.013
0.33
.010
0.25
.008
0.2
.005
0.13
.004
0.1
Machine steel
.016
0.4
.013
0.33
.009
0.23
.008
0.2
.005
0.13
.004
0.1
Tool steel (medium)
.014
0.35
.011
0.28
.008
0.2
.007
0.18
.004
0.1
.004
0.1
Stainless steel
.010
0.25
.008
0.2
.006
0.15
.005
0.13
.003
0.08
.003
0.08
5.11 Direction of Feed

One final consideration concerning feed is the direction in which the work is fed into the cutter. The
most commonly used method is to feed the work against the rotation direction of the cutter
(conventional or up milling) (Figure 5.17a). However, if the machine is equipped with a backlash
eliminator, certain types of work can best be milled by climb milling (Figure 5.17b).
Figure 5.17 Direction of Feed
64
Climb milling, which can increase cutter life up to 50 percent, is effective for most milling
applications. To know whether climb or conventional milling is being used, look at the relationship
between the cutter rotation and the direction of the machine table/work feed. Climb milling is being
used when the cutter and the workpiece are going in the same direction (Figure 5.17b).
Conventional milling is when the cutter and the workpiece are going in opposite directions.
Advantages of Climb Milling
Increased tool life-Since the chips pile up behind or to the left of the cutter, tool life can be
increased by as much as 50 percent.
Less costly fixtures required-Climb milling forces the workpiece down instead of trying to lift
as with conventional milling; therefore, simpler holding devices are required.
Improved surface finishes-Chips are less likely to be carried into the workpiece by the cutter
teeth, which prevents damage to the work surface.
Less edge breakout-Because the thickness of the chip tends to get smaller as it nears the
edge of a workpiece, there is less chance of breaking, especially with brittle materials.
Easier chip removal-The cutter teeth force the chips to fall behind the cutter and make it
easier to remove the chips.
Lower power requirements-Since a cutter with a higher rake angle can be used,
approximately 20 percent less power is required to remove the same amount of metal.
Disadvantages of Climb Milling
This method cannot be used unless the machine has a backlash eliminator and the table
gibs have been tightened.
It cannot be used for machining castings or hot-rolled steel since the hard outer scale will
damage the cutter.
Conventional milling is recommended when machining castings or forgings, where there is a hard
or abrasive surface due to scale or sand. It should always be used on machines which do not have
a backlash eliminator.
5.12 Depth of Cut

Where a smooth, accurate finish is desired, it is good milling practice to take a roughing and
finishing cut. Roughing cuts should be deep, with a feed as heavy as the work and the machine will
permit. Heavier cuts may be taken with helical cutters having fewer teeth since they are stronger
and have a greater chip clearance than cutters with more teeth.
Finishing cuts should be light, with a finer feed than is used for roughing cuts. The depth of the cut
should be at least 1/64 in. (0.4 mm). Lighter cuts and extremely fine feeds are not advisable since
the chip taken by each tooth will be thin, and the cutter will often rub on the surface of the work,
rather than bite into it, thus dulling the cutter. When a fine finish is required, the feed should be
reduced rather than the cutter speeded up; more cutters are dulled by high speeds than by high
feeds.
To prevent damage to the finished surface (dwell marks), never stop the feed when the cutter is
revolving over the workpiece. For the same reason, stop the cutter before returning the work to the
starting position on completion of the cut.
65
5.13 Machining Time

The time required to mill a workpiece of length L must account for the approach distance required to
fully engage the cutter. First, consider the case of slab milling, Figure 5.18a. To determine the time
to perform a slab milling operation, the approach distance A to reach full cutter depth is given by
A d D d
Where d = depth of cut; and D = diameter of the milling cutter. The time to mill the workpiece Tm is
therefore
Tm
L A
Feed
Figure 5.18 Approach and Overtravel Distance

For face milling, it is customary to allow for the approach distance A plus an overtravel distance O.
There are two possible cases as pictured in Figure 5.18. In both cases, A = O. The first case is
when the cutter is centered over the rectangular workpiece. It is clear from Figure 5.18b that A and
O are each equal to half the cutter diameter. That is,
AO
D
2
where D = cutter diameter

The second case is when the cutter is offset to one side of the work, as shown in Figure 5.18c. In
this case, the approach and overtravel distances are given by
A O w D w
where w = width of the cut. Machining time in either case is therefore given by
Tm
L 2A
Feed
Example:
Find the feed in inches per minute using a 3.5-in.-diameter, 12-tooth helical cutter to cut machine steel (CS
80). Calculate the milling time for a workpiece of 15 inches of length with a depth of cut 0.25 inches.
From Table 5.2 for Helical mill CPT=
.010
4 CS 4 80
D
3.5
91
RPM
Feed N t CFT RPM

12 .010 91
10.9
11 in / min
Approach distance
A d D d 0.25 3.5 0.25

0.9 1 in
Tm
L A 15 1
1.45min
Feed
11
66
5.14 Milling Machinable Feature

The Figure 5.19 shown the machinable feature using a milling machine
Figure 5.19 Milling Machinable Feature
5.15 Milling Setup

The vertical milling machine is capable of performing milling, drilling, boring, and reaming
operations. It differs from the horizontal; mill in that the spindle is mounted in a vertical position.
The spindle head swivels 90 left or right for machining at any angle, Figure 5.20. The ram, on
which it is mounted, can be adjusted in and out. On many vertical mills, it also revolves 180 on a
horizontal plane. Both swivels are graduated in degrees with a vernier scale to assure accurate
angular settings.
Figure 5.20 Angular Head adjustments
67
Figure 5.21 Milling Variable Speed Head
68
5.16 Activity Practice

Identify the milling process
Identify the milling process by direction of feed
Identify the type of vise
69
Identify the elements of milling machine
70
5.17 Milling Practice

5.17.1 Piece I
1.0
45
0.1
0.1
- 20 UNC - 2B 0.35
0.35
Circumscribed
Square
0.25
Circumscribed
Hexagon
0.00
0.01
1.50
0.5
0.25
1.75
1
4
- 20 UNC- 2B
0.01
0.00
Section A-A
0.75
0.375
0.375
0.5
0.25 0.25
0.25
0.5
5.17.2 Piece II
3
R 1 12
3
1 12
1 12
- 20 UNC - 2B 3 4
5.17.3 Piece III

3
1 12
1 1
60
R 14
1 12
1 12
- 20 UNC - 2B 3 4
Activity 6
Milling and Lathe CNC
6.1 Introduction
Computer numerical control (CNC) is the process of manufacturing machined parts. Production is
controlled and allocated by a computerized controller. The controller uses motors to drive each axis
of a machine tool and actually regulates the direction, speed, and length of time each motor rotates.
A programmed path is loaded into the machine's computer by the operator and then executed. The
program consists of numeric point data in conjunction with specialized machine control commands
and function codes. Numerical control (NC) is the original term given to this technology and is still
often used interchangeably with CNC.
NC technology has been one of manufacturing's major developments in the past 50 years. It not
only resulted in the development of new techniques and the achievement of higher production
levels, but it also helped increase product quality and stabilize manufacturing costs.
6.2 Objectives
programming and operation of a CNC Lathe and CNC Milling Machine.
write CNC programs for the CNC milling machine and CNC lathe to machine
Using the CAM software for generating cutter paths, CNC codes, and simulate machining
processes.
6.3 Coordinates
Almost everything that can be produced on a conventional machine tool can be produced on a
numerical control machine tool, with its many advantages. The machine tool movements used in
producing a product are of two basic types: point-to-point (straight-line movements) and continuouspath (contouring movements)
The Cartesian, or rectangular, coordinate system allows any specific point on a job to be described
in mathematical terms in relation to any other point along three perpendicular axes. This fits
machine tools perfectly since their construction is generally based on three axes of motion (X, Y, Z)
plus an axis of rotation. On a vertical milling machine, the X axis is the horizontal movement (right
or left) of the table, the Y axis is the table cross movement (toward or away from the column), and
the Z axis is the vertical movement of the knee or the spindle. CNC systems rely on the use of
rectangular coordinates because the programmer can precisely locate every point on a job.
When points are located on a workpiece, two straight intersecting lines, one vertical and one
horizontal, are used. These lines must be at right angles to each other, and the point where they
cross is called the origin, or zero point (Figure 6.1a).
The three-dimensional coordinate planes are shown in Figure 6.1b.
The X and Y planes (axes) are horizontal and represent horizontal machine table motions.
The Z plane or axis represents the vertical tool motion.
The plus (+) and minus (-) signs indicate the direction of movement from the zero point
(origin) along the axis.
The four quadrants formed when the X-Y axes cross are numbered in a counterclockwise
direction (Figure 6.1c).
1. All positions located in quadrant 1 are positive X (+X) and positive Y (+ Y).
71
72
2. In the second quadrant, all positions are negative X (-X) and positive Y (+Y).
3. In the third quadrant, all locations are negative X (-X) and negative Y (-Y).
4. In the fourth quadrant, all locations are positive X (+X) and negative Y (-Y).
Figure 6.1 Cartesian Coordinates

In Figure 6.1c, point A is 2 units to the right of the Y axis and 2 units above the X axis. Assume that
each unit equals 1 in. The location of point A is X + 2.000 and Y + 2.000. For point B, the location is
X + 1.000 and Y -2.000. In CNC programming, it is not necessary to indicate plus (+) values since
these are assumed. However, the minus (-) values must be indicated. For example, the locations of
both A and B are indicated as follows:
A X=2.000 Y=2.000
B X=1.000 Y=-2.000
CNC is used on all types of machine tools, from the simplest to the most complex. The most
common machine tools, the chucking center (lathe) and the machining center (milling machine), are
covered in this book.
1. The engine lathe (Fig. 75-13) has always been a very efficient way of producing round parts.
Most lathes operate on two axes:
The X axis controls the cross motion (in or out) of the cutting tool.
The Z axis controls the carriage travel toward or away from the headstock.
2. The milling machine (Fig. 75-15) can perform operations such as milling, contouring, gear
cutting, drilling, boring, and reaming. The milling machine operates on three axes:
The X axis controls the table movement left or right.
The Y axis controls the table movement toward or away from the column.
The Z axis controls the vertical (up or down) movement of the knee or spindle.
73
Figure 6.2 Machine Axes
6.4 Programming Systems

6.4.1 Incremental System
In the incremental system, program dimensions or positions are given from the current point.
Incremental dimensioning on a job print is shown in Fig. 75-17. As will be noted, the dimensions for
each hole are given from the previous hole. A disadvantage of incremental positioning or
programming is that, if an error has been made in any location, this error is automatically carried
over to all following locations. The G91 command tells the computer and the MCU that the program
is to be in the incremental mode.
Command codes that tell the machine to move the table, spindle, and knee are explained here
using a vertical milling machine as an example:
A plus X (+X) command causes the cutting tool to be located to the right of the last point.
A minus X (-X) command causes the cutting tool to be located to the left of the last point.
A plus Y (+ Y) command causes the cutting tool to be located toward the column.
A minus Y (-Y) command causes the cutting tool to be located away from the column.
A plus Z (+Z) command causes the cutting tool or spindle to move up or away from the
workpiece.
A minus Z (-Z) command moves the cutting tool down or into the workpiece.
6.4.2 Absolute System

In the absolute system, all dimensions or positions are given from one reference point on the job or
machine. In Fig. 75-18, the same workpiece is used as in Fig. 75-17, but all dimensions are given
from the zero or reference point, which in this case is the upper left-hand comer on the workpiece.
Therefore, in the absolute system of dimensioning or programming, an error in any dimension is still
an error, but the error is not carried on to any other location.
In absolute programming, the G90 command indicates to the computer and MCU that the program
is to be in the absolute mode.
A "plus X" (+X) command causes the cutting tool to be located to the right of the zero or
origin point.
74
A "minus X" (-X) command causes the cutting tool to be located to the left of the zero or
origin point.
A "plus Y " (+ Y) command causes the cutting tool to be located toward the column (above
the zero or origin point).
A "minus Y" (-Y) command causes the cutting tool to be located away from the column
(below the zero or origin point).
A "plus Z " (+Z) command causes the cutting tool to move above the program Z0 (usually
the top surface of the part).
A "minus Z" (-Z) command causes the cutting tool to move below the program Z00
Figure 6.3 Programming System Mode
6.5 Program Structure

The most common type of programming format used for CNC programming systems is the word
address format. This format contains a large number of different codes to transfer program
information to machine servos, relays, micro-switches, etc., to carry out the machine movements
required to manufacture a part. These codes, which conform to established standards, are then put
together in a logical sequence called a block of information. Each block should contain only enough
information to carry out one step of a machining operation.
6.5.1 Word Address Format

Part programs must be put in a format that the machine control unit can understand. The format
used on a CNC system is determined by the machine tool builder and is based on the control unit of
the machine. A variable-block format that uses words (letters) is most commonly used. Each
instruction word consists of an address character, such as S, X, Y, T, F, or M (Table 6.1). This
alphabetical character is followed by numerical data used to identify a specific function from a word
group, or to give the distance, feed rate, or speed value.
6.5.2 Codes
The most common codes used for CNC programming are the G-codes (preparatory commands)
and M-codes (miscellaneous functions) (Table 6.3). Codes F, S, D, H, P, and Tare used to
represent functions such as feed, speed, cutter diameter offset, tool length compensation,
75
subroutine call, tool number, etc. Codes A (angle) and R (radius) are used to locate points on arcs
and circles that involve angles and radii.
G-codes, sometimes called cycle codes, refer to some action occurring on the X, Y, and/or Z axis of
a machine tool. These codes are grouped into categories, such as group number 01, that contain
codes G00, G01, G02, and G03. These codes cause some movement of the machine table or the
head.
Table 6.1 Used Addresses
C
F
G
H
I, J, K
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
X, Y, Z
;
chamfer
feed rate, thread pitch
path function
number of the correction value address in the offset register (OFFSET)
circle parameter, scale factor, K also number of repetitions of a cycle, mirror axes
miscellaneous function
block number 1 to 9999
Program number 1 to 9499
dwell, subprogram call
cutting depth or shift value in cycle
radius, retraction height with cycle
spindle speed
tool call
position data (X also dwell)
block end
6.5.3 Block of Information

Each block of information should contain only enough information to carry out one step of a
machining operation. In the milling example (Figure 6.4), the tool first moves from point A to point B.
This block should be written as G01 F8.0 X3.0; absolute position (G90) movement will be from
X.500 to X3.000, at a feed rate of 8.0 in./min. The next move is from point B to point C, which
should be written as Y-1.250, to move from Y0 to Y-1.250. These two blocks cannot be combined
as G01 F8.0 X2.5 Y-1.25; the machine control unit must be told to make each move separately by
creating a block for each move.
Figure 6.4 Example Part
76
Table 6.2 G Codes
Milling
Code
G00
G01
G02
G03
G04
G07
G09
G10
G11
G12
G13
G17
G18
G19
G20
G21
G22
G23
.
.
G27
G28
G29
G30
G31
.
G33
G34
G35
G36
G40
G41
G42
G43
G44
G45
G46
G47
G48
G49
G50
G51
G52
G53
G54
G55
G56
G57
G58
G59
G60
G61
G62
G63
G64
G65
G66
G67
G68
G69
G70
G71
G72
G73
G74
Description
Positioning in Rapid
Linear Interpolation
Circular Interpolation (CW)
Circular Interpolation (CCW)
Dwell
Imaginary axis designation
Exact stop check
Program parameter input
Program parameter input cancel
Circle Cutting CW
Circle Cutting CCW
XY Plane
XZ Plane
YZ Plane
Inch Units
Metric Units
Stored stroke limit ON
Stored stroke limit OFF
.
.
Reference point return check
Automatic return to reference point
Automatic return from reference point
Return to 2nd, 3rd, 4th reference point
Skip function
.
Thread cutting
Bolt hole circle (Canned Cycle)
Line at angle (Canned Cycle)
Arc (Canned Cycle)
Cutter compensation Cancel
Cutter compensation Left
Cutter compensation Right
Tool Length Compensation (Plus)
Tool Length Compensation (Minus)
Tool offset increase
Tool offset decrease
Tool offset double increase
Tool offset double decrease
Tool Length Compensation Cancel
Scaling OFF
Scaling ON
Local coordinate system setting
Machine coordinate system selection
Workpiece Coordinate System
Workpiece Coordinate System 2
Single direction positioning
Exact stop check mode
Automatic corner override
Tapping mode
Cutting mode
Custom macro simple call
Custom macro modal call
Custom macro modal call cancel
Coordinate system rotation ON
Coordinate system rotation OFF
Inch Units
Metric Units
User canned cycle
High-Speed Peck Drilling Cycle
Counter tapping cycle
Code
G00
G01
G02
G03
G04
G07
.
G10
G11
.
.
G17
G18
G19
G20
G21
G22
G23
G25
G26
G27
G28
G29
G30
G31
G32
.
G34
.
G36
G40
G41
G42
.
.
.
G46
.
.
.
G50
.
G52
G53
G54
G55
G56
G57
G58
G59
.
G61
G62
G63
G64
G65
G66
G67
G68
G69
G70
G71
G72
G73
G74
Turning
Description
Positioning in Rapid
Linear Interpolation
Circular Interpolation (CW)
Circular Interpolation (CCW)
Dwell
Feedrate sine curve control
.
Data setting
Data setting cancel
.
.
XY Plane
XZ Plane
YZ Plane
Inch Units
Metric Units
Stored stroke check function ON
Stored stroke check function OFF
Spindle speed fluctuation detection OFF
Spindle speed fluctuation detection ON
Reference point return check
Automatic Zero Return
Return from Zero Return Position
2nd reference point return
Skip function
Thread cutting
.
Variable lead thread cutting
.
Automatic tool compensation
Tool Nose Radius Compensation Cancel
Tool Nose Radius Compensation Left
Tool Nose Radius Compensation Right
.
.
.
Automatic Tool Nose Radius Compensation
.
.
.
Coordinate system setting and maximum rpm
.
Local coordinate system setting
Machine coordinate system setting
Workpiece Coordinate System
.
Exact stop check mode
Automatic corner override
Tapping mode
Cutting mode
User macro simple call
User macro modal call
User macro modal call cancel
Mirror image for double turrets ON
Mirror image for double turrets OFF
Finishing Cycle
Turning Cycle
Facing Cycle
Pattern repeating
Peck Drilling Cycle
77
Code
G75
G76
G77
G78
G79
G80
G81
G82
G83
G84
G85
G86
G87
G88
G89
G90
G91
G92
G93
G94
G95
G96
G97
G98
G99
.
.
.
.
.
Milling
Description
User canned cycle
Fine boring cycle
User canned cycle
User canned cycle
User canned cycle
Cancel Canned Cycles
Drilling Cycle
Counter Boring Cycle
Deep Hole Drilling Cycle
Tapping cycle
Boring Cycle
Boring Cycle
Back Boring Cycle
Boring Cycle
Boring Cycle
Absolute Positioning
Incremental Positioning
Reposition Origin Point
Inverse time feed
Per minute feed
Per revolution feed
Constant surface speed control
Constant surface speed control cancel
Set Initial Plane default
Return to Retract (Rapid) Plane
.
.
.
.
.
Code
G75
G76
.
.
.
G80
.
.
G83
G84
.
G86
G87
G88
G89
G90
G91
G92
.
G94
.
G96
G97
G98
G99
G107
G112
G113
G250
G251
Turning
Description
Grooving Cycle
Threading Cycle
.
.
.
Canned cycle for drilling cancel
.
.
Face Drilling Cycle
Face Tapping Cycle
.
Face Boring Cycle
Side Drilling Cycle
Side Tapping Cycle
Side Boring Cycle
Absolute Programming
Incremental Programming
Thread Cutting Cycle
.
Endface Turning Cycle
.
Constant surface speed control
Constant surface speed control cancel
Linear Feedrate Per Time
Feedrate Per Revolution
Cylindrical Interpolation
Polar coordinate interpolation mode
Polar coordinate interpolation mode cancel
Polygonal turning mode cancel
Polygonal turning mode
Table 6.3 M Codes

Milling
Code
M00
M01
M02
M03
M04
M05
M06
.
M08
M09
M10
M11
M30
M98
M99
Description
Program Stop
Optional Program Stop
Program End
Spindle On Clockwise
Spindle On Counterclockwise
Spindle Stop
Tool Change
.
Coolant On
Coolant Off
Clamps On
Clamps Off
End of Program, Reset to Start
Call subroutine command
Return from subroutine command
Code
M00
M01
M02
M03
M04
M05
.
M07
M08
M09
.
.
M30
M98
M99
Turning
Description
Program Stop
Optional Program Stop
Program End
Spindle On Clockwise
Spindle On Counterclockwise
Spindle Stop
.
Coolant 1 On
Coolant 2 On
Coolant Off
.
.
End of Program, Reset to Start
Subprogram call
Return from subprogram
6.6 Interpolation
Interpolation, or the generation of data points between given coordinate positions of the axes, is
necessary for any type of programming. Within the MCU, a device called an interpolator causes the
drives to move simultaneously from the start of the command to its completion. Linear and circular
interpolation are most commonly used in CNC programming applications.
Linear interpolation is used for straight-line machining between two points.

Circular interpolation is used for circles and arcs.
Helical interpolation, used for threads and helical forms, is available on many CNC machines.
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Parabolic and cubic interpolation are used by industries that manufacture parts having complex
shapes, such as aerospace parts, and dies for car bodies.
Interpolation is always performed under programmed feed rates.
6.6.1 Linear Interpolation

Linear interpolation consists of any programmed points joined together by straight lines. These include
horizontal, vertical, or angular lines, where the points may be close together or far apart. In Figure 6.4,
they include the lines from points A to B, B to C, C to D, D to E (or from A to C, if it was necessary to
make an angular cut).
6.6.2 Circular Interpolation

Circular interpolation makes the process of programming arcs and circles easy. On some CNC systems
only one quarter of a circle or quadrant (90) can be programmed at a time. However, recent MCUs have
full circle capability within the same command, which helps to shorten the program. It also improves the
quality of the part because there is a smooth transition throughout the entire circle, with no hesitation or
dwell between quadrants.
Figure 6.5a shows the basic information required to program a circle. This must include the position of
the circle center, the start and end point of the arc being cut, the direction of the cut, and the feed rate
for the tool. An example of an arc and the block of information required to program it is shown in Figure
6.5b. Note, several methods can be used to write the block for the arc:
One method uses the I and J command to identify the coordinates of the center of the arc.
A simpler method uses the R (radius of the arc) command, which the MCU uses to calculate the
arc center.
Figure 6.5 Circular Interpolation Example
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6.7 CNC Milling Practice

6.7.1 Piece I
6.7.2 Piece II
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6.7.3 Piece III
6.7.4 Piece IV
Activity 7
Welding
7.1 Introduction
Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced at their contacting
surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Many welding processes are
accomplished by heat alone with no pressure applied; others by a combination of heat and
pressure; and still others by pressure alone, with no external heat supplied. In some welding
processes a filler material is added_ to facilitate coalescence. The assemblage of parts that are
joined by welding is called a weldment. Welding is most commonly associated with metal parts, but
the process is also used for joining plastics. This activity is focused welding on the joining of metals.
7.2 Objectives
introduce the fundamentals of equipment used in oxyacetylene and arc welding.
provide a limited amount of experience in basic oxyacetylene welding cutting and basic
arc welding processes.
learn about safety in arc welding and oxyacetylene cutting.
7.3 Safe in Welding Processes

Welding, cutting, grinding and other hot work are potentially dangerous activities that require the skills of
a trained and a great deal of attention to safety. These professionals follow guidelines for safe welding
practices, fire prevention and the utilization of personal protective equipment.
Welding hazards pose an unusual combination of safety and health risks. By nature welding produces
fumes and noise, emits radiation, involves electricity or gases and has the potential for burns, electrical
shock, fire and explosions.
Welding is performed by the use of heat or pressure or both and with or without added metal. There are
many types of welding including metal arc, Atomic hydrogen, submerged arc, resistance butt, flash, spot,
stitch, stud, and projection to name a few.
The following are general safety precautions to follow if working with or near a welding operation.
Welding hazards include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Electric shock
Burns
Fire and explosion
Radiation
Noise
Fumes and gases
Manual handling
Slips, trips and falls
The variables that influence exposure to these hazards can include:

1. Variables in the welding process
2. Effect of the work area (including weather)
3. Effect of the operator
81
82
7.4 Types of Welding Processes

Some 50 different types of welding operations have been cataloged by the American Welding
Society (Figure 7.1). They use various types or combinations of energy to provide the required
power. We can divide the welding processes into two major groups: (1) fusion welding and (2) solid
state welding
Figure 7.1 Master Chart of Welding and Applied Processes
7.4.1 Fusion Welding

Fusion welding uses heat to melt the base metals. In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal
is added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to the welded
joint. A fusion-welding operation in which no filler metal is added is referred to as an autogenous
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weld. The fusion category comprises the most widely used welding processes and includes the
following general groups (initials in parentheses are designations of the American Welding Society):
Arc welding (AW) - Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes in which heating of the
metals is accomplished by an electric arc, as shown in Figure 7.2. Some arc welding operations
also apply pressure during the process and most utilize a filler metal.
Resistance welding (RW) - Resistance welding achieves coalescence using heat from electrical
resistance to the flow of a current passing between the faying surfaces of two parts held together
under pressure.
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)-These joining processes use an oxyfuel gas, such as a mixture of
oxygen and acetylene, to produce a hot flame for melting the base metal and filler metal, if one is
used.
Other fusion-welding processes - There are other welding processes that produce fusion of the
metals joined. Examples include electron beam welding and laser beam welding.
Figure 7.2 Basic Arc Welding
7.4.2 Solid-State Welding

Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which coalescence results from application of
pressure alone or a combination of heat and pressure. If heat is used, the temperature in the
process is below the melting point of the metals being welded. No filler metal is utilized. This group
includes the following:
Diffusion welding (DFW) - Two surfaces are held together under pressure at an elevated
temperature and the parts coalesce by solid state fusion.
Friction welding (FRW) - Coalescence is achieved by the heat of friction between two surfaces.
Ultrasonic welding (USW) - Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an oscillating
motion is used at ultrasonic frequencies in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces. The
combination of normal and. vibratory forces results in shear stresses that remove surface films and
achieve atomic bonding of the surfaces.
84
7.5 The Weld Joint

Welding produces a solid connection between two pieces, called a weld joint. A weld joint is the
junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been joined by welding. This section covers
weld joints: types of welded joints and the various types of welds used to join the pieces that form
the joints.
There are five basic types of joints for bringing two parts together for joining. With reference to
Figure 7.3, the five joint types can be defined as follows:
Figure 7.3 Types of Joints
7.6 Types of Welds

Each of the preceding joints can be made by welding. Other joining processes can also be used for
some of the joint types, but welding is the most universally applicable joining method. It is
appropriate to distinguish between the joint type and the way in which it is welded-the weld type.
Differences among weld types are in geometry (joint type) and welding process.
A fillet weld is used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner, lap, and tee joints, as in Figure
7.4. Filler metal is used to provide a cross section approximately the shape of a right triangle. It is
the most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel welding because it requires minimum edge
preparation
Figure 7.4 Fillet Welds

Groove welds usually require that the edges of the parts be shaped into a groove to facilitate weld
penetration. The grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in single or double sides, as
shown in Figure 7.5. Filler metal is used to fill in the joint, usually by arc or oxyfuel welding
85
Figure 7.5 Groove Welds

Plug welds and slot welds are used for attaching flat plates, as shown in Figure 7.6, using one or
more holes or slots in the top part and then filling with filler metal to fuse the two parts together.
Figure 7.6 Plug and Slot Welds

Spot welds and seam welds, used for lap joints, are diagrammed in Figure 7.7. A spot weld is a
small fused section between the surfaces of two sheets or plates. Multiple spot welds are typically
required to join the parts. It is most closely associated with resistance welding. A seam weld is
similar to a spot weld except it consists of a more or less continuously fused section between the
two sheets or plates
Figure 7.7 Spot and Seam Welds
86
Flange welds and surfacing welds are shown in Figure 7.8. A flange weld is made on the edges of
two (or more) parts, usually sheet metal or thin plate, at least one of the parts being flanged as in
Figure 7.8(a). A surfacing weld is not used to join parts, but rather to deposit filler metal onto the
surface of a base part in one or more weld beads
Figure 7.8 Flange and Surface Welds
7.7 Welding Symbols

Special symbols are used on a drawing to specify where welds are to be located, the type of joint to
be used, as well as the size and amount of weld metal to be deposited in the joint. These symbols
have been stan-dardized by the American Welding Society (AWS). You will come into contact with
these symbols anytime you do a welding job from a set of blueprints. You need to have a working
knowledge of the basic weld symbols and the standard location of all the elements of a welding
symbol.
A standard welding symbol consists of a reference line, an arrow, and a tail. The reference line
becomes the foundation of the welding symbol. It is used to apply weld symbols, dimensions, and
other data to the weld. The arrow simply connects the reference line to the joint or area to be
welded. The direction of the arrow has no bearing on the significance of the reference line. The tail
of the welding symbol is used only when necessary to include a specification, process, or other
reference information.
7.7.1 Weld Symbols

The term weld symbol refers to the symbol for a specific type of weld. As discussed earlier, fillet,
groove, surfacing, plug, and slot are all types of welds. Basic weld symbols are shown in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9 Basic weld symbols

The weld symbol is only part of the information required in the welding symbol. The term welding
symbol refers to the total symbol, which includes all information needed to specify the weld(s)
required.
87
Figure 7.10 shows how a weld symbol is applied to the reference line. Notice that the vertical leg of
the weld symbol is shown drawn to the left of the slanted leg. Regardless of whether the symbol is
for a fillet, bevel, J-groove, or flare-bevel weld, the vertical leg is always drawn to the left.
Figure 7.10 Weld symbols applied to reference line

Figure 7.11 shows the significance of the positions of the weld symbols position on the reference
line. In view A the weld symbol is on the lower side of the reference line that is termed the arrow
side. View B shows a weld symbol on the upper side of the reference line that is termed the other
side. When weld symbols are placed on both sides of the reference line, welds must be made on
both sides of the joint (view C).
Figure 7.11 Specifying weld locations

When only one edge of a joint is to be beveled, it is necessary to show which member is to be
beveled. When such a joint is specified, the arrow of the welding symbol points with a definite break
toward the member to be beveled. This is shown in Figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12 Arrowhead indicates beveled plate

Figure 7.13 shows other elements that may be added to a welding symbol. The information applied
to the reference line on a welding symbol is read from left to right regardless of the direction of the
arrow.
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7.7.2 Dimensioning
In Figure 7.13, notice there are designated locations for the size, length, pitch (center-to-center
spacing), groove angle, and root opening of a weld. These loca-tions are determined by the side of
the reference line on which the weld symbol is placed. Figure 7.14 shows how dimensions are
applied to symbols.
Figure 7.13 Elements of a welding symbol
Figure 7.14 Dimensions applied to weld symbols

Figure 7.15 shows the meaning of various welding dimension symbols. Notice that the size of a
weld is shown on the left side of the weld symbol (Figure 7.15, view A). The length and pitch of a
fillet weld are indicated on the right side of the weld symbol. View B shows a tee joint with 2-inch
intermittent fillet welds that are 5 inches apart, on center. The size of a groove weld is shown in
view C. Both sides are 1/2 inch, but note that the 60-degree groove is on the other side of the joint
and the 45-degree groove is on the arrow side.
89
Figure 7.15 Dimensioning of welds
7.7.3 Supplementary Symbols

In addition to basic weld symbols, a set of supple-mentary symbols may be added to a welding
symbol. Some of the most common supplementary symbols are shown in Figure 7.16.
Figure 7.16 Supplementary symbols
90
Contour symbols are used with weld symbols to show how the face of the weld is to be formed. In
addition to contour symbols, finish symbols are used to indicate the method to use for forming the
contour of the weld.
When a finish symbol is used, it shows the method of finish, not the degree of finish; for example, a
C is used to indicate finish by chipping, an M means machin-ing, and a G indicates grinding. Figure
7.17 shows how contour and finish symbols are applied to a welding symbol. This figure shows that
the weld is to be ground flush. Also, notice that the symbols are placed on the same side of the
reference line as the weld symbol.
Figure 7.17 Finish and contour symbols

Another supplementary symbol shown in Figure 7.16 is the weld-all-around symbol. When this
symbol is placed on a welding symbol, welds are to continue all around the joint.
Welds that cannot be made in the shop are identified as field welds. Afield weld symbol is shown in
Figure 7.16. This symbol is a black flag that points toward the tail of the welding symbol.
7.7.4 Specifying Additional Information

It is sometimes necessary to specify a certain weld-ing process, a type of electrode, or some type of
refer-ence necessary to complete a weld. In this case, a note can be placed in the tail of the
reference line. (See Figure 7.18.) If additional information is not needed, then the tail is omitted.
Figure 7.18 Specifying additional welding information
7.7.5 Multiple-Weld Symbols

When you are fabricating a metal part, there are times when more than one type of weld is needed
on the same joint; for example, a joint may require both a bevel groove weld and a fillet weld. Two
methods of illustrat-ing these weld symbols are shown in Figure 7.19. Note that in each welding
symbol, the bevel groove weld is to be completed first, followed by the fillet weld.
91
Figure 7.19 Representing multiple welds
7.7.6 Applying a Welding Symbol

Figure 7.20 shows an example of how a welding symbol may appear on a drawing. This figure
shows a steel pipe column that is to be welded to a base plate. The symbol tells the welder that the
pipe is to be beveled at a 30-degree angle followed by a bevel groove weld all around the joint. This
is followed by a 1/2-inch fillet weld that is also welded all around the joint. Finally, finish the fillet
weld by grinding it to a flush contour. As the field weld symbol indicates, all welds are to be
accomplished in the field.
Figure 7.20 Example of welding symbol in use
7.8 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is an AW process that uses a consumable electrode consisting
of a filler metal rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding. The process is illustrated
in Figure 7.21. The welding stick (SMAW is sometimes called stick welding) is typically 225 to 450
mm (9-18 in.) long and 2.5 to 9.5 mm (3/32-3/8 in.) in diameter. The filler metal used in the rod must
be compatible with the metal to be welded, the composition usually being very close to that of the
base metal. The coating consists of powdered cellulose (i.e., cotton and wood powders) mixed with
oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients, held together by a silicate binder. Metal powders are
also sometimes included in the coating to increase the amount of filler metal and to add alloying
elements. The heat of the welding process melts the coating to provide a protective atmosphere
92
and slag for the welding operation. It also helps to stabilize the arc and regulate the rate at which
the electrode melts.
Figure 7.21 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
7.9 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an AW process in which the electrode is a consumable bare
metal wire, and shielding is accomplished by flooding the arc with a gas. The bare wire is fed
continuously and automatically from a spool through the welding gun, as illustrated in Color Plate
10 and Figure 7.22. Wire diameters ranging from 0.8 to 6.5 mm (1/32-1/4 in.) are used in GMAW,
the size depending on the thickness of the parts being joined and the desired deposition rate.
Gases used for shielding include inert gases such as argon and helium, and active gases such as
carbon dioxide. Selection of gases (and mixtures of gases) depends on the metal being welded, as
well as other factors. Inert gases are used for welding aluminum alloys and stainless steels, while
CO2 is commonly used for welding low and medium carbon steels.
Figure 7.22 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
93
7.10 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an AW process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten
electrode and an inert gas for arc shielding. The term TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas welding) is
often applied to this process (in Europe, WIG welding is the term-the chemical symbol for tungsten
is W, for Wolfram). The GTAW process can be implemented with or without a filler metal. Figure
7.23 illustrates the latter case. When a filler metal is used, it is added to the weld pool from a
separate rod or wire, being melted by the heat of the arc rather than transferred across the arc as in
the consumable electrode AW processes. Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high
melting point of 3410D C (6170DF). Typical shielding gases include argon, helium, or a mixture of
these gas elements.
Figure 7.23 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
94
APPENDICES
96
APPENDIX A.
SAFETY
Introduction
Types of protective shields and eyewear
Standard safety glasses protect eyes from flying particles of metal,

wood, stone, plastic or glass coming from the front only
Safety glasses with semi-side shields protect eyes from flying

particles coming from the front or the side
Safety glasses with eye-cup and side shields protect eyes from
flying particles coming from the front, the side, above or below.
Safety goggles with hooded ventilation (indirect air flow) form a tight
seal around the eyes to protect from dust, sparks, vapors, splashes and
flying particles. They have indirect vents that allow air, but not irritants,
to pass through.
Welding helmets and hand-held shields protect the eyes, face, ears
and neck from radiation, sparks and molten metal. They are opaque,
bowl-shaped protective devices, each containing a window with filter
glass that allows workers to see what they are doing while protecting
their eyes from harmful radiation
Face shields and half face shields are designed to protect the face
and neck from flying particles and sprays of hazardous liquids. They
also provide antiglare protection. Such devices are always worn in
addition to basic protective eyewear
97
98
ANSI Z87.1-2003
The new standard is a voluntary standard and there is no requirement that manufacturer or end
user comply with it unless it is mandated by the United States Department of Labor OSHA.
However, in the past, most manufacturers have chosen to comply with revisions to the Z87.1
Standard.
Currently, OSHA requires (29 CFR 1910.133) that eye protectors comply with the 1989 version of
the Z87.1 Standard, and eye protection devices now in use may continue to be used.
**All of the protective eyewear we sell already complies with the performance requirements of the
new standard. The new marking requirements will be phased in over time by each manufacturer.**
1. Two Levels of Protection:
Basic and High
LENSES: The new standard designates that lenses will be divided into two protection levels, Basic
Impact and High Impact as dictated by test criteria. Basic Impact lenses must pass the drop ball
test, a 1" diameter steel ball is dropped on the lens from 50 inches. High Impact lenses must pass
high velocity testing where 1/4" steel balls are shot at different velocities.
Spectacles: 150 ft./sec.

Goggles: 250 ft./sec.
Faceshields: 300 ft./sec.
FRAMES: Now, all eyewear/goggle frames, faceshields or crowns must comply with the High
Impact requirement. (This revision helps eliminate the use of test lenses, and assures all
protectors are tested as complete - lenses in frame - devices). After making an eye hazard
assessment, employers (safety personnel) should decide on appropriate eyewear to be worn,
although High Impact would always be recommended. All of our spectacles are High Impact
protectors.
2. Now, Products Must Indicate
Impact Protection Level.
To identify a devices level of impact protection, the following marking requirements apply to all new
production spectacles, goggles and faceshields. Basic Impact spectacle lenses will have the
manufacturers mark, i.e. an AOSafety product will have AOS and a Pyramex product will have a
"P" etc. Goggles and faceshields will have AOS and Z87 (AOS Z87). High Impact spectacle lenses
will also have a plus + sign, (AOS+) or "P+" etc. All goggle lenses and faceshield windows are to be
marked with the manufacturer's mark, Z87, and a + sign (AOSZ87+).
Note: Lenses/windows may have additional markings. Shaded lens may have markings denoting a
shade number such as 3.0, 5.0 etc. Special purpose lenses may be marked with S. A variable tint
lens may have a V marking.
3. Sideshield Coverage Area Increased
Sideshield coverage, as part of the lens, part of the spectacle, or as an individual component, has
been increased rearward by 10-millimeters via a revised impact test procedure. While side
99
protection in the form of wraparound lens, integral or attached component sideshield devices is not
mandated in this standard, it is highly recommended. Further, OSHA does require lateral protection
on eye protection devices wherever a flying particle hazard may exist, and flying particle hazards
are virtually always present in any occupational environment. All of our non-prescription safety
spectacles meet the requirements of OSHA and the new Z87.1 for side protection.
4. No Minimum Lens
Thickness Requirement
For High Impact Lenses.
The new standard does not have a minimum lens thickness requirement for High Impact spectacle
lenses. The previous standard required a 2-millimeter minimum. However, the protective
advantages of wrap-around lenses and the many other advancements in eyewear design have
eliminated this need.
Note: Glass lenses still fall into the Basic Impact lens category. The minimum lens thickness of 3
millimeters remains in effect for this category.
100
APPENDIX B. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
APPENDIX C. Turning Glossary

Apron That portion of a lathe carriage that contains the clutches, gears, and levers for moving the
carriage. It also protects the mechanism.
Bed One of the principal parts of a machine tool, having accurately machined ways or bearing
surfaces for supporting and aligning other parts of the machine.
Bench lathe A small lathe mounted on a bench or table.
Bore To enlarge and finish the surface of a cylindrical hole by the action of a rotating boring bar
(cutting tool) or by the action of a stationary tool pressed (fed) against the surface as the part is
rotated.
Boring A precision machining process for generating internal cylindrical forms by removing metal
with single-point or multiple-edge tools.
Boring bar A combination tool holder and shank. Also known as a cutter bar.
Boring tool A cutting tool in which the tool bit, the boring bar and, in some cases, the tool holder
are incorporated in one solid piece.
Carriage A principal part of a lathe that carries the cutting tool and consists of the saddle,
compound rest. and apron.
Center A point or axis around which anything revolves or rotates. In the lathe, one of the parts upon
which the work to be turned is placed. The center in the headstock is referred to as the "live center
and the one mounted in the tailstock as the dead center.
Center, dead A center that does not rotate; commonly found on the tailstock of a lathe. Also, an
expression for the exact center of an object.
Center, half male A dead center that has a portion of the 60 degree cone cut away.
Center, live A center that revolves with the work. Generally. this is the headstock center; however,
the ball bearing type tailstock center is also called a live center.
Centers Conical pins of a machine upon which the work is centered, supported, and rotated during
cutting or grinding.
Chuck A device attached to the work spindle that holds the workpiece, usually gripping it with jaws
or fingers.
Chuck jaws The actual gripping members in a chuck. Also referred to as fingers.
Chuck, independent jaw A chuck, each of whose jaws (usually four) is adjusted with a screw
action independently of the other jaws.
Chuck, universal A chuck whose jaws are so arranged that they are all moved together at the
same rate by a special wrench. Also known as a self-centering chuck or concentric chuck.
109
110
Collet A precision work holding chuck which centers finished round stock automatically when
tightened. Specialized collets are also available in shapes for other than round stock.
Compound rest The part of a lathe set on the carriage that carries the tool post and holder. It is
designed to swing in any direction and to provide feed for turning short angles or tapers.
Contouring control system An NC system that generates a contour by controlling a machine or
cutting tool in a path resulting from the coordinated, simultaneous motion of two or more axes.
Counterboring A machining process related to drilling that uses an end-cutting tool to
concentrically enlarge a hole to a limited depth.
Cross slide The slide that gives the wheelslide its cross-axis or crossfeed motion.
Cutoff In machining, the separation of a part from a larger piece of stock by means of a parting tool
(lathe turning) or a thin abrasive cutoff wheel. Also known as in machining.
Cutoff burr A projection of material left when the workpiece falls from the stock before the
separating cut has been completed.
Cutting speed The tangential velocity on the surface of the workpiece in a lathe or a rotating cutter,
commonly expressed in feet per minute (FPM) and converted to revolutions per minute (RPM) for
proper setting on the machine.
Dead center A center that does not rotate; commonly found on the tailstock of a lathe. Also, an
expression for the exact center of an object.
Face To machine a flat surface, as in the end of a shaft in the lathe. The operation is known as
facing.
Faceplate A large circular plate with slots and holes for mounting the workpiece to be machined. It
is attached to the headstock of a lathe.
Facing The process of making a flat or smooth surface (usually the end) on a piece of stock or
material.
Feed rate The rate of movement between a machine element and a workpiece in the direction of
cutting. Expressed as a unit of distance relative to time or a machine function such as spindle
rotation or table stroke.
Follower rest A support for long, slender work turned in the lathe. It is mounted on the carriage,
travels close to and with the cutting tool, and keeps the work from springing away.
Following error The distance lag at any specific time between the actual position and the
command position in a closed-loop servo system for NC contouring machines.
Footstock Part of an indexing attachment which has a center and serves the same purpose as the
tail stock of a lathe.
111
Gantry An adjustable hoisting machine that slides along a fixed platform or track, either raised or at
ground level, along the x, y, z axes.
Headstock The fixed or stationary end of a lathe or similar machine tool.
Lead screw The long, precision screw located in front of the lathe bed geared to the spindle, and
used for cutting threads; also, the table screw on the universal milling machine when geared to the
indexing head for helical milling.
Machinability The degree of difficulty with which a metal may be machined; may be found in
appropriate handbooks.
Parting The operation of cutting off a piece from a part held in the chuck of a lathe.
Setup The preparation of a machine tool to complete a specific operation. It includes mounting the
workpiece and necessary tools and fixtures, and selecting the proper speeds, feeds, depth of cut
and coolants.
Spindle A rotating device widely used in machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, drill
presses, and so forth, to hold the cutting tools or the work, and to give them their rotation.
Spindle speed The RPM at which a machine is set. See cutting speed.
Steady rest A support that is clamped to the bed of a lathe, used when machining a long
workpiece. Sometimes called a center rest. swing The dimension of a lathe determined by the
maximum diameter of the work that can be rotated over the ways of the bed.
Tailstock That part of a machine tool, such as a lathe or cylindrical grinder, which supports the end
of a workpiece with a center. It may be positioned at any point along the way of the bed, and may
be offset from center to machine tapers.
Taper A uniform increase or decrease in the size or diameter of a workpiece.
Tumbler gears A pair of small lever-mounted gears on a lathe used to engage or to change the
direction of the lead screw.
Ways The flat or V-shaped bearing surfaces on a machining tool that guide and align the parts
which they support.
112
APPENDIX D. Soldering Glossary

Bit - An electroplated copper tip which melts the solder and forms the joint.
De-soldering - Removal of solder from the joint, to break the electrical connection, or to replace a
faulty component. Also known as rework.
Flux - An aggressive chemical, usually contained in the solder wire, which will clean the areas
about to be jointed.
Pad - A conductive area on a PCB onto which a component leg is soldered.
PCB - Printed Circuit Board. A fibre glass board coated with copper onto which an electronic circuit
is chemically etched.
Solder - An alloy of tin which is used as a filler metal in soldering. Other components include, lead,
copper and silver
Soldering - The jointing of two metal surfaces below their melting point, using a filler metal. Used
extensively for making electrical connections.
Static Safe - Manufactured from materials which will not create or hold a charge of static
electricity. Vital when dealing with electronic components which can be damaged by such a charge.
Surface Mount - A connection method where the component legs lay flat onto a PCB pad for
soldering.
Through Hole - A connection method where the component leg is placed into a hole in the PCB
for soldering.
Tinning - To cover the surfaces to be jointed with solder before jointing, to maximise the strength
of the completed joint
Wattage - The amount of heat energy provided by the soldering iron. Physically larger components
need higher wattages.
Wet - The uniform flow of solder across a surface.
113

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MANUFACTURING

Inter American University of Puerto Rico

Version Update 30-Jan-11

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Figure 2.16 Graduation on the Inch Micrometer

Figure 7.2 Basic Arc Welding

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SAFETY IN THE MACHINE SHOP

1.3 A safe worker should:

1.4 Safety in the shop

1.5 Personal grooming

2. Never wear loose clothing when operating any machine.

Always stop the machine before you attempt to clean it.

1.7 Safe Work Practices

1.8 Fire Prevention

1.9 Safety Checklist

1.10 Activity Questions

2. Why is required the use of eye protection in the machine shop?

3. What can you do if you wear prescription glasses?

4. What kinds of hazard occur in the machine shop?

5. What hazards exit from coolants, oils, and solvents?

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2.4 System of Measurement

2.4.1 English System of measurement

2.4.2 Metric System of measurement

Figure 2.1 The Measurement of Length

Figure 2.2 Measurement of Surface Relationships or Angularity

Flatness is generally a multiaxis

Figure 2.3 Several Measurement Encountered by the Machinist.

2.6 Steel Rules

Figure 2.4 Rules Types

Table 2.1 6 Rules Graduation Numbers

2.7 Rule Measurement

Figure 2.5 The Axis of a Linear Measuring

Figure 2.6 Parallax Error

Figure 2.7 Measurement Round Object

2.8 Caliper Vernier

Figure 2.8 Principle of the Vernier

Figure 2.9 Standard Caliper Vernier

Figure 2.10 Caliper Vernier Applications

2.9 Vernier Caliper Measurement

Figure 2.11 Caliper Vernier Scale a)25 Division b) 50 Division

Figure 2.12 Reading Inches a) 25 Division b) 50 Division

Figure 2.13 Reading millimeter a) 50 Division b) 100 Division

2.10 Micrometer Caliper

Figure 2.14 Micrometer Caliper

2.11 Inch Micrometer

Figure 2.16 Graduation on the Inch Micrometer

2.12 Inch Vernier Micrometer

2.13 Metric Micrometer

2.14 Metric Vernier Micrometer

2.15 Reading Micrometer

Figure 2.17 Inch Micrometer Reading a) Standard b) Vernier Micrometer

Figure 2.18 Metric Micrometer Reading a) Standard b) Vernier Micrometer

2.16 Activity Practices

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3.3 Type of Drawings

Figure 3.1 Orthographic Projection

Figure 3.2 Perspective Drawing

Figure 3.3 Exploded Drawing

3.4 Type of Lines