Religious Services in Turkey: From the Office of EYHLISL5M to the DIYANET

ORIGINAL
ARTICLES
Blackwell
Oxford,
The
MUWO

1478-1913
0027-4909
XXX
2008
Muslim
Hartford
UK
Publishing
World
Seminary
Ltd
The
R
eligious
Muslim
Services
World in
VTolume
urkey98
: From
April
the 2008
Office ofS

Religious Services in
Turkey: From the Office of
eyhlislam to the Diyanet
to the D

Gazi Erdem
Attach for Religious Affairs
Turkish Consulate General
New York, New York

he Republic of Turkey occupies a unique place in balancing religion,

democracy and secularism among Islamic countries. Turkey is the only
Islamic country that has included secularism in its constitution and
devotedly practices it. The balance between Islam, secularism and democracy
in Turkey is praised by many modern governments of the world, including the
United States.1 This peculiarity became possible because of Turkeys cultural
and religious heritage.
The mixture of both Islamic and Western traditions played an important
role in the construction of the political and cultural identity of modern Turkey.2
For centuries, Turkeys relationship with the Western and Muslim worlds and
its geographical proximity to the East and the West made it possible to
understand the values of both sides. In this respect, many scholars have
considered Turkey as a bridge between the two worlds.
In addition, from the earliest period of Turkish history, a moderate
perception of religion can be observed clearly among various Turkish societies.
Religious freedom has always been guaranteed for all groups, even before
Turks embraced Islam. Turkish people coexisted with those of other religions
throughout the pre-Islamic period of their history. Although not a prevailing
fact, some Turks, apart from Shamanism, embraced different religions such as
Buddhism, Judaism and Christianity. This helped them to understand pluralism
and practice tolerance towards those of other religions in their societies.3
The modern Turkish state traces its origin to the legacy left by the Ottoman
Empire. One legacy is the policy of the state towards religion. One should look
2008 The Author. Journal Compilation 2008 Hartford Seminary.
Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden,
MA 02148 USA.

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closely at the Ottoman Empire in order to evaluate the Turkish states

perception of religion and religious organizations. In this article, I will evaluate
the Ottoman policy of religion seen in the Millet System (System of Nation),
Islamic religious services in the Ottoman Empire, which were conducted
through the office of eyhlislam, the transition of the system from the
Ottoman Empire to the Republic of Turkey, and lastly, the Presidency of
Religious Affairs (PRA), the legal basis of the Turkish states perception of
religion and its position as a governmental agency.

The Millet System, its Implementation and the

Ottoman Experience
The Ottoman Empire was composed of an extraordinary mixture of people
expanding into three continents: Asia, Europe and Africa. Apart from small
minorities or groups, the main ethnicities within the Ottoman territory included
Turks, Arabs, Greeks, Bulgarians, Albanians, Romanians, Serbs, Croats,
Hungarians, Armenians, Kurds, Moors and Jews.4 The term millet originally,
without taking ethnicity into consideration, meant a religious community.
The term acquired its contemporary meaning only in the nineteenth century5
by the Western-trained, Western-oriented, secular ruling elite in the final
centuries of the Ottoman period.6
There were three main religions in the Ottoman Empire: Islam, Christianity
and Judaism. Islam was the religion of the ruling class and the dynasty. The
state was ruled according to Islamic law and did not admit any distinction
between religion and politics.7 There were a large number of diverse
economic, social, religious and political groups, which all had very little in
common. The Ottomans had to find and enforce a suitable system to rule over
these various groups. This system would be the millet system.8
The millet system began as a political organization that granted
non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire the right to organize into
communities possessing certain delegated political powers under their own
ecclesiastical chiefs.9 In this system, the head of the millet, the patriarch or the
rabbi, was directly responsible to the state for the administration of all of his
subjects.10 In this manner the Ottomans could utilize the services of the natural
leadership of their subject communities throughout their reign. Thus, the
religious hierarchy of the subject communities became an important
instrument of Ottoman political administration.11 According to the Ottoman
archives, some sultans appointed Christian clergy even before the conquest of
Istanbul. For example, Sultan Yildirim Bayezid, after the conquest of the city
of Antalya, assigned a metropolitan and paid him a regular income from the
Ottoman treasury in the form of timar.12 This indicates that from the very
beginning the rulers of the Empire understood and accepted religious services

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as a kind of public matter. Therefore it was understood that religious services

should be organized by the government and maintained under the control of
the state.
On the other side, as indicated above, the Ottoman legal system was based
on the shariah and the Islamic legal code. Islamic affairs in the Empire were
run by the eyhlislam on behalf of the state and the sultan (the head of
state). The eyhlislam had both political and religious authority, as the
Ottoman state provided the means and independence for the eyhlislam to
organize and administer Islamic affairs.13
During the Tanzimat period in 186263, the Greek Orthodox and the
Armenian Christians respectively obtained their regulations, which can be seen
as the constitutions of the Ottoman Christians. Through these regulations,
the Ottoman government introduced secular laws for the churches.
This experience gradually expanded the implementation of secularism to
other government offices and legislation. Secular education followed. In
many areas of legislation, secular laws were adopted from Western laws.
These modernizing reforms influenced the relationship between the state and
religion and changed the appearance of the Islamic character of the state
structure, the legal system, the educational establishments and the political
culture in the Ottoman Empire.
It should not, however, be thought that the Ottoman Empire completely
changed its legal system with the introduction of secular laws. In reality, the
fundamentals of Islamic law were protected and implemented until the end of
the Empire, at the very least, on the level of appearance. As an important part
of the modernization and Westernization process, the Ottomans introduced
secular laws into many spheres. This secularization began before the
establishment of the secular Turkish Republic.

The Office of Seyhlislam

The title of Shaykh al-Islam came into use at the time of the Buyids
(Buwaihids). The title acquired an increasingly specific function during the
Ottoman Empire and finally became the Office of Mufti of Istanbul.14 Shaykh
al-Islam was used as a title of honor for religious dignitaries and scholars
beginning from the second half of the tenth century until the end of the
Ottoman Empire throughout Islamic history.15 In the Ottoman Empire, during
the time of the Mehmet II, it became the most important position among the
ulema (religious scholars/learned corps). The eyhlislam was accepted as the
leader of all muderrises, muftis, kadis and kadiaskers (professors, religious
administrators, judges and chief judges, respectively). The post was the highest
rank of religious affairs. The eyhlislam would petition the grand vizier for
the appointment of these dignitaries.16
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The influence of ulema was restored again under Suleyman the

Magnificent by the official recognition of the Mufti of Istanbul as head of the
learned corporation, adopting the title of eyhlislam.17 At the beginning of the
19th century the office of eyhlislam combined the administration of justice,
religious counseling and educational services under its jurisdiction. All the
kadis, muftis and muderrises of the madrasahs were under the authority of the
eyhlislam. This means that the functions and duties of the Ministry of Justice,
Ministry of Education, the General Directorate of Foundations and the
Presidency of Religious Affairs (PRA) of modern Turkey were carried out
and implemented by the office of eyhlislam.18
From the time of Suleyman onward, the eyhlislam was ranked
virtually equal with the grand vizier, the Sadrazam. Both were the only
officials to receive their investiture at the sultans own hands. At the
ceremonies the two advanced together so that neither should take lead of the
other. When either paid a ceremonial visit to the other he was received with
equal and peculiar honors. The grand viziers had greater power, but the
eyhlislams enjoyed greater esteem. The influence of eyhlislam was such
that only when he and the vizier could work in harmony was either secure in
their office, otherwise their mutual intrigues soon led to the fall of one or the
other. The grand vizier was bound to keep in constant touch with the
eyhlislam on state affairs.
The eyhlislam was so busy with political business that he was obliged
to maintain a special assistant called Telhisci to act as his intermediary with the
Porte, and required a secretary general to control his chancery. His household
was managed by a kahya, who also administered the foundations. The private
applications for fetwas that were addressed to him were dealt within a special
department of his office, called the fetwa-hane, which was controlled by a
commissioner known as the Fetwa Emini. All these offices were filled by
exceptional ulema.19
The privileges and power of the eyhlislam increased directly with the
increased importance of the office. The sultans treated the eyhlislam and the
Grand Vizier equally. When the eyhlislam came into his presence, the sultan
would meet him by standing up. When a sultan sat on the throne for the first
time, in other words, during the special ceremony of the enthroning of a
sultan, the eyhlislam would hand the sultans sword to him. On the 26th
night of every Ramadan, which is regarded by Muslims as the Night of Power
(Kadir Gecesi ), the grand vizier would come to the eyhlislams mansion to
break the fast with him. These kinds of traditions show the place of
eyhlislam in the state protocol.20
Despite the fact that the eyhlislams were very powerful, we should not
think of them as independent of the state. Starting from the eyhlislam, all

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members of the ilmiyye organization were employed by the state in order to

work in the sphere of education, justice, administration and religious affairs.
Thus it could be said that the office of eyhlislam was dependent on and
responsible to the political administration in the state mechanism. This means
that the office of eyhlislam was not an independent office such as the
church organization in the West at that time. The government could investigate
all activities of the office. Rulers appointed the eyhlislam and other members
of his office and, when it was required, they dismissed them of their duty.21
As we have indicated above, the Ottoman state was a form of Islamic
theocracy and did not admit any distinction between religion and politics.
Islam was the religion of the ruling class and the dynasty.22 Thus the sultan was
the leader of the country both in the sphere of religion and government. The
eyhlislam could be described as the person who helped both the sultan and
the vizier control the state, the law and the operations of administration from
the scope of religion or in accordance with religion.23 In other words, it could
be suggested that the main function of the eyhlislam was to legitimize the
political authority, the sultanate and its acts, the policy of the state and its
decisions from the perspective of the Islamic religion.
The eyhlislams separated religious and worldly affairs in a clear and
distinct manner. They secured the balance between these two fields. When
they were asked something about political arrangements, regulations or laws
which were conducted by the administration they would say that This is not
a religious affair or this is not an affair of regulated by Shariah thus one
should behave how he was ordered.24
The eyhlislam, as the head of the ulema, petitioned the grand vizier for
the appointment, promotion and dismissal of the madrasa staff. This duty was
fulfilled by the grand viziers until the last decades of 16th century.25 From then
on, the eyhlislam acquired the authority to propose the nomination and
dismissal of the kadis of important regions, thus effectively controlling the
entire organization of the ulema. In the same way as the grand vizier was the
absolute representative of the sultans executive authority, the eyhlislam
became absolute representative of the sultans religious authority.26
The ulema represented the greatest power within the state independent of
the grand vizier. The kadiaskers of Anatolia and Rumelia were the government
functionaries responsible for the administration of religious law, possessing
the power to appoint and dismiss kadis and religious dignitaries. They gave
the final decision in lawsuits within the scope of shariah. The head of the
ulema, the eyhlislam, was not considered a member of the government.
Nevertheless, he came in time to exercise great influence in the affairs of the
state. It should be noted that the grand vizier petitioned the sultan for the
appointment of a new eyhlislam, though the sultan was not obligated to
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accept the nomination.27 It was fitting for the grand vizier to place the
eyhlislam above himself, out of respect.28
Another important duty of the eyhlislam in the Ottoman Empire was that
they were the sultans counselors. Before making important decisions, the
sultan would summon the grand vizier or the eyhlislam to the palace for
advice.29 According to the Ottoman rule of imperial council, (Divan-
Hmayun) the eyhlislam was not one of the original members of this
council, though he took part in extraordinary meetings. From the 18th century
onward, consulting the eyhlislam on governmental matters became a
tradition and the eyhlislam became one of the members of the imperial
council.30 From this angle, it could be said that the eyhlislam had no political
authority in the Empire.31 This is certainly true as far as the classical age of the
Ottoman Empire was concerned.
Looking from another angle, however, we can see the greatest power of
the eyhlislam. It is known that during Ottoman rule, some bodies of the
Ottoman army such as Janissaries and Sipahis, made some protests against
their rulers. Sometimes these uprisings threatened the sultans throne. For
example, in 1588, the Sipahis were paid in debased coin whose value had
fallen by half. The Sipahis then obtained a fetva from the eyhlislam, proving
this to be an injustice, and thus went on to the palace to demand the death of
Mehmed Pasha, the author of the reform. At its the end, the sultan ordered the
execution of Pasha.32 It seems safe to say the power of fetwa at that time could
not be underestimated. Holding this power in hand made the eyhlislams
powerful and important men not only among the public but also among
governmental bodies.
Usually, during times of financial and economic distress and other such
disturbances, the populace of Istanbul was ready to riot. Public opinion would
support these uprisings and a fetwa of the eyhlislam would give legal
expression to this popular sanction. Typical of this were the uprisings which
led to the deposition of Sultan Ibrahim in 1648, Mehmet IV in 1687, Mustafa II
in 1703, Ahmed III in 1730 and Selim III in 1807.33
It seems that the office of eyhlislam was, in a sense, superior to that of
the sultan himself since the eyhlislam could issue a fetwa declaring a sultans
deposition to be required by the exigencies of the shariah. No war might be
declared, or policies such as the slaughter of the sultans male relatives,
declared without the eyhlislams official sanction. But the sultans supremacy
was in practice usually assured by his ability to dismiss a eyhlislam who
opposed his wishes and appoint a more amenable successor. It was only in
the 17th and 18th centuries, when the sultans had lost their absolute control
of governmental affairs, that the eyhlislams were sometimes able to
command sufficient support in the ruling institution or among the inhabitants

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of the capital to oppose sultans with success, and even then they very often
suffered for doing so.34
Ottoman society experienced total transformation and many reforms in the
th
19 century. During this time, the effects and functions of religion were
retrograded and weakened in the social, political and administrative structures
of the state. At this time, civil and military bureaucrats took over the
administrative bodies.35 Consequently, the office of eyhlislam was pushed
backward in terms of quality and quantity and gradually digressed from the
duty of controlling the administration with the scope of religion.36
There were several arrangements that affected the authority of the office
of eyhlislam in the administration of justice, religious counseling and
educational services. The abolishment of the Yenieri corps, the establishment
of new assemblies, the foundation of ministries, the importation of some
un-Islamic laws from Western countries, the establishment of the Nizamiye
courts in addition to the Shariah courts, the establishment of new schools to
educate civil and military bureaucrats independent of madrasahs, and the
establishment of the Ministry of Foundations can be shown as examples of
this.37 Through these restrictions the power of the eyhlislam was lessened
on the one hand, and on the other hand the process of secularism was initiated
by taking away the effect of religion on affairs of the state.38
Until the abolishment of the Yeniceri corps in 1826, the eyhlislams used
their residences as their offices. The headquarters of the Yenieris, which was
called Agakaps, was then assigned for the eyhlislam to be used as his
office. The office was transformed to a public office. Again, during these same
years, the eyhlislam was accepted as one of the members of the
governmental cabinet as the Minister of Shariah (eriye Nazr). His term for
the office became dependent on the term of his own government.39
By transfering some duties of the eyhlislamm to some newly established
councils after the Noble Edict of the Rose Garden (Glhane Hatt-
Hmayunu Tanzimat Ferman) such as the Supreme Council for Judicial
Regulations (Meclis-i Vala-i Ahkam- Adliye),, and after the Reform Edict of
1856 (Islahat Ferman), the Supreme Council of the Reforms (Meclis-i Ali-i
Tanzimat), and Supreme Council for Judicial Regulations, the effect of
eyhlislam on state affairs was gradually lessened.40 The new government of
the Ottoman Empire in 1916 made the Ministry of Justice responsible for all of
the courts, and the Ministry of Education for all of the madrasahs, schools and
other educational institutions.41 The most important functions of the eyhlislam
were occupied by other institutions during this course of time. The only
function of the eyhlislam which was left to his personal attention was that
of religious affairs. In other words, the office of eyhlislam was made into an
office whose only duty was to maintain the religious services of the state.
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The office of eyhlislam served Ottoman society for 498 years without
any interruption from its beginning until its abolishment. During this period,
130 eyhlislams had come to power. In the early years of the Ottoman Empire
the eyhlislams were appointed to the post for life, but in the later centuries
the dismissal of the eyhlislams became an ordinary regulation. When the
sultan saw that the eyhlislam was causing hardship and difficulty in state
affairs, he immediately dismissed him. The history of the institution shows that
80 out of 130 eyhlislams were dismissed by sultans and some others were
forced to resign from duty. It gives us a clue to understand why the last 12
eyhlislams left the post through resignation.42

The Ministry of Religious Affairs and Foundations

Many people suppose that all of the Ottoman institutions collapsed and
disappeared immediately after the establishment of the new Turkish Republic,
but in fact Ottoman social institutions were transferred to new generations and
became the essence of the culture. Thus it seems safe to say that the religious
institutions, which were formed during the Ottoman Empire, continued on
during the Republic period, though some of the duties and functions were
different. The Ministry of Religious Affairs and Foundations (eriye ve Avkaf
Vezareti ) was founded among the ministries of the first government of the
Turkish Grand National Assembly on May 3rd, 1920. The duties of the Ottoman
eyhlislam and the Ministry of Foundations were combined into this new
ministry. Religious affairs were executed under this organization for four years
until the founding of the Presidency of Religious Affairs (PRA) on March 3rd,
1924.43 The passage of the authorities and the responsibilities of the office of
the eyhlislam can be observed here clearly. The first president of the Turkish
Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatrk, assigned the mufti of Karacabey, Mustafa
Fehmi Efendi, as the first minister. The Ministry of Religious Affairs and
Foundations was ranked in the order of protocol as the first ministry after the
prime minister among the members of the cabinet.44
The functions and authorities of the Ministry of Religious Affairs and
Foundations were discussed at the end giving fetwa; legal decision and the
administration of the shariah courts and the institution of education were
determined as the fundamental duties of the Ministry.45 Despite the fact that
during the last decades of the Ottoman Empire the only official duty left for
the eyhlislam was the administration of religious affairs, most probably due
to extraordinary conditions which were experienced by the country in those
days, all of the pre-Tanzimat period duties of the office of eyhlislam were
determined fit for this ministry. In order to be able to respond to the religious
problems of the society, according to the conditions of the age, a council of
fetwa was created in the modern ministry. Another council was created for the

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publications of Islamic books. An additional council was created for the

administration of madarahs and religious education.46
In the next pages of this article, the role of the Ministry of Religious Affairs
and Foundations as a bridge between the Ottoman Office of eyhlislam and
the PRA of the Republic of Turkey will be explored.

The Establishment of Modern Turkey and the PRA

Modern Turkey was established from the ruins of the Ottoman Empire and
inherited the Ottoman legacy, which, especially during the last period of her
long life, introduced secular laws in the field of legislation, administration, and
education. The founders of the Republic of Turkey were well educated people
of the Empire and had wide knowledge of modern states, the position of the
Empire, and the public. They did not disregard Ottoman experiences, and thus
adopted these reforms and accelerated them for the sake of forming a modern
Turkish society.
This age was the age of nation states. Most of the empires had collapsed.
The old monarch-state would not be successful in forming a new society.
The Ottoman experience of the last century showed that reality. Though many
Ottoman governments tried to improve state organizations and institutions,
and attempted to develop society and industry, they were not successful.
The founders of modern Turkey shaped the new state and its institutions
on the basis of a secular model inspired by the West and by the ideals of
modernism and secularism.
After the formation of the Republic of Turkey, the new Turkish
government carried on reform efforts from the point where the old Ottoman
government stopped. The caliphate was abolished as the first step of
secularization on March 3rd, 1924. On that same day, the state also abolished
the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Foundations on the grounds that religion
and religious services should be kept out of politics. It was replaced with the
PRA, an institution attached to the Office of the Prime Minister which received
its allowance from the budget of the premiership in accordance with law 429.47
Law 429 clarified that the duty of legislation and execution of the law
belonged to the National Assembly and the government, respectively.
The Diyanet became authorized to decide matters concerning the beliefs,
worship and ethics of Islam, to administer the worshipping locations, and
to appoint and dismiss religious officials. The intervention of religion and
religious officials of the administration toward the state was prevented.
Ultimately, the law assigned religious functionaries to be under the control
of the state as public employees. This was the concept of unannounced
secularism in Turkey at that time. With this law, religion and the administration
of the state were clearly separated from each other.
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As previously indicated, in the Ottoman Empire the state was responsible

for religious affairs and the eyhlislam ran the religious affairs on behalf of
the state. After the formation of the Republic, the PRA was founded as an
important public department and was responsible for the administration of
religious affairs in the areas of Islamic faith, practices and moral principles.
Clearly, the responsibility and authority of the state during the Ottoman Empire
were passed on to the modern Republic of Turkey in a different way.
In modern Turkey, the state also claims responsibility for the organization and
administration of religious affairs via the Diyanet, the PRA.48
The establishment of modern Turkey opened a new era in the history of
the Turkish nation. Secularism is one of the basic pillars of the Republic
of Turkey. This principle is prescribed in the Constitution of 1982. Article 2 of
this constitution describes the Republic of Turkey as a secular state.49 It was
also so prescribed in the preceding constitutions. Secularism became a
constitutional principle on February 5, 1937 but, as explained above, the
principle of secularism had existed de facto since the foundation of
the Republic.
According to Article 136 of the constitution, the Department of Religious
Affairs, which is within the general administration, shall exercise its duties
prescribed in its particular law, in accordance with the principles of secularism,
removed from all political views and ideas, and aimed at national solidarity
and integrity.50 According to the first article of Law 633, the duties of the PRA
are as follows: to execute the works concerning the beliefs, worship and
ethics of Islam, enlighten the public about their religion, and administer the
sacred worshipping places.51
The central organization of the PRA was established in 1924, and consisted
of the Committee of Consultation and central officers. In 1927, the Department
of Investigating the Quranic Pages, the Directorate of Religious Institutions,
the Directorate of Officials and Records and the Directorate of Documents and
Papers were added to the central organization. The Law about the Presidency
of Religious Affairs, its Establishment and Obligations, numbered as 2800, was
accepted on the 14th of June, 1935, and put into effect on June 22nd, 1935; this
was the first organizational law of the PRA. With this law, the structure of the
organization, its formation of personnel, the qualities of central and provincial
officers and their appointment principles were determined. The PRA, however,
was reorganized in accordance with new conditions that had arisen because
of Law 5634; this was put into effect on April 20th, 1950. According to this law,
some names of the units in the organization were changed, an office of vicepresidency was added to the present organization and two new directorates
were established, such as the personnel of religious institutions and the
directorate of publications. Furthermore, for the first time a Mobile Preaching

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unit was founded and all preachers were transferred to salaried status.
The PRA was reorganized by the 1961 Constitution, with Law 633 dated
June 22nd, 1965, and named as the Law about the Presidency of Religious
Affairs, its Establishment and Obligations. This law also started a new phase
for the PRA in its historical development and made its central organization
adopt todays organic structure.52
The organization of the Diyanet with its present functional structure is
composed of the central, provincial and abroad organizations.53 The central
organization has three main units:
1.

2.

Main Service Units:

a) The Higher Board of Religious Affairs: The Higher Board is an advisory
committee to the PRA. Its elected 16 members are made up of
distinguished religious scholars. Its main duty is to research
religious issues which are debated among the people and share their
outcome with them, and give full answers to the questions of
people in relation to religious issues in a complete, scientific,
and open manner.
b) The Board for the Investigation of Copies of the Quran: The duty of this
organization is to examine the copies of the Quran that are to be
published in written and audio-visual form by the PRA and other
organizations, and to endorse them when they are accurate.
c) The Department of Religious Services: This department serves to
enlighten and educate Turkish society about religion. It determines the
correct times of prayer, sacred days and nights and the beginnings of the
lunar months. It cooperates with related establishments and institutions
concerning this subject matter.
d) The Department of Religious Education: This office prepares and applies
a yearly in-service education plan in order to develop and increase the
professional formation of the staff. It also carries out affairs related to the
opening, education and administration of the courses of the Quran and
of education centers.
e) The Department of the Pilgrimage: This office is charged with every kind
of service and planning, inside Turkey and abroad, related to the travels
of pilgrims who want to perform their pilgrimage and lesser pilgrimages
(Umrah). It cooperates with related establishments and governmental
agencies on this matter.
f ) The Department of Religious Publications: This office enlightens society
about religion by publishing audio-visual works, books and periodicals.
It is also charged with the library services of the PRA.
g) The Department of External Relations: This office offers religious services
to Turkish citizens abroad. It arranges educational courses and seminars
for personnel who will be sent to work abroad. It also offers guidance
about the services offered by the PRA, to committees and groups who
come from outside of Turkey.
Consultation and Control Units:

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a) The Department of Inspecting Committee

b) The Office of Legal Advisor
c) The Department of Development of Strategy
Units of Assistance:
a) The Department of Personnel
b) The Department of Administrative and Fiscal Affairs
c) Directorate of the Circulating Capital Management
d) Directorate of Protocol
e) Directorate of Media and Public Relations.

The provincial organization of the PRA consists of the mufti offices in

every province and district, and the directorates of education centers in some
cities. The external establishment of the PRA is organized in the countries
where Turkish citizens live as the Councilors of Religious Services connected
to the Turkish Embassies, and as the Attachs of Religious Services connected
to the Consulates General.
The president of the Diyanet is appointed by the approval of the president
of the Republic of Turkey upon the suggestion of the Cabinet. The muftis of
cities (provinces) in the provincial organization are appointed by the approval
of the president of the Republic of Turkey upon the suggestion of both the
state minister, whose duty is to supervise both the Diyanet and the prime
minister. The vice presidents and the heads of the departments in the central
organization are appointed on the approval of the prime minister or the state
minister whose duty it is to supervise the Diyanet upon the suggestion of
the president of Diyanet. The councilors and the attachs in the external
organization are appointed by the approval of the president of the Republic of
Turkey upon written decree, which is signed by the state minister whose duty
it is to supervise the Diyanet, the minister of foreign affairs and the prime
minister. The other members of the central organization and muftis of districts,
preachers, teachers of learning centers, instructors of the Quran, local
inspectors, etc. are appointed by the president of Diyanet. The muftis of
provinces appoint the imams. There are several requirements, conditions and
restrictions for every functionary that must be met by each candidate, such as
degree of education, age, gender and the like.
The Diyanet tries to teach the principles of Islam, such as unity,
cooperation and helping one another among the Turkish people according to
the principles specified in the constitution of the Republic of Turkey. It does
this by striving toward national solidarity, unity, and by remaining above all
kinds of political views and thoughts. The Diyanet, accepting differences as
part of the richness of the country, warns society against negative activities of
various destructive, harmful and sectarian movements and enlightens the
nation about dangerous, harmful and unethical behavior and habits, which
weaken them materially and spiritually and lead to social instability.

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The Diyanet tries to understand and evaluate the traditions, expectations and
sensitivities of society. It provides religious services decorated and illuminated
by knowledge and good conduct, benefiting from todays technological
developments and communicational facilities and historical experiences. The
Diyanet strives to have religious officers with high levels of education and
culture who will lead society, who will understand the people they address
and find religious solutions to their problems, and who will live an exemplary
life and implement good through their deeds and words.54
Some scholars see the Diyanet as a contradiction to the secular state.
However, most do not because Turkey upholds these following principles:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Religion should not be dominant or effective agents in state affairs.

The provision of unrestricted freedom for the religious lives of individuals and
religious liberties are under constitutional protection.
The prevention of the misuse and exploitation of religion is essential for the
protection of the public interest.
The state has the authority to ensure the provision of religious rights and
freedoms as the protector of public order and rights.55

According to the current PRA, Prof. Dr. Ali Bardakoglu, since it is part
of the state machinery and bureaucratic system, the Diyanet is a public
institution. Its public character pertains to the fact that it provides an
organizational structure and policy, while rendering religious services. Its
public character also pertains to establish a balance between demands and
freedoms. The Diyanet is also an independent (public) institution because it
enjoys freedom in scholarly activities, intellectual discussions of Islamic issues,
in the production of religious knowledge and its dissemination to the public.
There is no intervention in the interpretation of religion by any organization.
The Diyanet is also a civil institution because it was founded in response to
the peoples religious needs. The Muslim population of the country needs to
learn about their religion freely in light of authentic scholarship. The Diyanet
was established to meet such needs in society; it therefore has a democratic
and civil basis.56 It could be proposed that the Turkish understanding of
secularism can be seen clearly in these explanations.

Conclusion
The modern Turkish states perception of religion can be traced back to
the Ottoman Empire. Modern Turkey was established on the ruins of the
Ottoman Empire and inherited the Ottoman state legacy. The founders of
modern Turkey shaped the new state as a national and secular republic. By
assuming the Ottoman policy on religion, they accepted religious services as
one of the responsibilities of the state. They did not leave religious services to
the congregations despite the fact that they knew this way has been observed
in the West for centuries.
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When the Republic of Turkey was founded, the caliphate was abolished
as the first step toward secularization. The same day, the state also abolished
the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Foundations, which was created to take
over the duties of the office of eyhlislam. The PRA was established and
made responsible for the administration of religious affairs in the areas of
Islamic faith, practices and moral principles as an important public department.
The Diyanet is not exactly a continuation of the Ottoman office of eyhlislam
in terms of all of its functions and duties but is a continuation in the point
of religious services and a continuation of the office of eyhlislam in the
post-Tanzimat shape and functions. Hence, the PRA is not an innovation
of the founders of the Republic of Turkey.
Today 99% of Turkish people are Muslim. Islam is one of the major identity
references and an effective social reality in Turkey. Islamic values remained
deeply rooted in Turkish society. Depending on the rituals, between 25 80%
of Turkish people practice the prescribed rituals such as daily prayers, Friday
prayers and fasting during Ramadan.57 Turkish families by and large embrace
Islamic moral values. Even those who are not attentive in their religious
practices demand that their children should be trained in accordance with
Islamic moral values. An overwhelming majority of Turkish families send their
children to summer religious courses organized by the Diyanet in the mosques.
Most Turkish people advocate that religious services and religious education
should be performed by a state organization, namely by the Diyanet.
The institution produces sufficient services and makes progress in its
duties with more than 85,000 employees in 77,800 mosques in Turkey and
abroad. In exchange, the nation accepts the services of the Diyanet with
pleasure.
The modern structure of the Diyanet and the method of appointment of
its high level administrators starting from the PRA, implies that the institution
has been governed by political authority. Insiders and most Turkish people
know that politicians try not to intervene in the religious affairs of the country.
This is not only because of their esteem of religion and religious administrators
but also due to their fear of public pressure and losing votes. Many
experiences have shown that the public does not forgive those politicians who
interfere in religious matters. During the last five years especially, State Minister
Mehmet Aydin, who is responsible for the Diyanet and is a very well known
professor of Islamic studies, declared that the Diyanet is governed from the
PRA by its functionaries. As far as it is known, he did not let any outsiders
intervene with respect to the jobs and appointments the Diyanet makes.
The Diyanet should be an autonomous institution in its structure and should
only, though the results of special elections, approve of the president and
other high level functionaries that come into office.

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Turkey has been very successful in combining Islamic culture, democracy

and secularism. The Diyanet plays an important role in the publics adoption
of these values and in balancing society in accordance with these values. With
these characteristics, Turkey is a unique example of how a Muslim nation
can support democracy based on secularism and the implementation of
democratic norms. In this connection, the Diyanet is also a good example for
conducting religious services in accordance with Islamic values and the
principles of secularism.

Endnotes
1.
http://usinfo.state.gov/dhr/Archive/2006/Jan/25566311.html
2.
Kucukcan, Talip, State, Islam, and Religious Liberty in Modern Turkey:
Reconfiguration of Religion in the Public Sphere, Brigham Young University Law Review,
2003, at: http://lawreview.byu.edu/archives/2003/2/KUC.pdf.
3.
Algl, Hseyin, 3slam Tarihi, (3stanbul, 1986), Vol. 4, 446447.
4.
Ortayl, 3lber, Osmanl 3mparatorlugunda Millet, in: Tanzimattan Cumhuriyete
Trkiye Ansiklopedisi, (3stanbul, 1986), Vol. 4, 997; Davison, R. H., Essays in Ottoman and
Turkish History, 17741923: The Impact of the West, (University of Texas Press, Texas, 1990), 11.
5.
For more discussion about the term millet see: Braude, B., Foundation Myths of
the Millet System, in Braude, B. and Lewis, B. eds: Christians and Jews in the Ottoman
Empire: the Functioning of a Plural Society, Vol. 1, (Holmes and Meier, New York and
London, 1982), 6974.
6.
Karpat, K. H., Ottoman Views and Policies Towards the Orthodox Christian
Church, Greek Orthodox Theological Review, Vol. 31, No: 12, 139.
7.
Ware, T., Eustratios Argenti: A Study of the Greek Church under Turkish Rule,
(Clarendon Press, Texas, 1964), 2.
8.
Shaw, S. J., The Aims and Achievements of Ottoman Rule in the Balkans, Slavic
Review, Vol. 21, No: 4, 1962, 617. See also: Karpat, Kemal H., Millets and Nationality:
The Roots of the Incongruity of Nation and State in the Post-Ottoman Era, Christians and
Jews in the Ottoman Empire: the Functioning of a Plural Society, (Ed. Braude, B., - Lewis,
B.), Vol. 1, 148149; Kk, Cevdet, Osmanllarda Millet Sistemi ve Tanzimat, in:
Tanzimattan Cumhuriyete Trkiye Ansiklopedisi, (3stanbul, 1986) Vol. 4, 1009.
9.
Eryilmaz, B., Osmanli Devletinde Gayrimuslim Tebanin Yonetimi,
(Risale Yayinlari, Istanbul, 1990), 17. See also: Cahnman, W. J., Religion and Nationality,
The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 49, 1944, 525.
10. Braude, B., Community and Conflict in the Economy of the Ottoman Balkans,
1500 1650, (PhD. Thesis, Harward University, Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 93.
11. Frazee, C. A., The Orthodox Church and Independent Greece 18211852,
(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1969), 1.
12. Inalcik, H: Hicri 835 Tarihli Suret-i Defter-i Sancak-i Arnavid, (Turk Tarih
Kurumu Yayinevi, Ankara, 1954) Nos: 100, 122, 148, 162, 186, 200, 270, 299.
13. Bardakoglu, Ali, Religion and Society New Perspectives from Turkey, (Publication
of the Presidency of Religious Affairs, Ankara, 2006), 22.
14. Glasse, Cyril, Shaykh al-Islam, The New Encyclopeadia of Islam, (Rownan &
Littlefield Publishers, New York, 2002), 421.
15. Ta, Kemaleddin, Trk Halknn Gzyle Diyanet, (3z Yaynclk, 3stanbul, 2002), 67.
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16. Uzunarl, Ismail Hakk, Osmanl Tarihi, (Trk Tarih Kurumu Yaynevi, Ankara,
1982) V. 3, 449.
17. Gibb, H. A. R. and Bowen, Harold, Islamic Society and the West, (Oxford
University Ppress, London, 1957) V. 1, Part II, 84.
18. Ta, Trk Halknn Gzyle Diyanet, 77.
19. Gibb, H. A. R. and Bowen, Harold, Islamic Society and the West, 86.
20. Boyacoglu, Ramazan, Hilafetten Diyanet 3leri Bakanlgna Gei, (Unpublished
Ph.D Thesis, Ankara 1992), 47.
21. Kaya, Kamil, Trkiyede Din-Devlet 3likileri ve Diyanet 3leri Bakanlg,
(Unpublished PhD. Thesis, Istanbul, 1994), 81; Ta, Trk Halknn Gzyle Diyanet, 7273.
22. Ware, T., Eustratios Argenti: A Study of the Greek Church under Turkish Rule, 2.
23. Okumu, Ejder, Trkiyenin Laikleme Serveninde Tanzimat, (3nsan Yaynlar,
3stanbul, 1999), 164.
24. Aksoy, Mehmet, eyhlislamlktan Bugne: eyhlislamlktan Diyanet 3leri
Bakanlgna Gei, (nel Yaynevi Kln, 1998), 12; Kaya, Trkiyede Din-Devlet 3likileri ve
Diyanet 3leri Bakanlg, 82.
25. Ta, Trk Halknn Gzyle Diyanet, 77.
26. Inalcik, Halil, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300 1600, (Orpheus
Publishing Inc. New Rochelle, NY, 1993), 9697; Newby, Gordon D., Shaykh al-Islam,
A Concise Encyclopeadia of Islam, (Oneworld, Oxford, 2004), 194.
27. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300 1600, 96.
28. Repp, R. C., Shaykh al-Islam, Encyclopeadia of Islam, (New Edition,
Brill, Leiden, 1995) V. 9, 401.
29. For some relevant examples see Inalcik The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age
1300 1600, 93.
30. Ortayl, 3lber, Trkiye 3dare Tarihi, (TODAIE Yaynlar, Ankara, 1979), 149;
Ta Trk Halknn Gzyle Diyanet, 7071.
31. Repp, R. C., Shaykh al-Islam, 400; Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical
Age 1300 1600, 94.
32. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300 1600, 92.
33. Ibid., 98.
34. Gibb, H. A. R. and Bowen, Harold, Islamic Society and the West, 8586.
35. Dursun, Davut, Osmani Devletinde Siyaset ve Din, (Iaret yaynlar, 3stanbul,
1992), 315316.
36. Mardin, Serif, Yeni Osmanl Dncesinin Doguu, (3letiim Yaynlar, 3stanbul,
1996), 158161.
37. Dursun, Davut, Din Brorasisi, (3aret Yaynlar, 3stanbul, 1992), 174.
38. Okumu, Ejder, Trkiyenin Laikleme Serveninde Tanzimat, (3nsan Yaynlar,
3stanbul, 1999), 293.
39. Boyacoglu, Ramazan, Hilafetten Diyanet 3leri Bakanlgna Gei, 51; Tas, Trk
Halknn Gzyle Diyanet, 80.
40. Erdem, Gazi, Osmanli Impatorlugunda Hiristiyanlarin Soayal ve Dini Hayatlari
(18561876), (Unpunblished PhD. Thesis, Ankara, 2005), 8586.
41. Kaya, Trkiyede Din-Devlet 3likileri ve Diyanet 3leri Bakanlg, 87; Tas, Trk
Halknn Gzyle Diyanet, 82.
42. Yavuzer, Hasan, Dini Otorite ve Tekilatlarn Sosyolojik Analizi (Diyanet 3leri
Bakanlg rnegi), (Unpublished PhD. Thesis, Kayseri, 2005), 4960.
43. Kahraman, Hakan, Sosyolojik Adan Diyanet 3leri Bakanlg zerine Bir
3nceleme, (Unpublished MA Thesis, Istanbul, 1993) 28; Bulut, Mehmet, eriye Vekaletinin
Dini Yayn Hizmetleri, Diyanet Ilmi Dergi, Vol. 30, No:1, 34.

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44. Ii, Ismail, Kuruluundan Gnmze Diyanet Ileri Bakanlg, (Diyanet Ileri
Bakanlg Yayinlari, Ankara, 1999), 1213.
45. Bulut, Mehmet, Birinci Meclis Dnemi Din Hizmetleri, Diyanet Aylk Dergi,
Nisan, 1993, No: 28, 30.
46. Ibid., 30.
47. Sarikoyuncu, Ali, Milli Mucadelede Din Adamlari II, p. 5/14, at:
http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/turkish/default.asp
48. Bardakoglu, Ali, Religion and Society: New Perspectives from Turkey, 23.
49. http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/english/constitution.htm
50. Ibid.
51. Mevzuat/Kanunlar/633 Sayl Diyanet 3leri Bakanlg Kurulu Ve Grevleri
Hakknda Kanun, at: http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/turkish/default.asp
52. http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/english/default.asp
53. See for the organizational structure: http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/english/default.asp
54. http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/english/constitution.htm
55. Bardakoglu, Ali, Religion and Society New Perspectives from Turkey, 2425.
56. Ibid., 2427.
57. http://www.stargazete.com/index.asp?haberID=79197

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